Chapter 7 Abnormal Psychology

object relations theorists

the psychodynamic theorists who emphasize relationships propose that depression results when people's relationships leave them feeling unsafe and insecure. are influenced by Freud people whose parents used them toward either excessive dependence or excessive self-reliance are more likely to become depressed when they later lose important relationships

note

within minority populations (hispanic/african american), the likelihood of being depressed rose along with the individual's degree of poverty, family size, and number of health problems

artifact theory

women and men are equally prone to depression but clinicians often fail to detect depression in men men might find it less socially acceptable to admit to feeling depressed and seeking treatment women display more emotional symptoms which are easily diagnosed while men mask their depression through masculinity symptoms (anger) turns out women are no more willing or able than men to identify their depressive symptoms and to seek treatment

gender stats and depression

women in France, Sweden, Lebanon, New Zealand, and US are twice as likely as men to receive a diagnosis of unipolar depression. women appear to be younger when depression hits women have more frequent and longer lasting bouts and respond less successfully to treatment

life stress theory

women in our society are subject to more stress than men on average they face more poverty, menial jobs, less housing, and more discrimination than men- all factors linked to depression. Women tend to have a disproportionate share of responsibility for child care and housework

advantages to sadness

improves attention to detail improves accuracy of memory improves ability to detect deception increase perseverance promote generosity improves social judgements increases altruism improves interpersonal strategies

serotonin as a neuromodulator

in a variation of the previous theory, some researchers believe that serotonin is actually a neuromodulator, a chemical whose primary function is to increase or decrease the activity of other key neurotransmitters. Perhaps low serotonin activity serves to disrupt the activity of the other neurotransmitters, resulting in depression.

The theory linking serotonin to depression is known as the _________ theory.

indoleamine

The view that unipolar depression is caused by deficiency in the serotonin neurotransmitter system is the

indoleamine theory

although depression contributes to marital discord, what really leads to depression though?

interpersonal conflicts and low social support found in troubled relationships.

introjection

mourners merge their own identity with that of the person they have lost, and so symbolically regain the lost person. They direct all their feelings for the loved one, including sadness and anger towards themselves. Introjection is temporary but cam worsen over time for people (they become depressed)

Aaron Beck believes that _________________ lies at the heart of depression.

negative thinking

the biological insights for bipolar disorder come from..

neurotransmitter activity, ion activity, brain structure, and genetic factors

onset of bipolar disorder

occurs between the ages of 15 and 44 years if untreated, manic and depressive episodes eventually subside and recur later those with bipolar usually develop more medical ailments than rest of population

neurotransmitters and bipolar disorder

one study found that norepinephrine activity of people with mania to be higher than that of depressed or normal participants those given reserpine (reduced norepinephrine) had their manic episodes subside may be linked to low serotonin activity; serotonin acts as neuromodulator; low serotonin then opens door to mood disorder and permits activity of norepinephrine to define the particular form the disorder will take. low serotonin + high norepinephrine = mania May be linked to abnormal functioning of GABA too

sadness

one symptom of depression but a perfectly normal negative emotion triggered by loss or painful circumstance

what is melatonin sometimes referred to?

"Dracula hormone" since it is released only in the dark

Maladaptive attitudes

"My general worth is tied to every task i perform" "If i fail, others will feel repelled by me" The attitudes result from their own experiences, their family relationships, and the judgements of the people around them

bi-polar stats

1-2.6% of all adults are suffering from a bipolar disorder at any given time 4% experience one of the bipolar disorders at some time inter life Bipolar I more common than Bipolar II disorders equally common among the sexes Women have more depressive episodes and more rapid cycling than men disorders more common among people with low incomes than those with higher incomes

Limitations to the psychodynamic view of unipolar depression

1. Although the findings indicate that losses and inadequate parenting sometimes relate to depression, they do not establish that such factors are typically responsible for the disorder. 2. It is estimated that less than 10% of all people who have major losses in life actually become depressed 3. Findings are inconsistent. Some studies find evidence of a relationship between childhood loss and later depression, others do not. 4. Some features of this model are impossible to test. Because symbolic loss is said to operate at an unconscious level, it is difficult for researchers to determine if and when it is occurring.

diagnosing Manic Episodes

1. For 1 week or more, person displays a continually abnormal, inflated, unrestrained, or irritable mood as well as continually heightened energy or activity, for most of every day 2. Person experiences at least three symptoms: increased talkativeness; rapidly shifting ideas; attention pulled in many directions; heightened activity; excessive pursuit of risky activities 3. significant distress or impairment

Major depressive episode

1. For a 2 week period, person displays an increase in depressed mood for the majority of each day or decrease in enjoyment/interest across most activities in the day 2. For the same 2 week, person also experiences at least 3 or 4: weight change, daily insomnia/hypersonic, daily agitation or decrease in motor activity, daily fatigue, excessive guilt, reduction in concentration, repeated focus on death or suicide 3. Significant distress or impairment

Limitations to the behavioral view of depression

1. It has relied heavily on the self-reports of depressed people which can be biased and inaccurate. 2. Behavioral studies have been largely correlational and do not establish that decreases in rewarding events are the initial cause of depression. (A depressed mood itself can lead to negative behaviors which lead to a decrease in activities and hence fewer rewards.)

diagnosing Bipolar II disorder

1. Presence or history of major depressive episodes 2. presence or history of hypomanic (mildly manic) episodes 3. no history of a manic episode

what are the two kinds of sociocultural views of depression?

1. family-social perspective 2. multicultural perspective

limitations to the helplessness model to depression

1. laboratory helplessness does not parallel depression in every respect (shocks in lab always produced anxiety along with helplessness effects but anxiety is not always present in human depression) 2. relies heavily on animal subjects. Does this really reflect human depression/ 3. Raises difficult questions: Can animals make attributions, even implicitly?

two kinds of relationships have captured the interest of multicultural theorists:

1. links between gender and depression 2. ties between cultural and ethnic background and depression *a strong relationship has been found between gender and depression, but clear explanation is emerging still

Diagnosing Bipolar I Disorder

1. occurrence of a manic episode 2. hypomanic or major depressive episodes may precede or follow the manic episode most experience an alternation of the episodes or mixed features (manic and depressive symptoms within same episode)

why is the immune system explanation upheld?

1. stress trigger depression which leads to poor immune system functioning 2. people with depression display lower lymphocyte activity ad increase CRP production and body inflammation 3. depressed people have a higher incidence than other people of migraines, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome, and other illnesses known to be caused by CRP production/inflammation 4. anti-depressant drugs help combat CRP related inflammation throughout the body.

Childbirth depression

10-30% of new mothers experience clinical depression Known as postpartum depression Occurs within four weeks after birth

Anaclitic depression

123 infants who were placed in a nursery after being separated from their mothers, Rene Spitz found that 19 of the infants became weepy upon separation and withdrew from their surroundings.

Women who have an episode of postpartum depression have a __ to __% chance of developing it again with a subsequent birth

25 to 50%

people who are separated or divorced display at least __ times the depression rate of married or widowed people and __ the rate of those who have never been married

3 doubled

treatment stats of depression among ethnic groups

54% of depressed white Americans receive treatment for their disorders (meds or psychotherapy) 34% Hispanics 40% African Americans

Baby blues

80% of women experience them as new mothers try to cope with wakeful nights, rattled emotions and others stresses. Symptoms such as insomnia or crying spells usually disappear within days or weeks

Recovery stats for depression

85% of people with unipolar depression recover 40% of them have at least one other episode of depression later in their lives

How common is unipolar depression?

9% of adults in US suffer from severe depression 5% suffer from mild forms 18% of all adults suffer an episode of severe uni-depression at some point in their life Rate of depression higher among poor people

Persistent depressive disorder Two categories underneath it

A chronic form of unipolar depression marked by ongoing and repeated symptoms of either major or mild depression. Persistent depressive disorder with major depressive episodes Persistent depressive disorder with dysthymic syndrome

Which part of the world has a higher rate of depressive disorder? lowest?

Brazil: 10.4% Japan: 2.2% US has an 8.3% prevalence rate

pattern of bipolar disorder

people tend to experience depression more than mania over the years; depressive episodes occur three times as often as manic ones, and the depressive episodes also last longer.

the endocrine system and depression

people with unipolar depression have been found to have abnormally high levels of cortisol, one of the hormones released by adrenal glands during times of stress. Melatonin is also tied to depression.

which brain areas are likely members of the circuit involved with depression?

prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and Brodmann Area 25 (underneath the cingulate cortex)

which models have been most widely applied to unipolar depression?

psychodynamic (not strongly supported by research), behavioral (modestly supported) and cognitive models (large following).

rumination theory

research shows that people who ruminate whenever they feel sad are more likely to become depressed and to stay depressed longer. women are more likely to ruminate than men when their mood darkens which may make them more vulnerable to depression

describe the interaction between serotonin and norepinephrine with depression

research suggests that interactions between serotonin and norepinephrine activity, or between these and other kinds of neurotransmitters in the brain, rather than operation of any one neurotransmitter alone, may account for unipolar depression. there is an overall imbalance in the activity of serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and acetylcholine.

what causes bipolar disorders?

search for cause has made little progress research does not support many explanations

motivational realm of mania

seem to want constant excitement, involvement, and companionship seek out new and old friends, new interests and old, and have little awareness that their social style is too much

Mania

Is a state of breathless euphoria, or at least frenzied energy, in which people may have an exaggerated belief that the world is their for the taking.

learned helplessness theory of depression

It holds that people become depressed when they think1) that they no longer have control over the reinforcements (the rewards and punishments) in their lives, and 2) that they themselves are responsible for this helpless state.

Behavioral symptoms

Less active and productive Stay in bed for long periods of time Move and even speak more slowly

What combined produces unipolar depression?

Maladaptive attitudes, a cognitive triad, errors in thinking, and automatic thoughts

Limitation on "negative thinking" take on depression

The body of research shows negative thinking is linked to depression, but it fails to show that such patterns of thought are the cause and core of unipolar depression. It could be that a central mood problem leads to thinking difficulties that then take a further toll on mood, behavior, and physiology.

Cognitive triad

The individuals repeatedly interpret 1) their experiences 2) themselves and 3) their futures in negative ways that led them to feel depressed.

A pattern of depression found among young children caused by separation from their mothers is known as

anaclitic depression

The ________ theory holds that men and women are equally prone to depression, but that clinicians fail to detect depression in men.

artifact

why might this be true?

artistic careers may bring attention to their emotional struggles many have experienced intense psych trauma during childhood creative endeavors create emotional turmoil that is overwhelming creative professions offer a welcome climate for those with psych props. They are valued as a source of inspiration

rapid cycling

if a person have four or more episodes within a one-year period

Maladaptive thoughts about all but the following make up the cognitive triad?

the past

Depression may be tied to genes on what chromosomes?

1, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, and X

Depression

A low, sad state in which life seems dark and its challenges overwhelming

Automatic thoughts

A steady train of unpleasant thoughts that keep suggesting to them that they are inadequate and that their situation is hopeless. These thoughts seems to just happene, as if by reflex. Depressed people may be visited by hundreds of such thoughts

Psychological and sociocultural factors to postpartum depression

A woman faces changes in her marital relationship, daily routines, and social roles as sleep routines or other pressures arise. This heightens the risk of depression

Genetic predisposition to postpartum depression?

A woman with a family history of mood disorders appears to be eat high risk, even if she herself has not previously had a mood disorder.

Are hormonal changes involved in postpartum depression?

All women go through a hormonal withdrawal after delivery, as estrogen and progesterone levels, which rise as much as 50 times above normal during pregnancy, now drop sharply to levels far below normal.

Motivational symptoms

Almost all patients describe a lack of drive, initiative, and spontaneity and force themselves to go to work, get dressed, talk with friends... "Paralysis of will" Some wish to kill themselves (6-15% of people with severe depression commit suicide)

What is the fault in the theory of social rewards?

Although depressed people are sometimes the victims of social circumstances, it may also be that their dark mood and flat behaviors help produce a decline in social rewards.

Behavioral view

Behaviorists believe that unipolar depression results from significant changes in the number of rewards and punishments people receive in their lives.

The form of bipolar disorder characterized by mildly manic episodes alternating with major depressive episodes is

Bipolar II

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Characterized by a combination of persistent depressive symptoms and recurrent outbursts of severe temper. It emerges during mid-childhood or adolescence.

Cognitive symptoms

Consider themselves inadequate, undesirable, inferior, and perhaps evil Self-blame for every unfortunate event Rarely credit themselves for positive achievements Pessimism: don't believe anything will improve, feel helpless and hopeless, expect the worst which leaves them vulnerable to suicidal thoughts Easily distracted, believe they're stupid, unable to remember things; studies show non-depressed people perform better on tasks of memory, attention, and reasoning impaired to depressed people (but this may be a reflection of motivational problems)

What are some other aspects that Beck believed lead to depression?

Drawing negative conclusions based on little evidence Depressed people often minimize the significance of positive experiences or magnify that of negative ones. Others magnify events; student misses class, convinced that will not be able to keep up later. Automatic thoughts

Dejection vs. depression

Dejection is seldom severe enough to influence daily functioning or persist very long. It could even lead us to explore our inner selves, our values, etc. Depressive disorder have no redeeming characteristics. It brings pain that intensifies with time.

The symptoms, which often exacerbate one another, span five areas of functioning:

Emotional, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physical

Physical symptoms

Experience headaches, indigestions, constipation, dizzy spells, and general pain Disturbances in diet or sleep are common Most eat less, sleep less, and feel more fatigued; others sleep and eat excessively

Four kinds of research suggest that some people inherit a predisposition to unipolar depression.

Family pedigree, twin, adoption, and molecular biology gene

Emotional symptoms of depression

Feel sad, dejected, "miserable," "empty" and "humiliated" Little pleasure from anything Some display anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure at all) Anxiety, anger or agitation Crying spells

Bipolar disorders

Have periods of mania that alternate with periods of depression.

What does Beck believe is at the heart of depression?

He believes that negative thinking, rather than underlying conflicts or a reduction in positive rewards lies at the heart of depression.

ethnic chronicity

Hispanics and African Americans are 50% more likely than white americans to have recurrent episodes of depression may be that minority groups in the US are more vulnerable to repeated experiences of depression partly because many of their members have more limited treatment opportunities when depressed. few differences in the symptoms of depression among different ethnic/racial groups however

Seligman experiment

In one procedure, he strapped dogs into an apparatus called a hammock, in which they received shocks periodically no matter what they did. The next day each dog was placed in a shuttle box that was divided in half so that the animal could jump to avoid being shocked. However, most of the dogs who had experienced the hammock simply laid down and quietly whined. Seligman decided that while receiving inescapable shocks in the hammock had learned that they had no control over unpleasant events in their lives. The effects of this learned helplessness greatly resemble the symptoms of human depression, and he proposed that people in fact become depressed after developing a general belief that they have no control over reinforcements in their lives.

__________ is credited with developing the learned helplessness theory of depression.

Martin Seligman

Twin studies

One study of 200 pairs of twins saw that a monozygotic twin (identical) would have a 46% chance of developing the disorder if the other twin had it. When a dizygotic twin had unipolar depression, the other twin had only a 20% chance of developing the disorder.

Which ethnic group has the highest overall rate of unipolar depression?

Native Americans

Adoption studies

One study looked at families of adopted persons who had been hospitalized for depression in Denmark. The biological parents of these adoptees turned out to have a higher incidence of severe depression (not mild) than did the biological parents of a control group of nondepressed adoptees. Findings suggest severe depression is more likely to have genetic factors.

Losses early in life and depression

Other research (both animal and human) suggests that losses suffered early in life may set the stage for later depression.

Unipolar mania

Patients suffer from mania only, but the pattern is uncommon

Age and gender factors to depression (stats)

People in their forties are more likely to experience depression Median age for onset is 26 Women are twice as likely as men to have episodes of severe depression 26% of women have an episode some time in their lives (men 12%)

5-HTT gene

People who are depressed often have an abnormality of their 5HTT gene, a gene located on chromosome 17. This gene is responsible for the brain's production of serotonin transporters, or 5HTTs, proteins that help the neurotransmitter serotonin carry messages from one neuron to another. People with this abnormality are more likely than others to display low serotonin activity. In their brains and may in turn be more prone to depression.

within Hispanic American populations, which minorities have a higher rate of depression? What about for African Americans?

Puerto Ricans han a higher rate of depression than do Mexican Americans or Cuban Americans, whereas among African Americans, those whose families originally came to the US from Africa and those whose families came by way of Caribbean Islands have similar rates of depression.

Who was one of the first clinical theorists to develop a behavioral explanation? What did he suggest?

Peter Lewinsohn He suggested that the positive rewards in life dwindle for some people, leading them to perform fewer and fewer constructive behaviors. Although many people manage to fill their lives with other forms of gratification, some become disheartened. The positive features continue to decline and the decline in rewards leads them to perform still fewer constructive behaviors- spiral to depression

Major depressive disorder checklist

Presence of a major depressive episode No pattern of mania or hypomania Disorder could be catagorized as seasonal, catatonic (marked by immobility or excessive activity), peripartum (occurs during pregnancy) or melancholic (almost totally unaffected by pleasurable events).

Reactive vs. endogenous depression

Reactive (exogenous) depression follows clear cut stressful events. Endogenous depression seems to be a response to internal factors.

Note

Related research supports the psychodynamic idea that people whose childhood needs were improperly met are particularly likely to become depressed after experiencing loss. Also, depressed patients described their patients as "affectionless control"

What causes unipolar depression?

Researchers have found that depressed people ave a larger number of stressful life events during the month just before the onset of their disorder than other people during the same period of time. Current explanations of depression point to biological, psychological and sociocultural factors. There are both internal and situational factors to each case

Family pedigree studies

Select people with depression as probands (a person who is the focus of a genetic study), examine their relatives, and see whether depression also afflicts other member's of the family. If a predisposition to unipolar depression is inherited, a proband's relatives should have a higher rate of depression than the population at large. 30% in the study witnessed depression in other family members as compared to 10% of general public.

Treatment for postpartum depression

Self-help support groups have proved extremely helpful for women who have or are at risk. Many respond well to antidepressant medications, cognitive therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, or a combination of these approaches. Many don't seek treatment though.

who developed the first psychodynamic explanation of depression? how?

Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham they noted the similarity between clinical depression and grief in people who had experienced a loss: constant weeping, loss of appetite, difficulty sleeping, loss of pleasure in life, withdrawal

Postpartum depression

Symptoms continue and may last up to a year or more. Symptoms include extreme sadness, despair, tearfulness, insomnia, anxiety, intrusive thoughts, compulsions, panic attacks, inability to cope, and suicidal thoughts. May affect the relationship between child and mother (causing physical/psychological effects on the hold)

The two most influential cognitive explanations to depression are...

The theory of negative thinking and the theory of learned helplessness

further redesigning done to the helplessness model

Theorists now suggest that attributions (global, stable) are likely to cause depression only when they further produce a sense of hopelessness in a person.

Social rewards

They are particularly important in the downward spiral of depression. Research shows that depressed persons receive fewer social rewards than non-depressed persons and that as their mood improves, their social rewards increase.

emotional realm of mania

active, powerful emotions in search of an outlet euphoric joy and well-being is out of proportion of what is actually happening in the person's life some are elated whereas others become irritable and angry when others get in the way of their exaggerated ambitions

Which group of Americans has the highest rate of unipolar depression?

White Americans

brain derived neurotrophic factor

a chemical that promotes the growth and survival of neurons. Such deficiencies within neurons may impair the health of the neurons and lead in turn to depression.

depression definition

a clinical disorder that causes considerable distress and impairment, features a range of symptoms, including emotional, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physical symptoms

symbolic or imagined loss

a concept proposed by Freud in which a person equates other kinds of events with the loss of a loved one. A college student, for example, may experience failure in a calculus course as the loss of parents, believing that they love her only when she excels academically.

family social perspective

a decline in social rewards is particularly important in the development of depression researchers have found that depressed people often display weak social skills and communicate poorly. They also seek repeated reassurances from others which may make people uncomfortable and avoid them; as a result, the social contacts and rewards of depressed people decrease and they participate in fewer and fewer social interactions (their skills also further deteriorate) Over time depressed people seem to lower their expectations of what they can get from social relationships and scale back their social ambitions

cyclothymic disorder

a disorder marked by numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and mild depressive symptoms symptoms continue for two or more years with normal moods lasting for days or weeks begins in adolescence or early adulthood equally common among sexes 0.4% of population develops disorder

attribution-helplessness theory

a new version of the helplessness theory when people view events as beyond their control, they ask themselves why this is so. If they attribute their present lack of control to some internal cause that is both GLOBAL and STABLE, they may well feel helpless to prevent future negative outcomes and experience depression. Other kinds of attributions are unlikely to have this reaction "i am inadequate at everything and always will be"

are creative people prone to psychological disorders?

a number of studies indicate that artists and writers are somewhat more likely than others to suffer from certain mental disorders, particularly bipolar disorders.

C reactive protein (CRP)

a protein that spreads throughout the body and causes inflammation and various illnesses.

brain structure and bipolar disorder

basal ganglia and cerebellum tend to be smaller have lower volumes of gray matter doral raphe nucleus (serotonin) , striatum, amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex structural abnormalities structure may affect neurotransmitters or ions

behavioral realm of mania

behavior is very active move quickly talk rapidly and loudly conversations filled with jokes and efforts to be clever or with complaints and outbursts flamboyance is common flashy clothing, giving money away, getting involved in dangerous activities

analogue studies

biochemical explanations for depression rely on these studies which create depression like symptoms in laboratory animals. But this recreation may not reflect the human disorder.

psych disorders involve more than just a single neurotransmitter or single brain area .They have determined that emotional reactions of various kinds are tied to...

brain circuits- networks of brain structures that work together, triggering each other into action and producing a particular kind of emotional reaction. A brain circuit has been tied to anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and may be now depression disorder.

The category of major depressive disorder in which the person is excessively active or unusually inactive is

catatonic

disadvantages of sadness

decreases creativity decreases ability to multitask decreases ability to delay gratification decreases patience decreases awareness to big picture decreases playfulness increase poor financial decisions

lack of control theory

draws on the learned helplessness research and proposes that women may be more prone to depression because they feel less control than men over their lives its suggested that women are more prone than men to develop learned helplessness in the laboratory victimization (burglary or rape) often produces a general sense of helplessness and symptoms of depression. Women are more likely to be victims.

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

during the week before menstruation women had to show at least 5 symptoms: depressed or hopeless feelings; tense or anxious feelings; marked mood changes; frequent irritability or anger and increased interpersonal conflicts; decreased interest in activities; lack of energy; changes in appetite; insomnia; overwhelmed; head aches, muscle pain.. caused uproar since it seems to attribute women's behavior to "raging hormones" Controversial inclusion in DSM-5 in 2011

A less disabling form of unipolar depression is known as__

dysthymic depression

the symptoms of Mania affect which areas of functioning?

emotional, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physical.

body dissatisfaction explanation

females in western society are taught almost from birth, to seek a low body weight and slender body shape- goals that are unhealthy, unreasonable, and unattainable As girls get older, peer pressure may result in them becoming more dissatisfied with their weight and body and increase likelihood of depression gender differences in depression appear in adolescence and people with eating disorder have high levels of depression still not clear that eating and weight concerns actually cause depression

how did scientists discover that epinephrine and serotonin levels were linked to unipolar depression?

first, they discovered that reserpine and other medication for high BP caused depression. These meds actually lowered norepinephrine activity or lowered serotonin. Second, they accidentally discovered that effective antidepressants actually increased norepinephrine or serotonin levels.

stages when a loved one dies? (according to Freud and Abraham)

first, they regress to the Oral Stage of development, the period of total dependency when infants cannot distinguish themselves from their parents. Then they go through introjection

According to the DSM-IV, a major depressive episode is a period marked by at least _____ symptoms of depression and lasting for ____ weeks or more.

five; two

_________ studies observe the pattern of distribution of disorders among family members in order to identify possible inheritance patterns of disorders.

genetic linkage

A genetically transmitted family trait such as color blindness or red hair is known as a

genetic marker

6 basic emotions

happiness, anger, surprise, fear, disgust, sadness

hippocampus

has a strong neural connection with the prefrontal cortex is one of the few brain areas to produce new neurons throughout adulthood (neurogenesis). Hippocampal neurogenesis decreases when a person becomes depressed. (returns to normal after successful treatment with antidepressant drugs) some studies have a detected a reduction in the size of the hippocampus among depressed persons. Recall this area is helps to control the brain's and body's reactions to stress and plays a role in the formation and recall of emotional memories.

hormone explanation

hormone changes trigger depression in women research suggests that hormone changes alone are not responsible for the high levels of depression in women. Social and life events at puberty, pregnancy, and menopause could have an effect. hormone explanations have been criticized as sexist since it implies women's biology is flawed

chronicity

how likely it is that a person will have recurrent episodes of a disorder

ion activity and bipolar disorder

ions play a role in relaying messages WITHIN neurons ions help transmit messages down the neuron's axon to the nerve endings *read more on sodium potassium pump pg 246 if messages are to be relayed effectively down the axon, the ions must be able to travel easily between the outside and inside of neural membrane. There may be irregularities in these ions as they fire too easily (mania) or too stubbornly (depression) studies have seen defects in neurons in those with bipolar disorders

unclarity between immune system explanation and depression

it could be that such immune dysregulation and chronic inflammation cause depression, just as they help produce other illnesses. Perhaps depression itself is a stressor that leads to immune problems

________ is the perception that one has no control over the reinforcements in their lives.

learned helplessness

American Indian community in US findings

lifetime risk of developing depression was 37% among women, 19% among men, and 28% overall, much higher than the risk in the general US population rates may be inked to terrible social and economic pressres

One of the most effective treatments for seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is

light therapy

prefrontal cortex

located within the frontal cortex receives info from a number of other brain areas, so it is important in mood, attention, and immune functioning. depressed participants have lower activity and blood flow in this area after successful treatment by other antidepressant drugs, the activity in this area increases but decreases with other types of antidepressant drugs.

genetic factors and bipolar disorder

many believe that people inherit a biological predisposition to develop bipolar disorders identical twins with bipolar disorder have a 40% of developing same disorder, fraternal twins, siblings, other relatives have a 5-10% chance; 1-2.6% of general population

The hormone that may indirectly play a role in depression is

melatonin

non western country picture of depression

more likely troubled by physical symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, sleep disturbances, and weight loss. Less often marked by cognitive symptoms like self-blame, low self-esteem, and guilt.

amygdala

seems to be involved in the expression of negative emotions and memories. a key in each of the brain circuits tied to generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and post traumatic stress disorder. Apparently, in depression too. 50% more activity and blood flow in the amygdala among depressed persons than among non depressed persons. activity in amygdala is proportional to depression severity or progression. some participants had increased activity in the amygdala as they looked at pictures of sad faces or recalled sad moments in their lives

Depressed people often engage in ____________, in which they focus on one negative detail of a situation while ignoring the larger context.

selective abstraction

Which group is most likely to suffer from a major depressive disorder?

separated divorced people

Low ________ activity accompanied by high _________ activity may lead to mania.

serotonin; norepinephrine

genetic linkages and bipolar disorders

several researchers seemed to have linked bipolar disorders to genes on the X chromosome molecular biology linked bipolar disorders to genes on chromosomes 1, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 20, 21, and 22 genetic abnormalities probably combine to help bring out bipolar disorder

cognitive realm of mania

show poor judgement and planning, as if they feel too good or move too fast to consider possible pitfalls filled with optimism- don't listen when people try to slow them down hold an inflated opinion of themselves, and sometimes their self-esteem approaches grandiosity severe episodes may be marked with not keeping in touch with reality.

when do rates of depression increase in minority groups?

specific ethnic populations living under unusually oppressive circumstances sometimes do have strikingly high rates of depression

what other attributions are unlikely to result in depression or helplessness?

specific: "the way I've behaved the past couple of weeks blew this relationship" unstable: I don't know what got into me- i don't usually act like that external: she never did know what she wanted.

cultural background and depression

studies of Canada, Switzerland, Iran and Japan found that the majority of depressed people reported symptoms of sadness, joylessness, anxiety, tension, lack of energy, loss of interest, loss of ability to concentrate, ideas of insufficiency and thoughts suicide precise picture of depression varies from country to country

psychodynamic explanation for cause of bipolar disorder?

suggested that mania, like depression emerges from the loss of a love object. Whereas some people introject the lost object and become depressed, others deny the loss and become manic. Only a few controlled studies have found a relationship between loss early or later in life and the onset of manic episodes.

Brodmann Area 25

this area tends to be smaller in depressed people than in non depressed people Becomes more active among depressed people than non depressed people when depression subsides, activity in the area decreases significantly because activation of Area 25 comes and goes with episodes of depression, some believe that it may in fact be a "depression switch," a kind of junction box whose malfunction might be necessary and sufficient for depression to occur.

Freud and Abraham believed that two kinds of people are particularly likely to become clinically depressed in the face of loss:

those whose parents failed to nurture them and meet their needs during the oral stage- those individuals grow up to be dependent throughout their life, feel unworthy of love, and have low self-esteem. those whose parents gratified those needs excessively. These people find the oral stage so pleasant that they don't move on and devote their lives to others, searching for love and approval. Both feel a stronger sense of loss when a loved one dies.

other biological researchers are starting to believe that unipolar depression is tied more closely to what?

to what happens WITHIN neurons than to the chemicals that carry messages between neurons. They believe that activity by key neurotransmitters or hormones ultimately leads to deficiencies of certain proteins an other chemicals within neurons, particularly to deficiencies of brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

Women are _____ as likely as men to experience episodes of severe unipolar depression.

two times

note

uncontrollable events result in lower norepinephrine and serotonin activity in rats helplessness-trained animals lose interest in sexual and social activities participants exposed to uncontrollable negative events score higher on a depressive mood scale than normal persons

there is a growing believe that immune system dysregulation helps produce depression

when people are under intense stress for a while, their immune systems may become dysregulated, leading to lower functioning of important white blood cells called lymphocytes and to increased production of C-reactive protein