Chapter 6: Measurement and evaluation of human performance

Validity

"The test actually measures what it claims to measure" Conclusions made on the basis of test scores should be appropriate.

Flexed Arm Hang

-10min warm up -fixed arm hand position with palms of the hand facing them -using their arms the athlete raises their chin above the bar to the starting position - assistant uses the stopwatch to record the time - the assistant stops the stopwatch if the chin drops below the top of the bar or after 30s has elapsed

6.3.2 Outline the major components of physical fitness identified in 6.3.1

-> Body composition: relates to the proportions of an individual's total body mass that is made of fat and fat - free mass (FM)- includes essential found in body the tissues and and organs and stored fat (FFM)-what makes up the rest of body mass, including bones, muscles, water This matters in disorders, sporting activities such as sumo wrestling or american football

6.2 Study Design

-> Specificity If we were asked to measure the fitness of a volleyball player we would want to know something about: -how high the could jump - refers to the specific skills required in a particular sport , the skill needs to be tested in several repetitions

6.2.2 Discuss the importance of study design in the context of sport and exercise sciences

->Causality in experimental results by the inclusion of: ->control in groups ->randomization - random allocation of the participants ->placebos ->blinding (participants are told which group they are in, they are mislead ) and double-blinding (the participants as well as experimenters so they do not accidentally influence the participants) ->statistical analysis

Following activities are the essential elements of a general training programme

-warm up and cool down (training should start with a low-intensity physical activity, increase body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, decreases muscle soreness) - cardio- respiratory endurance training (walking, jogging, running, cycling, swimming, rowing, aerobic dancing, improve your cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic systems) -cool down and stretching activities - flexibility activities - resistance training (exercise specifically designed to enhance muscular strength and endurance) e.g weightlifting -recreational activities (squash, basketball, kayaking)

Multistage Fitness Test/ Bleep test

A measure of aerobic capacity of 20m shuttle runs. On time when beeps periodically increasing. Maximal test. Validity: high Reliability: hard to monitor if done with a lot of people Simple to set up and conduct More than one athlete can be tested at once. Can be administered indoors and outdoors. limitations: need mental motivation and strength environmental factors can affect results need to be well rested before the test can predict the VO2Max

6.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is used for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or more samples

A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value. Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates wider spread around the mean -> It allows to notice small inconsistencies in the data set

Outline a fitness test for a tennis player to asses the following: Strength

A tennis player could use a hand grip dynamometer to measure their hand strength, which is vital in tennis for a strong and accurate grip of the racket. The test measures the maximum grip strength of the hand and forearm muscles and is tested three times, with rest in between, so that an average of the trials can be obtained for more accurate results.

6.2.3 Outline the importance of the Physical activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q)

Assesses the readiness for an individual to partake in a general training program It's role is to collect general information about the participants

Reaction Time: Drop Test

Assistant holds a ruler and participant hovers fingers griped at base pf the ruler with arm perpendicular. When assistant drops ruler, participant catches as fast as possible and distance is measured -> easy to set up, minimal equipment ->assistant required to administer the test

Flexibility: Sit and Reach test

Assistant secures the ruler to the box top with the tape so that the front edge of the box lines up with t he 15 cm mark on the ruler and the zero end of the ruler points towards the athlete -the athlete sits on the floor with the legs extended with the bottom of their bare feet against the box -places one hand on top of the other, slowly bends forward and reaches along the top of the ruler (this is repeated 3 times) specialist equipment required, s can be conducted almost everywhere -assistant required to administer the test

Muscular Endurance: Maximum Sit Ups

Athlete will perform as many sit ups in 30 seconds - assistant informs the athlete about the time remaining - no equipment needed , simple to set up and conduct anywhere the test

Field

Bleep tests, Cooper's 12-minute run test - not as reliable as laboratory but these might be the only ones available

Ratings of perceived exertion (Borg Scale, OMNI, CERT scale)

Borg Scale OMNI CERT- perceived exertion for young children

Coordination: Hand Ball Test

Bounce a ball and catch as many times in 30 seconds. Validity: medium, easy to set up, minimal equipment. technique also affects only measure hand-eye only applicable to specific

6.1.7 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a casual relationship between two variables

Calculating the r and the r2 values using the GDC

6.2.1 Outline the importance specificity, accuracy, reliability and validity with regard to fitness testing

Causality in experimental results by the inclusion of: -control in groups -randomization -placebos -blinding and double-blinding -statistical analysis

6.1.5 Outline the meaning of coefficient of variation

Coefficient variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean expressed as a percentage.

Speed: 40m Sprint

Command "GO" and use a stopwatch to measure the time

Agility: Illinois Agility Test

Diagram made with cones, uses a stopwatch to measure the time Validity: high -minimal equipment required, simple to set up and conduct, can be conducted almost everywhere -assistant required to administer the test

Specificity

Ensuring that the physiological test is representative of the sport the person plays. Example: An endurance running test would not be used to assess improvement in cycling endurance.

Health-related-fitness

Health-related -body composition (endomorph, ectomorph -mesomorph - percentage of the body that is fat, -muscle, or bone -cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity) -flexibility (range of movement possible at a joint) -muscular endurance (the ability for your muscles to be -used for long periods of time) -strength (the ability for your muscles to exert large -amounts of force) -Used in every day life, needed to survive.

6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Health-related components: Aerobic capacity:

6.4.1 Describe the essential elements of a general training programme

Identify three elements that should be included in a general training program for health and fitness, and outline the importance of each. (6)

Sub-Maximal

If someone is not used to undertaking maximal exercise they are likely to stop before actually reaching their maximum or with the elderly who may feel concerned about the going to the maximum

Why is fitness tested?

Important for both health and performance reasons. Health related fitness is primary used to evaluate health and identify any weaknesses, relative to healthy norms as this can assist with diagnosis assessment of severity and in some cases even prognosis.

Laboratory

Measure the Vo2max accurately

6.1.1 Outline that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data

Only standard deviation needs to be considered - it is the spread of scores/values around the mean or average ->it can tell us about the inconsistency -> when the data is normally distributed, about 68% of all values will lie within +- 1 standard deviation, while 95% will be within +- 2 standard deviations

Discuss how overload and progression can be used to maximize the effectiveness of a sprinter's weight training program. (5)

Overload is the concept of making the weights that the sprinter is using are heavy enough to cause stress on the muscles being worked. The sprinter may be working on leg muscles to increase their power for the start of the sprint. Here they may be using the leg press machine, where they must be careful to apply overload, but not to the extent of causing injury because of an unmanageable weight.

Prioprioceptive Stretching

PNF Is a progression on a passive stretching, whereby after the stretch is held, the muscle is contracted isometrically for between (6-10 seconds). Knows as CARC method (Contract-Relax-Antagonist- Contract) the aim is to toughen up or inhibit proprioceptors in the relaxation of the muscles.

Reliability

Reliability is the "degree to which a measure would produce for the same result from one occasion to another". Ensuring that the test will produce the same result each time it is replicated (take into account the possibility of learning/habitual effect).

Balance: Stork stand

Stand one one foot and balance as long as possible validity: low Never occurs in real sporting situation

6.1.3 State that the statistic standard deviation is used to summarize the spread values around the mean, and within a normal distribution approximately 68% and 95% of the values fall within plus or minus one or two standard deviations respectively

Standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that within a normal distribution approximately 68% and 95% fall within + or - 1 or 2 standard deviation points respectively.

Power: Vertical Jump and Standing Broad Jump

Standing Broad Jump: Jump as far s possible from a stand still validity: high, maximal leg length varies, body weight varies, techniques is important, only measures an one - off jump, -minimal equipment required, simple to set up and conduct, can be conducted almost everywhere Vertical Jump: Start with hand outreach. use a ruler taped to the wall. With chalk jump and draw as high as possible validity: low -> hard to control the chalk

Evaluate the multistage fitness test as a test of cardio-respiratory fitness for use with long distance runners and games players. (4)

The MSFT measure cardiorespiratory fitness by slowly increasing the speed at which participants must run a set distance, which slowly builds up to sprinting. The build up to a sprint is especially beneficial for a games player, like a footballer, as late on in the game after already lots of running, they must sprint to defend a break that the other team has gained in order to prevent a goal.

Cooper's 12-min run

The assistant keeps the athlete informed of the remaining time at the end of each 400m. Than he blows the whistle when 12 minutes as elapsed and records the distance the athlete covered in the nearest 10 meters. validity: high/medium - minimal equipment required, simple to conduct, more than one athlete can participate at once - 400m track required - assistant required to administer the test

Harvard step test

The athlete steps up and down onto a standard gym bench once every two seconds for five minutes (150 steps) - assistance stops the test after 5 min and measures the pulse HR (he does that 5 times) Validity: medium -minimal equipment required, simple to set up and conduct, can be conducted almost everywhere - assistant required to administer the test

Body Composition and Strength: Hand Grip Dynamometer

The athlete using their dominant hand applies as much grip pressure as possible on the dynamometer. The assistant records the maximum reading (kg) athlete repeats it 3 times the assistant uses the highest recored value to assess the athlete's performance -specialistequipment required, s can be conducted almost everywhere -assistant required to administer the test

Distinguish between the concepts of health-related fitness and performance-related fitness. (3)

The components that make up health-related fitness are: muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition and cardiovascular endurance. The components forming performance-related fitness are: speed, power, agility, balance, reaction time, and coordination.

In soccer (football), fitness testing is often used during the pre season period. Identify two different tests that would give an assessment of a player's anaerobic power and outline the strengths and weaknesses of each. (6)

The standing broad jump measures leg power in a horizontal distance. Strengths of the SBJ include its easiness to administer, its use of minimal equipment and its quickness of completion. This means the test can be done many times by the performer and so that an accurate average distance or maximum distance can be determined due to multiple trials. The weaknesses of this test is that the body composition such as height and leg length can make an inaccurate comparison between different performers. However, the test is easily replicated so instead of comparison to other participants, the same participant can be measured over a period of time an compared to their individual results

6.1.6 Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables

They key issue in every table question is whether the difference in mean distance is due to the exercise or simply due to change. For t-test to be applied the data should have a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 10. The t-test can be used to compare two sets of data and measure the amount of the overlap

6.4.2 Discuss the key principles of training programme design

Training principles: - Progression -Overload (frequency, intensity and duration) -Specificity -Reversibility -Variety

6.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values

Use GDC

6.4.3 Outline ways in which exercise intensity can be monitored.

Use of heart rate (based upon its relationship with oxygen uptake) Karvonen Method (HRR- heart rate reserve): takes into account the difference between resting heart rate and (HRRest) and maximal Heart Rate (HR Max) He suggests that aerobic training zones of 60-70% of max HRR reserve should be used when designing training programmes

Accuracy

We must make sure that the instruments with which we measure the fitness components are accurate. Taking a very simple example, we can look at measures of weight. We all know if we do not look at the weighting machines properly they will provide inaccurate information. Equipment needs to be working properly

Specificity

When measuring a person's fitness, specificity is important to test because it measures the fitness in a very specific manner, taking into account many different factors

Maximal

You want to find out what maximum a person can do., e.g. maximal weight they can lift, VO2 max

Performance-related (skill-related) fitness

agility balance coordination power reaction time speed Specialized components, needed more during sport events. Some components of performance-related fitness could become health-related for certain group such as the elderly suffering from hypo-kinetic diseases.

The training heart rate range/zone (THR)

linear relationship between heart rate and the Vo2 Max. Is calculated by using the heart rate that is equivalent to a set percentage of your VO2 max. ->Light 35-54%HRmax -> Moderate 55-69 %HRmax ->Heavy 70-89%HRmax

6.4.2 Discuss the key principles of training programme design

progression: gradually increasing the amount of exercise overload (frequency, intensity and duration): FITT principles specificity: The process of replicating the characteristics of physical activity in training to ensure its benefit performance. Variety & Periodization

Static Stretching

refers to stretching exercises that are performed without movement. Muscle should be stretched under tension. At this point the position is held to allow the muscle to lengthen

Passive Stretching

similar to static, however a partner or an apparatus can be used to help further stretch the muscles and joints

Active Stretching

slow stretching in which flexibility is achieved without assistance. Involves only the stretch of the opposite muscles (antagonist) to generate a hold stretch (held for 10-15 seconds) The contraction of the opposite muscle helps to relax the stretched muscle

Muscular Endurance: Maximum Push Ups

the athlete will perform press ups until they the are unable to continue - no equipment needed , simple to set up and conduct the test - only testing the muscular endurance of one area of the body -good techniques is needed