Chapter 7 and 8

Going to College Later...

According to Sherry Willis, adults return to college for several reasons To understand their own aging To keep up with rapid technological and cultural advances To combat obsolescence on the job To acquire new vocational skills To broaden their intellectual skillsThe number of older students, starting or returning to college, continues to grow.

Satisfaction on the job

The higher the status of a job, the more satisfied people tend to be. Status of job of major wage-earner can affect status of other members of family. Status isn't everything. Worker satisfaction associated with: Nature of job Amount of input one has into one's duties Influence employees have other others

Good Nutrition

According to guidelines provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, people can achieve good nutrition by eating healthy foods Low in fat, including vegetables, fruits, whole-grain foods, fish, poultry, lean meats, and low-fat dairy products Whole-grain foods and cereal products, vegetables (including dried beans and peas), and fruits Milk and other sources of calcium Reduced salt intake

Type B Pattern Behavior

Characteristics Non-competitiveness Patience Lack of aggression Evidence that Type B people have less than half the risk of coronary disease than Type A people Johan Denollet has identified behavior he called Type D- for "Distressed" that he believes leads to coronary heart disease . He believes that insecurity, anxiety, and having a negative outlook on life puts people at risk for heart attacks.

Lesbian and Gay Parents

About 20% of gay men and lesbian women are parents No difference in psychological adjustment from that of children raised in heterosexual homes Specialization of roles develops Compared to heterosexual households, differences in gay and lesbian parents' households include: Division of household labor Differential roles Although both partners usually say they share household tasks and decision-making equally, biological mothers are more involved in child care. Conversely, the nonbiological mother in the couple is more likely to report spending greater time in paid employment.

Who Goes to College: Age and Ethnicity

26 percent of college students today are between 25 and 35 years of age or older Maturation reform Absolute number of minority students enrolled in college has increased Overall proportion of minority population has decreased over past decade College degree is becoming increasingly important in obtaining a job. Many employers require and encourage their workers to update their skills. Even more striking, although absolute number of minority students enrolled in college has increased, the overall proportion of the minority population that does enter college has decreased over the past decade—a decline that most education experts attribute to changes in the availability of financial aid.

Singlehood

About 20% of women and 30% of men in U.S. choose singlehood, living alone without partner for varying reasons: View marriage as negative View marriage as restrictive Don't find anyone they want to spend the rest of their lives with. Value independence, autonomy, and freedom. Society stigmatizes single individuals, particularly women.

Filtering Potential Marriage Partners

According to this approach, we screen potential mates through successively finer-grained filters in order to settle on an appropriate spouse. Louis Janda and Karen Llenke-Hamel suggest that people seeking mates screen potential candidates. First, we filter for broad determinants of attractiveness, and work our way to specifics: Residential proximity Similarity/complementarity Interpersonal attractiveness The end result is choice based on compatibility between two individuals. 'Jesse Bernerd: "Bottom of the Barrel" and "Cream of the Crop" men.

Stereotype Threat and Disidentification with School

African Americans don't do well in academic pursuits. Women lack ability in math and science. So say erroneous, damaging, and yet persistent stereotypes about African Americans and women. And in the real world these stereotypes play out in vicious ways. When African Americans start elementary school, their standardized test scores are only slightly lower than those of Caucasian students, and yet a 2-year gap emerges by the sixth grade. Even though more African American high school graduates are enrolling in college, the increase has not been as large as for other groups. Even though boys and girls perform virtually identically on standardized math tests in elementary school and middle school, this changes when they reach high school. At that level, and even more so in college, men tend to do better in math than women. In fact, when women take college math, science, and engineering courses, they are more likely to do poorly than men who enter college with the same level of preparation and identical SAT scores. Psychologist Claude Steele found that the reason both women and African Americans perform less well in college is academic disidentification - a lack of personal identification with an academic domain. More understanding of this effect is needed! May be connected to high school drop out rates as well!

Races and best friends

Although a relatively high percentage of whites and blacks claim to have a member of a different race, only a small majority actually name a person of another race or ethnicity when asked to list the names of their close friends.

Sexuality in Middle Adulthood

Although frequency of sexual intercourse decreases with age, sexual activities remain vital part of most middle-aged adults' lives. With children grown and away from home, middle-aged adults have more freedom. With menopause, women no longer need to practice birth control. Men typically need more time to get erection. Volume of fluid in ejaculation and production of testosterone declines. In women, walls of vagina become less elastic and thinner and the vagina shrinks, potentially making intercourse painful.Only about half of men and women 25 to 59 report having sex once a week. ¾ of those 50-59 report masterbating Half of men ages 50-59 and 1/3 of women have had oral sex from a different sex partner in the last year.

Division of Labor

Although husbands and wives generally work at their paying jobs a similar number of hours each week, wives are apt to spend more time than their husbands doing home chores and in child-care activities Close to ¾ of married women with school-aged children work outside home. More than 50% of mothers of children under age 6 work outside home. In majority of families, both partners work, but wife generally spend more time taking care of the children. Husbands primarily perform outside chores, and women do housework, child care, meal preparation. Although husbands and wives work about same number of hours at their paying jobs, women spend more time doing chores and child care tasks. Women's household chores tend to be devoted to things that need immediate attention and wives may experience greater levels of anxiety and stress.

Violence and Death

Another major cause of death for men in this age group is violence, particularly in the United States. The murder rate is significantly higher in the United States than in any other developed country. Murder rates also depend significantly on racial factors. Although murder is the fifth most frequent cause of death for young adult white Americans, it is the most likely cause of death for African Americans, and it is a significant factor for Hispanic Americans.

Chronic Diseases In Middle Adulthood

Arthritis typically begins after age 40 Hypertension (high blood pressure) is one of the most frequent chronic disorders found in middle age Diabetes is most likely to occur in people between the ages of 50 and 60

Declining Fertility Rate

Availability of more reliable birth control methods  Increasing numbers of women working outside the home Choosing to have children later Cost of raising and educating children Fear of not being good or accessible parent Today, the rate is at 2.1 children per woman, which is less than replacement level. In some underdeveloped countries, fertility rate is as high as 6.9. Women between the ages of 30 and 34 are only ones whose rate of births has actually increased over earlier decades.

Benefits of Exercise

Benefits Exercise helps. Cardiovascular fitness increase Lung capacity increases, raising endurance Stronger muscles and greater flexibility Greater range of movement Benefits More elasticity in muscles, tendons, and ligaments Reduction in osteoporosis Optimization of immune response Decreased stress level Increased sense of control over their bodies and feeling of accomplishment

Gender and College Preformance

Both male and female college professors may unintentionally favor their male students over their female students Differences exist in gender distribution in classes and attrition rates Prejudice and discrimination directed at women is still a fact of college life. Hostile sexism (overtly harmful treatment). Benevolent sexism (a form of sexism in which women are placed in stereotyped & restrictive roles that may appear positive). Complimenting a student on appearance. Offering an easier research project so a student won't have to work so hard. Message may be that the woman is not taken seriously, and competence is undermined. Differences exist in gender distribution in classes and attrition rates. Classes in engineering, the physical sciences, and mathematics tend to have more men than women. Women earn just 22% of the bachelor degrees in science and 13% of the doctorates. Women are more likely to drop out of math, engineering, and physical science classes.

Threat of Cancer in Middle Adulthood

Cancer is associated with genetic and environmental risks Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol use, exposure to sunlight, exposure to radiation, and particular occupational hazards Early treatment is related to higher survival rate Many forms of cancer respond quite well to medical treatment, and 40 percent of people diagnosed with the disease are still alive 5 years later. Still, the second leading cause of death in US.

Type A Behavior

Characterized by: Competitiveness, impatience, and a tendency toward frustration and hostility, are more susceptible to heart disease. Engagement in polyphasic activities - multiple activities carried out simultaneously. They are easily angered and become verbally and nonverbally hostile if prevented from reaching their goals. Heart rate and blood pressure rise, epinephrine and norepinephrine increase. Wear and tear on heart produces disease. Evidence is only correlational so we cannot say Type A behavior causes heart disease. Most experts now say it is the negative emotion and hostility that are the major links to heart disease. Most research has been done on men; we need to research women to see if Type A women are equally susceptible.Evidence is only correlational so cannot say Type A behavior causes heart diseaseThey are 2x as likely to have coronary heart disease and 5x as many heart problems.

Choosing a Career

Choosing a Career Systematically evaluate a variety of choices.  Knowing yourself.  Creating a "balance sheet." "Trying out" different careers through paid or unpaid internships.  Remembering that if you make a mistake, you can change careers.  Considering it is reasonable to expect that careers may change throughout life.

Higher Education

College is period of developmental growth that encompasses mastery not just of particular bodies of knowledge, but of ways of understanding world.

Early Marital Conflicts

Conflict in marriage is not unusual Nearly half of newly married couples experience a significant degree of conflict Difficulty making transition from adolescence to adulthood Trouble developing a separate identity Challenge of allocating time One of the major reasons is that partners may initially idealize one another, but as reality sets in they become more aware of flaws. Spousal perceptions of marital quality over the first 10 years of marriage decline in the early years, followed by a period of stabilization, and then additional decline

Reaction Time Change in Middle Age

Decreases slightly in middle adulthood.This is due to a gradual loss of muscle in the body and nervous system processing due to aging.People can compensate by being more careful and practicing the skill.Exercise can slow this loss. Reaction time in responding to loud noises increases by about 20 percent from ages 20-60.

William Perry and Postformal thought

Developmental growth of early adulthood involves mastering new ways of understanding the world Knowledge and values are regarded as relativistic Different societies, cultures, and individuals could have different standards and values Dualistic thinking- college freshman see good and bad as black or white. Not just room for grey Trust authority to be right Relativism increases- where you think something is a shade of grey where it may be black and white for some but grey for others. Senior/graduate school- authorities can be wrong. Note, Perry's study was on Harvard's males.

Giesela Labouvie-Vief and Postformal thought

Developmentalist Giesela Labouvie-Vief suggests that nature of thinking changes qualitatively during early adulthood. Adults exhibit postformal thought, thinking that goes beyond Piaget's formal operations. Adult predicaments are sometimes solved by relativistic thinking rather than pure logic. Postformal thought acknowledges that world sometimes lacks purely right and wrong solutions and adults must draw upon prior experiences to solve problems. Adult predicaments are sometimes solved by relativistic thinking rather than pure logic Postformal thought acknowledges that world sometimes lacks purely right and wrong solutions so adults must draw upon prior experiences to solve problems

Children bringing Dramatic Shifts as a couple

Dramatic shift in spouse's roles Challenges to marital satisfaction Successful coping Birth of child brings about dramatic shift in spouse's roles and sometimes decrease in marital satisfaction. Western culture's emphasis on individualism views childrearing primarily as a private enterprise. Parents in Western society are largely left without significant community support. Consequently, for many couples, strains accompanying the birth of child produce lowest level of marital satisfaction of any point in marriage. Not all couples experience decrease in marital satisfaction upon birth of child. Factors that permit couples to successfully weather stress of child: Working to build fondness and affection towards each other. Remaining aware of events in spouse's life and responding to those events. Considering challenges controllable and solvable. Satisfaction closely related to state of marriage before birth of child.

Gender Differences in Health during Middle Age

During middle age, women experience more non-life threatening illnesses than men but men experience more serious illnesses. Women smoke less.Women drink less alcohol.Women have less dangerous jobs. Medical research has typically studied diseases of men with all male samples; the medical community is only now beginning to study women's health issues.

Heart Disease

Each year heart and circulatory diseases kill around 200,000 people under the age of 65. Heart and circulatory disease in middle age are responsible for more loss of work and disability days due to hospitalization than any other cause.

Psychological Consequences of Menopause

Early research Menopause was linked directly to depression, anxiety, crying spells, lack of concentration, and irritability Current research Normal part of aging that does not, by itself, produce psychological symptoms Effects influenced by personal and cultural expectations of menopause

Emerging adulthood

Emerging Adulthood: A New Stage of Life? Theorized by some as new life stage Marked by continuing identity exploration that started in adolescence Encompasses the period between 18 and the late 20s May be a response to shifting cultural expectations and opportunities May be a response to shifting cultural forces, including an increasing amount of education needed for a good career and fewer employment opportunities overall

Death Rates ( Middle Age)

Ethnic differences African Americans' death rate is twice the rate for Caucasians Lower family's income higher likelihood of disabling illness, more dangerous occupations, inferior health coverageWhen whites and African Americans of the same SES level are compared, the death rate for African Americans actually falls below that of whites. Gender differences Women's overall mortality rate is lower than men's

Taylor and Stressful Events

Events and circumstances that produce negative emotions are more likely to produce stress. Situations that are uncontrollable or unpredictable are more likely to produce stress. Events and circumstances that are ambiguous and confusing produce more stress. People who must accomplish simultaneously many tasks are more likely to experience stress. Although we commonly think of negative events, such as auto mishaps, as leading to stress, even welcome events, like getting married, can be stressful.

Evolutionally Explanation for Choosing a Mate

Evolutionary explanation for gender differences has come under heavy fire from critics. Explanation is untestable. Similarities across cultures relating to different gender preferences may simply reflect similar patterns of gender stereotyping that have nothing to do with evolution. Although some of the gender differences in what men and women prefer are consistent across cultures, there are numerous inconsistencies as well. Women prefer a partner who has good earning potential may have nothing to do with evolution and everything to do with the fact that men generally hold more power, status, and other resources fairly consistently across different cultures. Consequently, it is a rational choice for women to prefer a high earning-potential spouse. Because men don't need to take economic considerations into account, they can use more inconsequential criteria—like physical attractiveness—in choosing a spouse.

Overall Health in Middle Adulthood

Fewer accidents and infections More careful Have built up immunities over their life People between the ages of 45 and 65 are less likely than younger adults to experience infections, allergies, respiratory diseases, and digestive problems. As people enter middle adulthood, health and safety concerns become increasingly important, followed by financial worries.

Schaie and Stages of Development in Thought

Focuses on the ways in which information is used during adulthood, rather than on changes in the acquisition and understanding of new information K. Warner Schaie suggests that adults' thinking follows set pattern of stages. Acquisitive Stage: Encompasses All Of Childhood And Adolescence, In Which Main Developmental Task Is To Acquire Information Achieving Stage: Point Reached By Young Adults In Which Intelligence Is Applied To Specific Situations Involving Attainment Of Long-term Goals Regarding Careers, Family, And Societal Contributions Responsible Stage: Stage Where The Major Concerns Of Middle-aged Adults Relate To Their Personal Situations, Including Protecting And Nourishing Their Spouses, Families, And Careers Executive Stage: Period In Middle Adulthood When People Take Broader Perspective Than Earlier, Including Concerns About World Reintegrative Stage: Period Of Late Adulthood During Which The Focus Is On Tasks That Have Personal Meaning

Picking an Occupation

Ginzberg's Career Choice Theory holds that people move through series of stages in choosing career: Fantasy period: Lasts until 11 years old. Career choices are made without regard to skills, abilities, or available jobs. Tentative period: During adolescence, begin to think about job requirements and how their abilities and interests fit them. Realistic period: Young adults explore specific career options through actual experience or through training for a profession. Critics say this theory oversimplifies career choice process. Non-representative sample Overstates choices and options to lower SES people Age demarcations may be too rigid

Hardiness and Resilience

Hardy individuals are take-charge people who revel in life's challenges. People who are high in hardiness are more resistant to stress-related illness than those who show less hardiness. Hardy people react to potentially threatening stressors with optimism, feeling that they can respond effectively. By turning threatening situations into challenging ones, they are less apt to experience high levels of stress. Resilient young adults tend to be easy-going, good-natured, and have good social and communication skills. They are independent, feeling that they can shape their own fate and are not dependent on others or luck. They work with what they have and make the best of whatever situation in which they find themselves.

Height, Weight, and Strength: Benchmark of Middle Adulthood Change

Height: Reach their maximum height during their 20s and remain relatively close to that height until around age 55. Begin a "settling" process in which the bones attached to the spinal column become less dense. Although the loss of height is very slow, ultimately women average a 2-inch decline and men a 1-inch decline. Women are more prone to a decline in height because they are at greater risk of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, is often brought about by a lack of calcium in diet and lack of regular exercise. Weight: Amount of body fat tends to grow in average person. People who maintain exercise program tend to avoid obesity, as do individuals living in cultures where the typical life is more active and less sedentary. Strength: Strength gradually decreases, particularly in the back and leg muscles. By 60, people have lost, on average, about 10 percent of their maximum strength.

Holland's Personality Type Theory

Holland's Personality Type Theory holds that certain personality types match certain careers. Six types: (Riscea) Realistic Intellectual Social Conventional Enterprising Artistic Criticism Lack of fit for many Exceptions to typology

Homogamy

Homogamy is tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race, education, religion, and other basic demographic characteristics. Homogamy has traditionally been dominant standard for most marriages in U.S. BUT...importance of homogamy is declining, particularly among certain ethnic groups.

Cultural Belief and Healthcare

How cultural beliefs influence health and health care Research findings suggest that cultural health beliefs, along with demographic characteristics and psychological barriers, can affect the use of physicians and medical care. Health care providers need to take cultural beliefs into account when treating members of different cultural groups.

Friendships in Early Adulthood

Important part of adult life need for belonging Filters Personal qualities Maintaining friendships is an important part of adult life, filling a basic need for belongingness. How do people become our friends? Proximity: live nearby, work with us. Similarity: hold similar attitudes and values. Most adults have same-race friends. We also choose friends based on personal qualities. Keep confidences Loyal Warm Affectionate Supportive Good sense of humor

Hormone Therapy?

In HT, estrogen and progesterone are administered to alleviate the worst of the symptoms experienced by menopausal women Reduces a variety of problems May change ratio of "good" cholesterol to "bad" cholesterol Decreases the thinning of the bones related to osteoporosis Associated with reduced risks of stroke and colon cancer May improve memory and cognitive performance May lead to greater sex drive

Gender Wage Gap

In spite of men's wages remaining stable, women continue to earn an average of 80 cents for every dollar men earn. Minority women face an even greater discrepancy in wages. More women are working outside the home than ever before despite status and pay that are often lower than men's. Between 1950 and 2003, the percent of the female population (aged 16 and over) in the U.S. labor force increased from around 35 percent to over 60 percent, and women today make up around 55 percent of the labor force, a figure comparable to their presence in the general population. Almost all women expect to earn a living, and almost all do at some point in their lives. Furthermore, in about one-half of U.S. households, women earn about as much as their husbands. Wages still lag behind those of men. "Glass ceiling"

Is love all that matters?

In the U.S., people emphasize love as a major factor. In other cultures, love may be a secondary consideration (Pakistan, India), although still relatively high on the list of important characteristics according to research. Emotional maturity, health, similar education, chastity are among the top 18 in a study by Buss, 1990. U.S.—love and mutual attraction. China—men: good health; women: emotional stability and maturity. South Africa/Zulu—men: emotional stability, women: dependable character

Attachment Styles and Romantic Relationships

Infant attachment style is reflected in adult romantic relationships ( Phillip Shaver). Secure-Happy and confident about future of their relationships (over 50%) Avoidant-Less invested, higher break-up rates, often feel lonely (25%) Anxious-ambivalent-Overly invested, repeated break-ups with same partner, low self-esteem (20%) Attachment style related to nature of care adults give to their romantic partners when they need assistance. Secure adults are more sensitive and supportive. Anxious adults are more compulsive, intrusive.

Erikson: Intimacy vs Isolation

Intimacy: Close, intimate relationship with others Selflessness Sexuality- focusing not just on one's own gratification but also on that of one's partner Isolation:Feelings of loneliness Fear of relationships Erikson regarded young adulthood as the time of the INTIMACY-VERSUS-ISOLATION STAGE. It spans post-adolescence into the early 30s. Focus is on developing close, intimate relationship with others. People who experience difficulties at this stage are often lonely and fearful of relationships, perhaps from a failure of the identity stage. Erikon's view of healthy intimacy was limited to adult heterosexuality and the goal was to produce children, a view not shared by all developmentalists today.

Why do people work?

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION drives people to obtain tangible rewards, such as money and prestige. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION drives people to work for its own reward. Sense of personal identity. Central element in one's social life. Work is factor in determining STATUS, the evaluation by society of role person plays.

Stages of stress (Lazarus and Folkman)

Lazarus and Folkman, not every situation produces stress. People move through series of stages that determine whether or not they will experience stress (the way a situation is appraised will determine perception of stress). PRIMARY APPRAISAL: assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, or neutral. SECONDARY APPRAISAL: assessment of whether one's coping abilities and resources are adequate to overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by potential stressor.

Health and Murder Rates in Young Adulthood

Leading causes of death among young adults (ages 25-34) Accidents AIDS Cancer Heart disease Suicide Murder Gender and SES differences At age 35, this reverses and illness and disease become more likely causes (for the 1st time since infancy). Men are more apt to die from accidents than women. African-Americans have twice the death rate of Caucasians. Murder rate in the U.S. is significantly higher than in any other developed country. — U.S rate = 21.9 per 100,000 me; Japanese rate = 0.5 murders per 100,000 men (4000% difference!) Murder is the fifth most frequent cause of death for young White Americans (1 in 131 chance in lifetime) Murder is the most frequent cause of death for African-Americans (1 in 21 chance in lifetime) In some areas of the country, a young black male has a higher probability of being murdered than a soldier in the Vietnam War had of being killed! African American male: 1 in 21 chance of being murdered in his lifetime European American male: 1 in 131 chance Age 35, disease is the number 1 cause of death.

Secondary Aging

Lifestyle decisions, including the use—or abuse—of alcohol, tobacco, or drugs or engaging in unprotected sex, can hasten secondary aging This can also increase a young adult's risk of dying Secondary aging: physical declines brought about by environmental factors or an individual's behavioral choices.

Life Events and Cognitive Development

Major life events may lead to cognitive growth Think about the world in novel, more complex, sophisticated, and often less rigid ways Apply postformal thought to see and grasp trends and patterns, personalities, and choices Profound events such as the birth of a child or the death of a loved one can stimulate cognitive development by offering an opportunity to reevaluate our place in the world.

Male Climacteric

Men experience some changes during middle age. Period of physical and psychological change relating to male reproductive system that occurs during late middle age. Most common is enlargement of prostate gland. By age 40, 10 percent of men have enlarged prostates. Symptoms are problems with urination, including difficulty starting to urinate and frequent need to urinate during the night. Men still produce sperm and can father children through middle age.

Choosing a mate

Men prefer physical attraction. Women prefer ambition, industriousness. Psychologist David Buss points out that human beings, as a species, seek out certain characteristics to maximize beneficial genes and reproductive success (evolutionary perspective). Critics of evolutionary approach argue that similarities across cultures relating to gender preferences reflect gender stereotyping and have nothing to do with evolution. They say it is a rational choice for women to prefer a high earning-potential spouse and that men can afford to be concerned only with looks

Changes in Intercourse

Men typically need more time to get an erection Volume of fluid in ejaculation declines Production of testosterone also declines In women, walls of the vagina become less elastic and thinner Vagina shrinks, potentially making intercourse painful

Coronary Heart Disease

More men die in middle age of diseases of the heart and circulatory system than any other cause Both genetic and experiential characteristics are involved Heart disease runs in families Men are more likely to suffer than women, and risks increase with age There are several environmental and behavioral factors. Cigarette smoking High fat and cholesterol in diet Lack of physical exercise Evidence suggests that some psychological factors are also related to heart disease like how stress is perceived.

Men vs Women in College

More women than men attend college and the proportion of women, relative to men, is increasing. There already are more women than men enrolled in college, with women receiving 133 bachelor's degrees for every 100 men receive. Women often have better high school academic records may be admitted to college at greater rates.

Most Married Couples

Most married couples View early years of marriage as deeply satisfying Find themselves more deeply in love than before marriage Report newlywed period as one of the happiest in entire married life

Combinations of love

Nonlove- nothing Liking- intimacy Infatuated love- passion Empty love- Decision/commitment Romantic love- passion and intimacy Companionate love- passion and commitment Fatous love- intimacy and commitment Consummate love- intimacy, passion, and commitment

Two faces of love

Not all love is the same. Passionate (romantic love): State of powerful absorption in someone. Companionate love: Strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved. LABELING THEORY OF PASSIONATE LOVE (Hatfield and Berscheid)—Combination of intense physiological arousal and situational cues that indicate that "love" is the appropriate label for what they are experiencing. The physiological arousal can be produced by sexual arousal, excitement, or even negative emotions such as jealousy. The theory is particularly useful in explaining why people may feel deepened love even when they experience continual rejection or hurt from their assumed lover. It suggests that such negative emotions can produce strong physiological arousal.

Frequency of Sex in Middle Adulthood

Only about half of men and women 25 to 59 report having sex once a week. ¾ of those 50-59 report masterbating Half of men ages 50-59 and 1/3 of women have had oral sex from a different sex partner in the last year.

College Adjustment and the First-Year Adjustment Reaction

Particularly affects unusually successful students in high school Passes for most as friends are made and integration into college life occurs Serious psychological consequences for few First-year adjustment reaction is a cluster of psychological symptoms, including loneliness, anxiety, and depression, relating to the college experience. Counseling, as well as increasing familiarity with ampus life, can help a student adjust.

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood (20-40)

Taking responsibility for yourself Managing the separation from your parents Redefining the relationships with your parents Gaining and interpreting sexual experiences Becoming capable of intimacy with another non family person Managing money Developing skills that can lead to a career Considering career possibilities Considering parenthood and possibly becoming a parent Redefining your values Finding a place in society

Why do people wait to marry now?

The age at which women and men first marry is the highest since national statistics were first collected in the late 1800s. Reflects economic concerns and the commitment to establishing career.

Physical Development and the Senses

Physical development and maturation complete Peak of physical capabilities Brain wave patterns show more mature patterns Senses peak Most professional athletes at peak during early adulthood In most respects physical development and maturation are complete by early adulthood. Full height, proportional limbs, tend to be healthy, vigorous, energetic Most people are at the peak of their physical capabilities. The brain continues to grow in both size and weight, reaching its maximum in early adulthood. Brain wave patterns show changes (more mature patterns). The senses are as sharp as they will ever be. No significant deterioration in vision (until the 40's) Hearing is at its peak Taste, smell, sensitivity to touch good Most professional athletes are at their peak during early adulthood. Psychomotor abilities (eye-hand coordination, etc.) Age related decline is called Senescence.

Piaget and Early Adulthood Cognitive Functioning

Piaget and others argued that by time the teen years were finished, thinking stabilized. BUT increasing evidence suggests that this part of Piaget's theory was incorrect!

Why Marry?

Preferred alternative during early adulthood Desirability of spouse roles Legitimatization of children Legal benefits and protections Many see marriage as appropriate culmination of loving relationship, while others feel it is "right" thing to do after reaching particular age in early adulthood. Spouse can play economic, sexual, therapeutic, and recreational roles. Only means of having children that is fully accepted by all segments of society. Marriage offers legal benefits and protections, such as being eligible for medical insurance under a spouse's policy and eligibility for survivor benefits such as Social Security.

Coping Strategies

Problem-focused coping is attempt to manage a stressful problem or situation by directly changing situation to make it less stressful. Emotion-focused coping involves conscious regulation of emotion. Coping is also aided by presence of social support, assistance and comfort supplied by others. Defense coping involves unconscious strategies that distort or deny true nature of the situation. This relates to drugs and alcohol usage.

Do College Students Need Professional Help with Problems?

Psychological distress that lingers and interferes with a person's sense of well-being and ability to function (such as depression so great that someone has trouble completing his or her work). Feelings that one is unable to cope effectively with the stress. Hopeless or depressed feelings, with no apparent reason. Inability to build close relationships with others. Physical symptoms such as headaches, stomach cramps, skin rashes that have no apparent underlying cause.

Expanding of Triartic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Seymour Epstein Constructive thinking Form of practical intelligence Underlies success in such areas as social relationships and physical and emotional health

Stress and Psychoneuroimmunology

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) Involves study of the relationship among the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors Examines outcomes of stress Acute stressors Chronic stressors Eustress- positive stress but still stress. Stress- any unpredicted change Chronic stressor- long term disorder or disease.

Stress

Refers to response to events that threaten or challenge an individual May result in a reduction of body's ability to deal with stress with long-term, continuous exposure Lives are filled with events and circumstances known as stressors, that cause threats to well-being. Stressors can be both pleasant events and unpleasant events (weddings, winning awards, exams, arguments). Long-term, continuous exposure to stressors may result in reduction of body's ability to deal with stress. People become more susceptible to diseases as their ability to fight off germs declines. Positive stress is called eustress.

Lesbian and Gay Relationships

Research findings suggest that gay relationships are quite similar to relationships between heterosexuals Most gays and lesbians seek loving, long-term, and meaningful relationships that differ little qualitatively from those desired by heterosexuals Gay men Describe successful relationships in ways similar to heterosexual couple descriptions: needs of couple before individual needs; less conflict, more positive feelings toward partner Lesbian women: show high levels of attachment, caring, intimacy, affection, and respect for partner Age preferences expressed in marriage gradient for heterosexuals also extend to partner preferences for homosexual men Lesbians' age preferences fall somewhere between those of heterosexual women and heterosexual men There are virtually no scientific data regarding gay and lesbian marriage, which became a major social issue when the first legal homosexual marriages were conducted in the United States in 2004. It is clear that the question produces strong reactions, but more, it turns out, among older adults than younger ones. Although only 18 percent of those older than 65 support the legalization of gay marriage, a clear majority—61 percent—of people younger than 30 support the practice.

Robert Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

Robert Sternberg says that love is made up of three components: Intimacy-Feelings of closeness, affection, connection. Passion-Motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance. Decision/Commitment- Thoughts of love and determination to maintain that love. These components can be combined to form eight different types of love depending on which of three components is either present or missing from relationship.

Sternberg and Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg, in his TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE suggests that intelligence is made up of three major components: Componential intelligence relates to the mental components involved in analyzing data, and in solving problems, especially problems involving rational behavior (traditional IQ tests focus on this aspect) Experiential intelligence refers to the relationship between intelligence, people's prior experience, and their ability to cope with new situations. Contextual intelligence involves the degree of success people demonstrate in facing the demands of their everyday, real-world environments. Sternberg contends that success in a career necessitates this type of intelligence (contextual), also called PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE, intelligence that is learned primarily by observing others and modeling their behavior.

Stimulus Value Role Theory (Murstein)

STIMULUS-VALUE-ROLE (SVR) THEORY (Murstein), says that relationships proceed in a fixed order of three stages: Stimulus stage: relationships built on superficial, physical characteristics Value stage: between second and seventh encounter, relationship characterized by increasing similarity of values and beliefs. Role stage: relationship built on specific roles played by participants.

General guidelines for coping with stress.

Seek control over the situation producing the stress. Putting yourself in charge of a situation that is producing stress can take you a long way toward coping with it. For example, if you are feeling stress about an upcoming test, do something about it—such as starting to study. Redefine "threat" as "challenge." Changing the definition of a situation can make it seem less threatening. "Look for the silver lining" is not bad advice. For example, if you're fired, look at it as an opportunity to get a new, and potentially better, job. Find social support. Almost any difficulty can be faced more easily with the help of others. Friends, family members, and even telephone hot lines staffed by trained counselors can provide significant support. (For help in identifying appropriate hot lines, the U.S. Public Health Service maintains a "master" toll-free number that can provide phone numbers and addresses of many national groups. Call 800-336-4794.) Use relaxation techniques. Reducing the physiological arousal brought about by stress can be a particularly effective way of coping with stress. A variety of techniques that produce relaxation, such as transcendental meditation, Zen and yoga, progressive muscle relaxation, and even hypnosis, have been shown to be effective in reducing stress.

Working Marriages

Show affection Communicate relatively little negativity Perceive themselves as interdependent Experience social homogamy, similarity in leisure activity, and role preferences Hold similar interests Agree on distribution of roles Nine out of ten 18 to 29 year olds believe that a happy marriage is an ingredient to a good life. There are 5 divorces per every 1,000 individuals

Physical Disabilities

Some 50+ million Americans are physically challenged Fewer than 10 percent of people with major handicaps have finished high school Fewer than 25 percent of disabled men and 15 percent of disabled women work full time Adults with handicaps are often unemployed or stuck in routine, low-paying jobs Despite the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), people with physical disabilities still cannot gain access to many older buildings.

Choosing to Have Children

Some children are unplanned, but couples cope because they wanted children eventually; some unplanned children are unwanted. Today most families have no more than 2 children; rate in U.S. today is 2.1 children per woman (in 1957, it was 3.7 children per woman). Women are having children later today, into their late 30s and older. A middle-class family with two children will spend about $233,000 for each child before the child reaches the age of 18. People have children for psychological reasons. Pleasure of watching them grow. Hope children will provide for them in old age or offer companionship. Most married couples have at least one child.

Developmental Tasks of Late Adulthood (60 plus)

Spending time well Remaining social rather than isolation Making friends and new connections Adjusting to changing sexuality Managing physical pain, aliments and limitations Making life without work a comfortable lifestyle Using time wisely for engaging work and recreation Managing finances effectively for yourself and your dependents Focusing on the present and future not dwelling on the past Adjusting to ongoing losses of close connections Accepting care from your children and grandchildren

Female Climacteric

Starting about age 45, the transition from being able to bear children to being unable to do so. Lasting about 15 to 20 years. Most notable sign is menopause, the cessation of menstruation. Process may begin as early as age 40 or as late as age 60. Production of estrogen and progesterone drop. Symptoms such as "hot flashes," headaches, feeling dizzy, heart palpitations, and aching joints are common during menopause. Half of women report no symptoms at all. Perimenopause is period beginning around 10 years prior to menopause when hormone production begins to change. After year without a menstrual period, menopause is said to have occurred.

Sight and Sounds of Middle Age

Starting at age 40, visual acuity - the ability to discern fine spatial detail in both close and distant objects - begins to decline.The eye's lenses change shape and elasticity.The lenses become less transparent, which reduces the amount of light entering.A nearly universal change in eyesight during middle adulthood is the loss of near vision, called PRESBYOPIA.Declines also occur in depth perception, distance perception, the ability to view the world in three dimensions, and night vision. Sometimes changes in vision are brought on by a disease called GLAUCOMA, a condition where pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or because too much fluid is produced. It constricts the neurons involved in peripheral vision and leads to tunnel vision. When all neurons constrict, you get blindness. About 1 percent to 2 percent of those over 40 are affected.African Americans are particularly susceptible.It can be treated if caught early enough.If left untreated it can cause blindness.

Consequences of Stress in Middle Adulthood

Stress continues to have a significant impact on health during middle adulthood, as it did in young adulthood, although the nature of what is stressful may have changed. Psychoneuroimmunologists, who study the relationship between the brain, immune system, and psychological factors, stress produces three main consequences. Direct physiological effects- high BP, Decreases immune system, increased hormones, and psychophysiological conditions Harmful behavirors- increased use of nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs, decreased nutrition, sleep, and increased drug use.

Psychoneuroimmunologists and Stress

Stress continues to have a significant impact on health in middle age. According to psychoneuroimmunologists, who study the relationship between the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors, stress produces consequences. Direct physiological outcomes - e.g., increased blood pressure and hormonal activity. Leads to unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, cutting back on sleep, drinking, or taking other drugs.People under a lot of stress are more likely to give into these unhealthy behaviors.

Psychosomatic Disoders

Stress may lead to PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS, medical problems caused by interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. Some young adults are better than others at COPING, the effort to reduce, or tolerate threats that lead to stress.

Physical Fittness

Superior physical capabilities require exercise and diet No more than 10 percent Americans exercise enough to keep themselves in good physical shape Less than 20 percent participate in moderate exercise on regular basis. Although exercise is talked about a lot in the U.S., no more than 10% of Americans exercise enough to keep themselves in good physical shape. Less than 20% participate in moderate exercise on a regular basis Exercise is largely an upper- and middle-class phenomenon-People of low socioeconomic status (SES) often lack the time or money to participate

Cohabitation

The number of couples living together prior to marriage increased by 41 percent from the year 2000 to 2010. (7.5 Million) Past three decades have seen both a decline in the number of married couples and a significant rise in couples living together without being married, a status known as cohabitation. Married couples now make up a minority of households: as of 2005, 49.7 percent of all U.S. households contained a married couple. (78 percent in 1950) Not ready for lifelong commitment "Practice" for marriage Reject institution of marriage Those who feel that cohabiting increases their subsequent chances of a happy marriage are incorrect. Chances of divorce are higher for those who have previously cohabited, according to data collected in U.S. and Western Europe.

Creativity and Age

The period of maximum creativity differs depending on the particular field. The percentages refer to the percent of total lifetime major works produced during the particular age period.Creativity, combining responses or ideas in creative ways, is at its peak for many individuals during early adulthood. People in early adulthood may be at peak of their creativity because many of problems they encounter on professional level are novel. Creative people are willing to take risks. Creative people develop and endorse ideas that are unfashionable or regarded as "wrong". Not all people reach their creative peak in early adulthood.

Hearing loss in middle age

The primary sort of loss is for sounds of high frequency, a problem called PRESBYCUSIS.About 12 percent of people between 45 and 65 suffer from presbycusis.Men are more prone to hearing loss than women.Because the two ears are not always equally affected by hearing loss, sound localization, the ability to detect the origin of a sound, is diminished.Some hearing loss results from environmental factors, such as loud noises.The rest are caused by aging, which brings a loss of hair cells in the inner ear.Also, the eardrum becomes less elastic with age.

Falling in love and the progression of love

The progression of development of love: Most relationships develop in similar ways: People meet, interact for long periods of time. Seek out each other's company. Open up more. Share physical intimacies. Share positive and negative feelings. Agree on roles in relationship. Feel psychological well-being tied to success of relationship. Their definition of themselves and their behavior changes. They see themselves and act as a couple, rather than separate individuals.

Physical Transition in Middle Adulthood

Time when most people first become aware of gradual changes in body that mark aging process (psychological and emotional to body's capabilities.) Reactions to physical changes of middle adulthood depend in part on self-concept.Signs of aging they see in the mirror signal not just a reduction in their physical attractiveness, but also aging and mortality. Senescence- naturally occurring decline. Self-image is tied closely to physical attributes

Gender and Career Choices: Women's Work

Today women's options for careers are unlimited. It has not always been that way. Traditionally, women were considered most appropriate for COMMUNAL PROFESSIONS, associated with relationships (like teachers) and men were thought to be better at AGENTIC PROFESSIONS (getting things accomplished). Today, women are less likely to be found in male-dominated professions like engineering and computer programming. Women's wages still lag behind those of men, even though opportunities are greater. Women seem to hit the "glass ceiling," an invisible barrier that prevents promotions beyond a certain level.

Sternberg: Practical and Emotional Intelligence

Traditional IQ scores relate well to academic success Career success requires practical intelligence learned primarily by observing others and modeling their behavior Emotional intelligence is the set of skills that underlies the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions.

Type of People That Go To College and Percentage Rates

U.S. college students are primarily white and middle class Nearly 69 percent of white high school graduates enter college 61 percent of African American graduates 47 percent of Hispanic graduatesOnly about 40% of those who start will graduate from college in 4 years. ½ will eventually finish. 70% of African-Americans drop out of college. Minority students are an increasingly larger proportion of college population. African-American students have increased by 13%. Hispanic students have increased by 22%. White students have increased by 6%. These changes reflect differences in the racial and ethnic composition of U.S. and growing realization that higher education improves economic well-being. There are now more women than men enrolled in college, and by year 2007, women's enrollment is expected to increase 30% from 1995 compared to an increase of only 13% for men.

Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood (40-60)

Understanding that time is passing and accepting it and aging like changes in your body including appearance and health Work identity development Becoming a member of society that is constantly changing Keeping old friends and making new ones Coping with changes in your sexuality Continuously reworking your spousal or partner relationship Altering your relationship with your children as they age Passing on knowledge skills and values to the next generation Managing money effectively for short and long-term goals Experiencing the illness and death of persons close to you, especially with your parents Finding a place in society

Roles of Work during Young Adulthood

Vaillant: Career consolidation General pattern of psychological development as young adults center on careers Career concerns supplant focus on intimacy Criticisms Highly restricted sample limits Generalizability Dated findings questions in view of shifts in attitudes toward importance of work CAREER CONDOLIDATION: stage that begins between ages of 20 and 40, in which young adults become centered on careers. According to Vaillant, people work hard to advance in their jobs, and career focus supplants personal intimacy as a bridge between Erikson's intimacy and generativity stages. Vaillant only studied men.

Age and Obesity

Weight control is a difficult, and often losing, battle for many young adults. Most people who diet ultimately regain the weight they have lost, and they become involved in a see-saw cycle of weight gain and loss. Some obesity experts now argue that the rate of dieting failure is so great that people may want to avoid dieting altogether. If people eat the foods they really want in moderation, they may be able to avoid the binge eating that often occurs when diets fail. Even though obese people may never reach their desired weight, they may, according to this reasoning, ultimately control their weight more effectively. Third of adults are obese, a percentage that has nearly tripled since the 1960s As age increases, more and more people are classified as obese Obesity is particularly prevalent in the United States. The world average weight for adults is 137 pounds; in the United States, the average is 180

Research on Hormone Therapy

Women's Health Initiative Determined that the long-term risks of HT outweighed the benefits Combination of estrogen and progesterone linked to higher risk for breast cancer, stroke, pulmonary embolism, and heart disease Later research Increased risk of stroke and pulmonary embolism were later found to be associated with estrogen-alone therapy

Forging relationships: intimacy, liking, and loving in early adulthood

Young adults' happiness stems, in part, from their relationships, and many worry about whether or not they are developing serious relationships "on time." Even those who are not interested in forming a long-term relationship typically are focused, to some extent, on connecting with others.