Chapter 7: Emerging and Early Adulthood

Obesity

70.7% of US adults are overweight 37.9% of those are obese

The five features in the theory of emerging adulthood were based on research with Americans between 18-29. How generalizable is this theory? Depends on the part of the world in question.

Developed Countries (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)) United States, Canada, Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. Developing Countries- lower median incomes, lower median educational attainment and much higher incidence of illness, disease, and early death.

Females:

Estrogen- increases motivation Progesterone- decreases sexual motivation.

Arranged Marriages and Elopement

Historically marriage was not a personal choice; but one made by the family. - Arranged marriages ensured proper transference of wealth and supported customs. Many of the early marriages (for love) were done through elopement.

Cisgender

Individuals who identify with a role that corresponds to the sex assigned to them at birth (for example, they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned as a boy, and identify today as a boy or man)

Sexual Responsiveness Peak:

Men (late teens and early 20's) while women (through 20's and 30's)

Males:

Testosterone- major factor in sexual motivation Vasopressin- involved in the male arousal phase

Dialectical Thought

The ability to bring together salient aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions. Adolescents tend to think in dichotomies.

Gender Differences

Young men are living with their parents at a higher rate than young women. (35% males vs. 28% females)

Libido

a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity.

Maternal immune hypothesis-

a progressive immunization to male-specific antigens after the birth of successive sons in some mothers, which increases the effect of anti-male antibodies on the sexual differentiation of the brain and in developing fetus.

Postformal Thought

advanced type of thinking seen in adults, not as influenced by what others think, decision making is based on what is realistic and practical, not idealistic. Can make adaptive choices.

Those in their early twenties are probably

at the peak of physiological development including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac functioning Reproductive system, motor skills, strength and lung capacity are operating at their best.

Heterosexuality- (Straight)

attraction is to individuals of the opposite sex/gender

Pansexuality

attraction to all sexes/genders

Homosexuality- (gay or lesbian)

attraction to individuals of one's own sex/gender

Polysexuality

attraction to multiple sexes/genders

Global Obesity rates

for men are 10.8% and women are 14.9%

Doctor's visits are less frequent in early adulthood

for those in midlife and late adulthood and are necessitated primarily by injury and pregnancy

Asexuality

having no sexual attraction to any sex/gender

Dichotomies

ideas are true or false, good or bad and there is no middle ground.

Societal views on sexuality

influenced by everything from Religion to philosophy. Historically, the USA's view stem from religion. In recent years peers and the media have had a larger impact

Occupational Sexism

involves discriminatory practices, statements, or actions, based on a person's sex that occur in the workplace. Economic Advisors (2015) found that despite women holding 49.3% of jobs they were only paid $0.78 for every $1.00 a man makes.

Gender identity

is a person's sense of self as a member of a particular gender.

Heavy drinking

is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of five or more days in the past 30 days. •88,000 people die from alcohol-related causes annually.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

is responsible for ovulation in females by triggering egg maturity; it also stimulates sperm production in males

Social construct

meaning that it does not exist naturally, but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and societal norms

Heteronormative

meaning that society supports heterosexuality as the norm

Sexual Response Cycle

model that describes the physiological responses that take place during sexual activity and includes four phases: •Excitement phase- the phase in which the intrinsic motivation to pursue sex arises. •Plateau phase- the period of sexual excitement with increased heart rate and circulation that sets the stage for orgasm. •Orgasm- release of tension •Resolution period- the unaroused state before the cycle begins again.

Two-spirit

modern umbrella term used by some indigenous North Americans to describe gender-variant individuals in their communities

Transgender Discrimination

more likely to experience harassment, bullying and violence based on their gender identity.

Homophobia

negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT).

Internalized homophobia

people with same-sex attractions internalize, or believe, society's negative views and/or hatred of themselves

Human sexuality

refers to people's sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses

Sex

refers to physical or physiological differences between males, females, and intersex persons, including both their primary and secondary sex characteristics.

Gender

refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with a given sex.

Oxytocin

released during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is achieved.

Institutionalized homophobia

religious and state-sponsored homophobia

Hypothalamus

small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve-cell bodies that receive input from the limbic system. Most important part of brain during sexual response.

Bisexuality

term traditionally used to refer to attraction to individuals of either male or female sex, but has been recently been used in non-binary models of sex and genders.

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

triggers the release of a mature egg in females during the process of ovulation.

Online Dating

•1 in 5 Emerging adults report using an online dating app. •Online dating services perform 3 important tasks: 1. Sites provide individual access to a database of other individuals who are interested in meeting someone. 2. Reduce issues of proximity, as individuals do not have to be close to one another to meet. 3. Special matching strategies based on factors such as personality, hobbies, and interests.

NIAAA estimate that each year the following occurs:

•1,825 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die from alcohol-related unintentional injuries, including motor-vehicle crashes. •696,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are assaulted by another student who has been drinking. 239 •Roughly 1 in 5 college students meet the criteria for an Alcohol Use Disorder. •About 1 in 4 college students report academic consequences from drinking, including missing class, falling behind in class, doing poorly on exams or papers, and receiving lower grades overall. (p. 1) •97,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 report experiencing alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape.

Arnett (2000) identified five characteristics of emerging adulthood:

•1. Age of identity exploration- most identity development occurs during the late teens and early twenties. •2. Age of instability- Emerging adults change jobs, relationships and residences more frequently than other age groups. •3. Age of self-focus- Emerging adults are less self-centered than emerging adults. •4. Age of feeling in-between- No longer feel like a teen but not quite an adult yet. •5. Age of possibilities- time period of optimism, dreams have yet to be questioned.

Causes of Obesity

•According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC) obesity stems from a complex set of contributing factors including one's environment, behavior, and genetics. •Societal factor include culture, education, food marketing and promotion, the quality of food and the physical activity environment available. •Behaviors include diet, physical activity and medication •Genetics - several genes increase hunger and food intake. •Evolutionary - mismatch between today's environment and the energy thrifty genes that multiplied in the past when food sources were unpredictable.

Research on Attachment in Adulthood

•Adults with insecure attachments report lower satisfaction in their relationships •Those high in attachment-related anxiety report more daily conflict in their relationships •Those with avoidant attachment exhibit less support to their partners •Young adults show greater attachment-related anxiety than do middle-aged or older adults •Some studies report that young adults show more attachment-related avoidance, while other studies find that middle-aged adults show higher avoidance than younger or older adults •Young adults with more secure and positive relationships with their parents make the transition to adulthood more easily than do those with more insecure attachments.

Obesity Health Consequences

•All-causes of death (mortality) •High blood pressure (Hypertension) •High LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides (Dyslipidemia) •Type 2 diabetes •Coronary heart disease •Stroke •Gallbladder disease •Osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint) •Sleep apnea and breathing problems •Some cancers (endometrial, breast, colon, kidney, gallbladder, and liver) •Low quality of life •Mental illness such as clinical depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders •Body pain and difficulty with physical functioning

Marital Arrangements in India

•Arranged marriages in India is declining, elopement is increasing. •The process of elopement involves the bride going to the grooms house and staying; after several days the family of the groom will report the whereabouts of the bride and seek consent. •When neither family would approve the couple will often run away often going to a family member of the male. •In some of these cases families will sever ties with the couple.

Factors influencing Attraction

•Attraction- what makes people like, and even love, each other •Similarity- perceived similarity in values and beliefs between partners. •Consensual validation- having others believe in the same things we do makes us feel validated in our beliefs. •Self-Disclosure- the tendency to communicate frequently, without fear of reprisal, and in an accepting and empathetic manner. •Proximity- the extent to which people are physically near us. •Mere exposure- the tendency to prefer stimuli (including people) that we have seen more frequently.

Hooking up Gender Differences:

•Both genders list the following reasons for hooking up: Physical and emotional gratification, and desire to start a romantic relationship •Males demonstrate a greater permissiveness to casual sex •Risk for females is higher: unplanned pregnancy; increased sexually transmitted diseases; and susceptibility to sexual violence.

Parenthood •Parental changes:

•Children are less likely to be living with both parents •Women in the US are having fewer children •Fertility rate (Average number of live births) in early 1900's was 7; since 1970 has remained stable at 2.1. •Parenting outside of marriage has increased dramatically among most socioeconomic, racial and ethnic groups (with college educated women being the exception) •People are having children at older ages. (The birth rate for younger women has declined while the birth rate for older women has increased.)

Development of Sexual Orientation

•Current research states that individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence but others argue it is fluid throughout one's lifetime. •Research has examined biological, developmental, social, and cultural influences. No evidence however that only one is linked to sexual orientation.

Intimate Partner Abuse

•Early adulthood is when women experience the highest rates of intimate partner violence. •National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS)- examines the prevalence of intimate partner violence, sexual violence and stalking among women and men in the US. •Results indicate that women are disproportionately affected by intimate partner violence, sexual violence, and stalking.

What are some factors that help explain these changes in living arrangements?

•Early adults are postponing marriage or choosing not to marry or cohabitate. •Lack of employment and lower wages have especially contributed to males living with their parents. •Men who are employed are less likely to live at home. •College enrollments increased during the recession, however, once early adults possess a college degree they are likely to establish their own household.

Cultural Influences on Marriage-

•Endogamy- indicate the groups we should marry within and those we should not marry in. (Example: Race, social class, age group, and religion) •Homogamy- marriage between people who share social characteristics.

Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation

•Erikson's sixth stage focuses on establishing intimate relationships or risking social isolation. •Intimate relationships are more difficult if one is still struggling with identity. •Intimacy does include acquaintanceships and friendships, but is mainly focused around long-term romantic relationships.

Does everyone reach postformal or even formal operational thought?

•Formal operational thought is influenced by experience and education. •Many adults do not receive formal education and are not taught to think abstractly or exposed to conceptual tools used to formally analyze hypothetical situations.

Predictors of Marital Harmony

•Gottman (1999) emphasizes that marital harmony does not depend on compatibility as much as communication. •Marriage Killers: Contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling. •Gottman et. al., (2000) researched perceptions of newlyweds on eight variables: Fondness/affection, we-ness, expansiveness/expressiveness, negativity, disappointment, and three aspects of conflict resolution (chaos, volatility, glorifying the struggle) •Accumulated Positive Deposits- when there is a positive balance of relationship deposits this can help the overall relationship in times of conflict.

Attachment in Young Adulthood

•Hazan and Shaver (1987) described attachment styles of adults using the same three general categories proposed by Ainssworth. •Secure, Avoidant, and Anxious/Ambivalent. •Bartholomew (1990) challenge the categorical view and suggested attachment was best described as varying along two dimensions. •Attachment- related anxiety- refers to the extent to which an adult worries about whether their partner really loves them. •Attachment- related avoidance- refers to whether an adult can open up to others and whether they trust and feel they can depend on others.

Emotional Consequences of Hooking up:

•High comorbidity of hooking up and substance use •Regret; signs of depression; lower self-esteem; increased guilt; feeling used or using someone.

When Does Adulthood Begin

•Historically the process of becoming an adult was more clearly marked by rites of passage like marriage and children. •Economic and social changes have resulted in increase in young adults attending college and delaying marriage and children. •Some students still view rites of passage as important markers.

Non-Alcohol Substance Use

•Illicit drug use peaks between 19-22 years of age and then declines. •25% of those who smoke cigarettes; 33% of those who smoke marijuana; and 70% of those who abuse cocaine began using after the age of 17. •Emerging Adults are the largest abusers of prescription opioid pain relievers, anti-anxiety medications, and ADHD medication. •Smoking Cigarettes has decreased while daily marijuana use has increased. •Drugs impair judgment, reduce inhibitions, and alter mood all of which can lead to dangerous behavior.

Relationships with Parents and Siblings

•In early adulthood the parent-child relationship has to transition toward a relationship between two adults. This involves a reappraisal of the relationship by both parents and young adults. •One of the biggest challenges for parents, especially during emerging adulthood, is coming to terms with the adult status of their children •The nature of sibling relationships change, as adults have a choice as to whether they will maintain a close bond or continue to be a part of the life of a sibling. •Decline in frequency of interaction between adult siblings in early adulthood. •Siblings that were close to each other in childhood are often close as adults. But closeness is usually not developed in adulthood.

Friendships

•In our 20's intimacy needs may be met in friendship rather than with partners. •The kinds of friendships shared by women tend to be different than those shared by men. •Male friendships are more likely to involve sharing information, providing solutions and focusing on activities. •Female friendships are more likely to focus on weaknesses, emotions or problems. •Friendships between men and women are difficult because of the unspoken question about romantic involvement.

Education

•In the US- High School Diploma or GED •84% of 18 to 24 Year olds •88% of adults 25 and older •In the US- Currently in College •36% of 18 to 24 year olds •7% of 25 to 49 year olds •½ of these have completed some college •1/3 have a bachelor's degree or higher. •College Debt: 7 out of 10 graduates in the US owed on average $29,000 for their degree.

Cultural Differences:

•In the west, premarital sex and cohabitating is normative by the late teens. •In southern Europe, cohabitating is still taboo, but premarital sex is tolerated in emerging adulthood. •In Asia both premarital sex and cohabitation are forbidden. Dating is even discouraged until the late 20's.

The aging process actually begins during early adulthood.

•Lens of eye starts to stiffen and thicken resulting in changes in vision •Sensitivity to sound decreases (this happens twice as quickly for men as for women) •Hair begins to thin and become gray (around age 35) •Skin becomes drier and wrinkles start to appear

Triarchic Theory of Love

•Liking - Intimacy only •Companionate - Intimacy and commitment •Empty Love- Commitment only •Fatuous Love- Passion and commitment •Infatuation- Passion only •Romantic Love- Passion and intimacy •Consummate love- Intimacy, Passion and commitment.

Marriage

•Marriage has declined universally with the largest drops in mostly rich countries (France, Italy, Germany, etc.) •Marriage in the US- •The number of people married has decreased from 72% in the 1960's to 50% in 2010. •The age of first marriage has increased from 20 to 26.5 for women and 23 to 29 for men. •Same Sex Marriage- June 26, 2015 US Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution guarantees same sex marriage. Limiting marriage to heterosexual couples was a violation of the 14th amendment.

Results of NISVS

•Nearly 1 in 5 women and 1 in 59 men have been raped in their lifetime. •Almost 1 in 4 women have been the victim of severe physical violence by an intimate partner, while 1 in 7 men have experienced the same. •A little over 1 in 6 women have been stalked during their lifetime, compared to 1 in 19 men. •More than 1 in 4 women and more than 1 in 10 men have experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner and reported significant short- or long-term impacts, such as post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and injury •An estimated 1 in 2 individuals experienced at least one act of psychological aggression by an intimate partner during their lifetime. •Female victims of intimate partner violence experience different patterns of violence (rape, physical violence, stalking) than male victims who most often experienced physical violence. •Men and women who experienced these forms of violence were more likely to report frequent headaches, chronic pain, difficulty with sleeping, activity limitations, poor physical health, and poor mental health than men and women who did not experience these forms of violence.

Top Five Causes of Death

•Non-intentional injury (including motor vehicle accidents) •Males being three times more likely to die in automobile accident. •Homicide •Suicide •Cancer •Heart Disease

The Big Five

•Openness to experience- a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. •Conscientiousness- a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement. •Extraversion- the tendency to experience positive emotions and to seek out stimulation and the company of others. •Agreeableness- A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic toward others. •Neuroticism- The tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. Sometimes called "emotional instability"

Influences on parenting

•Parent characteristics: age of parent, gender, beliefs, personality, developmental history, knowledge about parenting and child development, and mental and physical health. •Child characteristics- gender, birth order, temperament, and health status affect parenting behavior and roles. •Bidirectional- not only do parents affect their children, children influence their parents. •Contextual factors and sociocultural characteristics- economic hardship, religion, politics, neighborhoods, schools and social support all influence parenting.

Factors that affect college student drinking:

•Pervasive availability of alcohol •Inconsistent enforcement of underage drinking laws •Unstructured time •Coping with Stressors •Limited interactions with parents and other adults. •More drinking occurs with active Greek and athletic systems.

Gender Roles

•Refers to society's concept of how men and women are suppose to behave. •Gender roles are based on norms, or standards created by society.

Do people with certain attachment styles attract those with similar styles?

•Research has found that if the man is relatively secure, the woman was also likely to be secure. •Research indicates that this is true because secure people are more likely to be attracted to other secure people.

Do early experiences as children shape adult attachment?

•Secure adults are more likely to describe their early childhood experiences with their parents as being supportive, loving and kind. •Maternal sensitivity across development prospectively predicted security at age 18. •Researchers remind us these findings are probabilistic, not deterministic.

Which of the following best describes you in your romantic relationship?

•Secure- I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting to close to me. •Avoidant- I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being. •Anxious/Ambivalent- I find others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't stay with me. I want to merge completely with another person, and this sometimes scares people away.

Adult Lifestyles

•Singlehood- most common lifestyle for people in their 20's •Reasons: Have not met the right person (30%); Do not have financial stability (27%); Not ready to settle down (22%); Too young to marry (22%). •Hooking up- Involve uncommitted sexual encounters. •Friends with benefits- friends having casual sex without commitment.

Career Development and Employment

•Stage One: As children we may select careers based on what appears glamorous or exciting to us. There is little regard in this stage for whether we are suited for our occupational choices. •Stage Two: In the second stage, teens include their abilities and limitations, in addition to the glamour of the occupation when narrowing their choices. •Stage Three: Older teens and emerging adults narrow their choices further and begin to weigh more objectively the requirements, rewards, and downsides to careers, along with comparing possible careers with their own interests, values, and future goals •Some young people in this stage "fall-into" careers simply because these were what were available at the time, because of family pressures to pursue particular paths, or because these were high paying jobs, rather than from an intrinsic interest in that career path. •Stage Four: Super (1980) suggests that by our mid to late thirties, many adults settle in their careers. Even though they might change companies or move up in their position, there is a sense of continuity and forward motion in their career. •However, some people at this point in their working life may feel trapped, especially if there is little opportunity for advancement in a more dead-end job.

Love

•Sternberg (1988) suggests that there are three main components of love: Passion, intimacy, and commitment •Passion- the intense, physical attraction partners feel toward one another. •Intimacy- the ability to share feelings, personal thoughts and psychological closeness with the other. •Commitment- the conscious decision to stay together.

Temperament and Personality in Adulthood

•Temperament (from chapter 3) the innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth. •Epigenesis- how environmental factors are thought to change gene expression by switching genes off and on. •Supportive vs. abusive child rearing, socioeconomic status, stable homes, illness, teratogens, etc. •Stability in temperament is gene driven, while changes in temperament are environmental •Personality- characteristic manner of thinking, feeling, behaving and relating to others. •Five Factor Model- the five factors that all personality traits can be organized into. OCEAN •Openness- •Conscientiousness- •Extraversion •Agreeableness •Neuroticism •Does personality change throughout adulthood? •Neuroticism and openness decrease •Conscientiousness increases.

Three explanations have been given for the rise of cohabitation in Western cultures:

•That the increase in individualism and secularism, and the resulting decline in religious observance, has led to greater acceptance and adoption of cohabitation •The growth of industry and the modernization of many cultures has improved women's social status, leading to greater gender equality and sexual freedom. •The change in employment requirements, with many jobs now requiring more advanced education, has led to a competition between marriage and pursuing post-secondary education.

Young Adults Living Arrangements

•The current trend is that young Americans are not choosing to settle down romantically before age 35. •By 2014 •31.6% were living with a spouse or partner in their own household •32.1% were living in the home of their parents. •14% were a single parent or lived with one or more roommates. •22% lived in the home of another family member, a non-relative or in group quarters.

Transgender

•Those who identify with a role that is different from their biological sex (for example, they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned as a boy, but identify today as a girl, woman, or some other gender altogether) •Transgender is independent of sexual orientation

Body mass index (BMI)

•expressed as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (kg/m2 ) •overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) •obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 30.0) •extreme obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 40.0)

Sexually Transmitted Infections

•illnesses that have a significant probability of transmission by means of sexual behavior, including vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral sex. •Bacterial- Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Chlamydia •Viral- Herpes (HSV-1 and HSV-2) Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) •Parasitic- Trichomoniasis, Pubic Lice

•Sexism or gender discrimination

•is prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender •Sexism can exists on a societal level. For example: In the United States, women are less likely to be hired or promoted in male-dominated professions, such as engineering, aviation, and construction •Sexism includes peoples expectations on how people should behave.

NEETs

•neither employed nor in education or training. •Who are the American Neets (Young People 16-29) who are neither employed nor in education or training in 2015 (16.9% of the population) •Gender: Males: 42.6%; Females: 57.4% •Age: 16-19 years: 21.7% ; 20-24 years: 37.6%; 25-29 years: 40.7% •Race: White 69.1%; Black 19.7%; Asian 5%; Other 6.2% •Hispanic 24.5% (Hispanic can be of any race) •Education Level: Some HS: 26.7%; HS Grad: 40%; Some College 16.9%; Associate Degree 5.1%; Bachelor's degree or higher 11.2%

Alcohol abuse

•significant contributing factor to risky behavior. •88% of those 18 and older report drinking alcohol at least once. •71% report they drank in the last year and 57% in the last month.

Transvestite

•the practice of dressing and acting in a style or manner traditionally associated with another sex and can be a form of self expression, entertainment, or personal style but is not necessarily transgender. •*Note: Transvestite is a technical term and not always the term of choice and can be seen as derogatory by some. For example: RuPaul prefers Drag Queen; Eddie Izzard prefers transvestite. Neither are transgender.

Sexuality can be

•thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships manifested in biological, physical, emotional, social and spiritual aspects. •Biological and physical aspects concern the human reproductive functions and sexual response cycle •Emotional aspects bonds, feelings, love, trust and caring. •Social Aspects deal with the effects of human society on sexuality. •Spirituality concerns an individuals spiritual connection with others through sexuality.

Binge drinking

•when blood alcohol concentration levels reach 0.08g/dL (typically 4 to 5 drinks in a two hour period) •25% reported binge drinking in the past month.