Chapter 7: Making a Living

Redistribution

A farmer raises wheat and pays a portion of it as a tax that is collected by government agents and sent to a central storage facility. Government agents and their families consume some of the wheat. The remaining wheat is portioned out to people living in villages and on farms. The original farmer does not get back as much wheat as he paid in, but he does get some benefit. This is an example of

generalized reciprocity

A father who buys clothing for his daughter is engaging in

exemplified by the potlatch, as practiced by many tribes of the North Pacific Coast of North America.

A regional pattern of hosting and feasting that enhanced reputations while redistributing wealth is

reciprocity

An exchange between social equals, often related by kinship or some other personal tie, is called

Middle East

Animal domestication (initially of sheep and goats) and plant cultivation (of wheat and barley) began 12,000 to 10,000 years ago, where?

foraging

Anthropologists believe that until approximately 12,000 years ago, all human societies subsisted by

sociocultural features

Associated (correlated) with each adaptive strategy is a bundle of particular

Agriculture

Cultivation that features more intensive labor demands than horticulture is called

egalitarian

Foraging societies tend to be

hoes and digging sticks

Horticulturalists do use simple tools such as?

do not use a plot of land continuously; often they farm it for only a year or two.

Horticulturalists who use slash-and-burn techniques do NOT use

rights to means of production come through marriage and kinship

How does means of production relate to food producers?

less permanent

How does means of production relate to foragers?

sees that product as belonging to someone else, rather than to the man or woman whose labor actually produced it.

In industrial economies, the term alienation is used to describe a situation in which a worker has produced something but

gender, age, and personal achievements

In most foraging societies, there were only minor differences in prestige which is based on...

work and social life are intertwined

In non-industrial societies... 1. Work and social life are intertwined 2. work is separate from the family 3. workers feel little close relationship to the people who work with them 4. workers have impersonal relationships with the products they make

regions where there are major obstacles to food production

In what sort of environment is a foraging society most likely to survive into modern times?

pay rent, sell or exchange their produce, and feed themselves

Peasants typically produce in order to..

subsistence, replacement, social, ceremonial, and rent

People in various societies put their scarce resources toward building funds. Name the funds.

the Old World

Prior to 1492, pastoralism occurred almost exclusively in

building the terraces requires great effort, the retaining walls must be maintained each year, canals must be dug to divert spring water throughout the terraces

Terracing is a labor-intensive form of agriculture because

band

The basic social organization of a foraging society was typically the

consisted of people related by kinship or marriage, consisted of fewer than 100 people, sometimes split up for part of the year.

The foraging social unit called a band..... 1. consisted of people related by kinship or marriage 2. was a paramilitary group that provided mutual protection 3. consisted of fewer than 100 people 4. sometimes split up for part of the year

they are not well-suited to farming or herding using simple technology, their marginality, that they pose major obstacles to food production

The locations inhabited by foragers today tend to have one thing in common, which is

Europeans introduced domesticated sheep

The pastoral economy of the Navajo in what is now the southwestern United States do NOT exist before...

petrochemicals, machinery, large areas of land

The vast farming systems of industrial nations are different from nonindustrial horticulture and agriculture because they use 1. petrochemicals 2. machinery 3. large areas of land 4. human labor

crops are cultivated on a given plot of ground for only a year or two, grass and weeds are burned in place, and tree saplings and bushes are cut down to clear a plot of land

What are characteristics of slash-and-burn horticulture?

being moved from local communities to a central storage point, used by officials at the center, and sent back out to the local people

What are characteristics of the redistribution of goods and services?

money is used to buy and sell items, the goal is to maximize profit, the law of supply and demand dictates value

What are characterizes market exchange?

San of the Kalahari Desert, Aborigines of Austrialia, and eskimos or inuit of Alaska

What are examples of modern foraging societies?

foraging, horticulture, agriculture, pastoralism, industrialism

What are the five adaptive strategies identified by Yehudi Cohen?

there is more need to regulate interpersonal relations including conflict of interest, permanent fields tend to keep farmers tied to their land, growth in population size and density increases contact between individuals and groups

What are the social costs of agricultural societies?

market principle, redistribution, reciprocity

What are the three modes of distribution of exchange?

fallowing period

What do all horticultural societies have?

rational allocation of scarce means or resources to alternative ends

What does economizing mean?

relating to or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.

What does egalitarian mean?

involuntary position and condition of an individual or group at the margins of society that prevent them access to resources, assets, services, etc.

What does marginality mean?

land, labor, technology, and capital

What does means of production include?

farming technique in which land is left without sowing for one or more crop cycles

What is a fallowing period?

means making a living, economic productive system

What is an adaptive strategy?

midpoint between generalized and negative

What is balanced reciprocity?

Negotiations between buyers and sellers must remain open for a short time, buyers and sellers do not need to meet personally, and buyers and sellers attempt to obtain the largest possible gain

What is characteristic of bargaining?

exchanges among closely related individuals

What is generalized reciprocity?

potentially hostile exchanges among strangers

What is negative reciprocity?

members of pastoral society follow herd throughout the year

What is pastoral nomadism?

a system for the production , distribution and consumption of resources

What is the anthropological definition of economy?

Organization of production

What is the mode of production?

Part of the group moves with the herds, but most people stay in the home village

What is transhumance?

Northern foragers tend to focus on larger game, Tropical foragers tend to hunt and gather a wide range of species

Which of the following are true of the world's foraging societies? 1. Traditionally, they have raised a variety of domesticated animals 2. Traditionally, they have cultivated an assortment of crops 3. Northern foragers tend to focus on larger game 4. Tropical foragers tend to hunt and gather a wide range of species

Yehudi Cohen

Who developed the term 'adaptive strategy'?

Karl Polanyi

Who developed the three modes of distribution of exchange?