Chapter 8-Psychosocial Development in early childhood

Age 7 talking

- describe self as generalized traits like being popular, smart or dumb -can have conflicting emotions -self-critical despite holding a positive overall self-concept

Growth mindset

-believe they can get better at a task -working harder at a task is seen as an opportunity to learn -parent praise their efforts not their inherit abilities; parents focus on feedback rather than generic praise

Criticisms of Bumrind's model

-benefits of authoritative parenting are supported -finding are correlational, only establish associations; does not show different styles of child rearing cause children to be more or less competent -direction of effects is not certain -did not consider innate factors like temperament that influenced the parents

Parten's play theory

-children get older, their play tends to become more interactive and cooperative -researchers now saw that some children who prefer solitude are not associated with negative outcomes -engage in dramatic play with others rather than alone

4 year old talking

-concrete in their thinking -focuses on what he does, what he looks like, things he owns, and the people and animals in his life -he speaks in specifics, mentioning a skill (like climbing) rather than general abilities -unrealistically positive -does not understand how conflicting emotions can exist simultaneously -one-dimensional statements; cannot consider aspects of himself at the same time

Inductive techniques

-encourage desirable behavior or discourage undesirable behavior by setting limits, demonstrating logical consequences of action, explaining, discussing, negotiating, and getting ideas from the child about what is fair -most effective of getting kids to accept parental standards -arouse empathy for the victim as well as guilt on the part of the wrongdoer

Social influence on gender: family

-family reinforces gender-typical preferences and attitudes -difficult to separate parent's genetic influence from the environment they create -girls have more freedom in clothes, games, and choice of playmates -division of labor makes a difference; father's role in gender socialization is important because when a father engaged in household and child care work, there were decreases in gender-typing -parent's behaviors are better predictors of children's gender role attitudes than are parents' beliefs

Biological influences on variations in gender identity development with a biological disorder

-gender identity is rooted in biological factors and is not easily changed -men with an absent or small penis are increasingly gender-assigned male

What is a problem with the gender-schema theory and Kohlberg's theory?

-gender-stereotyping does not always become stronger with increased gender knowledge -it will rise and fall in developmental patterns -4 to 6: kids notice and remember only information consistent with gender schemas; misremember information that challenges gender stereotypes

Mathematical differences

-girls: verbal fluency, mathematical computation, memory for location of objects, and problems with algebraic solution or short-answer responses -boys: mental rotations with 3-d objects and is timed, math word problems, memory for spatial configurations

Psychoanalytic approach - gender

-identification: adoption of characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex; Freud believed this was important personality development -identification occurs when the child represses or gives up the wish to possess the parent of the other sex and identifies with the parent of the same sex

Punishment

-if it is consistent, immediate, and clearly tied to the offense, may stop behavior -most effective when accompanied by short, simple explanation -kids need to know what it should be substituted for

What is the simplest level of play (Smilansky)?

-infancy and is called functional play (locomotor) -repeated practice of large muscular movements -rolling a ball

Middle childhood talk

-integrate specific features of the self into a general, multidimensional concept -all or nothing declines -self-descriptions are more balanced and realistic "I am good at hockey but bad at arithmetic"

Age 5 or 6 talk

-logical connections between one aspect of himself "I can run fast" "I can climb high" "I am strong" "I can throw a ball real far" "I am going to be on a team some day" -image of himself is positive, all or nothing terms -he cannot see how he might be good at some tings and not at others

authorotative parenting

-loving yet demand good behavior and have firm standards -impose limited, judicious punishment when necessary, within the context of warm, supportive relationship -preschoolers with these parents are self-reliant, self-controlled, self-assertive, exploratory , and content

Bandura's social cognitive theory (social learning approach)

-observation enables children to actively learn about gender-typing behaviors before performing them -children select or create their environment through choice of playmates and activities -imitate as well

How does the gender-schema theory work?

-once kids know what sex they are, they develop a concept of what it means to be male or female in their culture -match their behavior to their culture's view of what boys and girls are supposed to be and do -promote gender stereotypes by influencing judgment about behavior due to pressure for gender conformity

Maccoby and Martin added a fourth parenting style called neglectful or uninvolved

-parents who because of stress or depression, focus on their needs rather than the child -linked with variety of behavioral disorders in childhood and adolescence

Social influence on gender: peer influences

-preeschoolers play in sex-segregated groups their reinforce gender-typed behavior and influences of peers increase with age -children who play in same-sex groups or by themselves tend to be more gender-typed than children who do not.

initiative versus guilt

-preschool kids can do and want to do more; they are still learning that some of the things they want do not meed social approval -conflict marks the split between two part of the personality

emotions developing for 4 to 5 year olds

-recognize facial expressions of joy, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust -girls outperform boys -preschoolers talk about their feelings and those of others -they understand emotions are connected with experiences and desires -they know reminding someone of something that happened can elicit that emotion again -recognize emotions reflected in vocal cues and body posture

Why do young children overestimate their abilities?

-self-esteem is the result of feedback from others, and adults give positive feedback

Punishment that is too harsh is harmful. Why?

-show externalizing behaviors such as physical aggression and impulsivity -cross-cultural -bidirectional; difficult children elicit more coercive parenting; shy kids will be scared if parents lose control

Social influence on gender: cultural influences

-social learning theory predicts that cultural influences around us will influence the degree to which we become gender-typed -children books, coloring books, and television are a source of gender stereotypes

Corporal punishment

-spanking, hitting, slapping, pinching, shaking ... -cross-cultural and all income levels -believed to be effective to instill respect for parent and is harmless if done in moderation -fail to internalize moral messages, develop poor-child relationships, and increased physical aggressiveness or antisocial behavior

What happens when kids play?

-stimulate senses -exercise muscles -coordinate sight with movement -gain mastery over their bodies, make decisions, and acquire new skills -context in which much of the most important learning occurs

external reinforcement

-tangible (treats or a toy) or intangible (smile or word of praise) -child must see the reinforcement as rewarding and must receive is consistently after showing the desired behavior. -should provide an internal reinforcement: sense of pleasure of accomplishment

What does children with noncontingent self-esteem do?

-tend to attribute failure or disappointment to factors outside themselves or the need to try harder -if unsuccessful or rejected, they persevere, trying new strategies until they find one that works -growth mindset

emotions developing for 7 year olds

-understand that mental states drive emotions -understand someone can feel one way and look another -that what someone believes even if it is not true can affect emotional state and what someone wants

emotions developing for 9 year olds

-understand that situations can be viewed from multiple perspectives -people have conflicting emotions like angry at someone but still love them -cognitive strategies regulate their emotional state

Biological approach of gender

-uses neurological, hormonal, and evolutionary explanations -men have larger brains -age 5: when brain reaches approximate adult size, boys are 10% larger -girl brains have more gray matter and greater cerebral blood flow; boys have more white matter -testosterone in the womb: links to dominance, status striving behavior, aggression and violence

Gender-schema theory (Cognitive)

-view kids as actively extracting knowledge about gender from their environment before engaging in gender-typed behavior -emphasis on culture influences

What are the three stages of gender constancy

1. gender identity: awareness of one's own gender and that of other typically occurs between 2 and 3 2. gender stability: awareness that gender does not change. However, children at this stage base judgments about gender on superficial appearances (clothing or hairstyle) and stereotyped behaviors 3. gender consistency: that a girl stays a girl even if she plays with trucks, a boy stays a boy even if he has long hair. Occurs between 3-7 once kids realize changes in outward appearance do not affect gender

What are the two conflicts of the personality (ERIKSON)

1. the part that remains a child, full of exuberance and desire to test new powers 2. part that is becoming an adult, examining the propriety of motives and actions -children who regulate these opposing drives develop virtue of purpose; the courage to envision and pursue goals without being unduly inhibited by guild or fear of punishment

In one study 2012 study (Heylens et al.), if one member of a pair of identical twins (who shared all their genes) was transgender, the other twin was also transgender _____ percent of the time.

40%

Research shows that by ages _____, children develop rigid stereotypes about gender that they apply to themselves and others, a finding that undermines the theory that gender schemas are at the root of stereotyped behavior.

5 and 6

Play contributes to which of the following?

Acquiring new skills Context for learning important life lessons Hand-eye coordination

Why do very young children tend to overestimate their abilities?

Adults usually praise whatever children do, because they want to be encouraging. A child's self-esteem is not anchored in reality.

Real self

Age four Jackson cannot acknowledge that his real self or the person he is, is not the same as his ideal self or the person he would like to be

A researcher named Bem theorized that children base their gender-related behavior on what their particular cultures expect of boys and girls. What facts undermine Bem's "gender schema" theory?

Bem's theory is not supported by much evidence. Children often resist efforts to get them to behave in ways that are not traditionally masculine or feminine. Over time, as children learn more about gender roles, their adherence to them tends to fluctuate.

What behavior or characteristic is exhibited by the unsuccessful resolution of the initiative vs. guilt stage?

Consistently feeling bad about one's actions and thoughts

What behaviour or characteristic is exhibited by the unsuccessful resolution of the initiative vs. guilt stage?

Consistently feeling bad about one's actions and thoughts

True or false: Self-concept is exclusively a social construction.

False, Self-concept is a cognitive and social construction.

Which theorist maintained that children actively search for cues about gender in their social world?

Kohlberg

What characteristics do young children (age 4) often use in their self-descriptions? (Select all that apply.)

Physical activities Material attributes Physical attributes

When do children usually become involved in organized games with known procedures and penalties?

School

Precisely what mechanism prompts children to act out gender roles and explains why some children become more strongly gender-typed than others?

There is no agreement about the answer to this question.

The acquisition of gender roles, says Kohlberg, hinges on gender constancy which is

a child's realization that his or her gender will always be the same -once this occurs, kids are motivated to adopt behaviors appropriate to their gender

What are one of the key advances of early childhood?

ability to regulate or control one's feelings -children who understand their emotions are better able to control the way they show them and to be sensitive to how others feel

Gender-typing

acquisition of gender role, takes place early in childhood

Instrumental aggression

aggression used to reach a goal- the most common type in early childhood -between 2.5 and 5, children struggle over toys and control of space -surfaces during social play: play involves interactions with peers -necessary step in social development

Transgender

are individuals whose gender identity is different from their biological sex -women who is become a male show gender dysphoria early in childhood -biologically influenced -women to male: high androgen exposure in the womb -identical twins: both become transgender -fraternal: not both transgender

Gender stereotypes

are preconceived generalizations about male or female behavior -appear at age 2 or 3, increase during preeschool, and reach a peak at age 5 ex. all males are aggressive

Gender differences

are psychological or behavioral differences between males and females -differences between baby boys and girls are scarce -gender differences are pronounced after age 3 - boys and girls on average remain more alike than different -sex-types play differences increase between toddlerhood and middle childhood -show same intelligence -cognitive gender differences are small and are affected by task characteristics

Gender roles

are the behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and personality traits that a culture considers appropriate for males and females -women: expected to devote time to caring for the household and children; men: providers -males and females with a framework of how they should think, act, and feel

Mildred Parten's research indicated that

as children grow older, they play together more. older children engage in more cooperative play.

Gender Identity

awareness of one's femaleness or maleness and all it implies in one's society of origin, is an important aspect of the developing self-concept ex.Yan, age 6, is aware of his maleness, which is an important aspect of his developing self-concept. This awareness is called

In Kohlberg's theory of cognitive development, gender knowledge leads to gendered

behavior

Walter Mischel's (a traditional social learning theorist) view about gender

children acquire gender roles by imitating models and being rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior -pattern behavior after a parent, adults, or peers -behavior feeding and teaching by parents reinforces gender-typing

What is the second level of play?

constructive play (object play) -use of objects or materials to make somethings -house of block or crayon drawing

What is the third level of play?

dramatic play (pretend play, fantasy play) -involves imaginary objects, actions, or roles -combination of cognition, emotion, language, and sensorimotor behavior -advanced cognitive development affords more sophisticated play, but play strengthens development of dense connections in the brain and promotes later capacity for abstract thought -associated with social and linguistic competence -furthers the development of theory-of-mind skills

Katrina is a child who has good social skills. When she has a disagreement with her friend, she is able to talk calmly with her and not resort to yelling and crying. Katrina has developed favorable

emotional regulation.

How do emotions develop for 3 year olds

emotional understanding appears to proceed in an ordered and hierarchical manner -emotions directed toward self, such as shame, guild, and pride develop by 3 only after children gain self-awareness and accept the standards of behavior their parents have set

Authoritarian parenting

emphasizes control and obedience. -insist children conform to a set standard of conduct and punish them for violating it -less warm -children become more discontented, withdrawn, and distrustful

Permissive parenting

emphasizes self-expression and self-regulation -few demands and rarely punish -warm, non-controlling, and undemanding parents -preschool kids are immature, lest self-controlled

Which of the following is NOT a self-conscious emotion?

fear is: pride, shame, guilt

Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory

gender knowledge proceeded gendered behavior. Since I am a boy, I like to so boy things. -once kids realize which gender they are, they adopt behaviors they perceive as consistent with being male or female -search for cues about gender in their social world

Gender-typing, which is the acquisition of a ______, takes place early in childhood.

gender role

"Girls should be passive and dependent, while boys should be strong and aggressive" is an example of

gender stereotyping

Gender segregation

girls play with girls and boys play with boys -boys: aggressive -girls: nurturing

What does emotional self-regulation help children with?

guide their behavior and contributes to their ability to get along with others

Examples of dramatic play

holding the television remote control to one's face and claiming "I'm calling Poppy" [lacing a newspaper on one's head and asking "Do you like my new hat?" sitting on a chair and claiming "I'm riding the bike

Withdrawal of love

ignoring, isolating, and showing dislike for the child

Cultures that stress individual achievement are less likely to ______ than cultures in which extended family groups and shared work are the norm.

instill prosocial values

Power assertion

intended to stop or discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control; demands, threats, withdrawal of privileges, spanking...

Proponents of spanking contend that corporal punishment

is sometimes the most effective form of discipline. instills respect for the authority of parents. does no harm if it is performed in moderation by parents who love the child.

Self-esteem

is the self-evaluative part of the self-concept -the judgment children make about their overall worth -based on children's growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves -unidimensional; either good or bad -middle childhood: more realistic

When children base their sense of self-esteem on their successes instead of their value as human beings, they are likely to fall into a pattern of

learned helplessness.

A schema guides an individual's general perceptions. A gender schema organizes the world in terms of

male and female

By age 7, most children will change the way they describe themselves. They will

mention generalized traits such as "popular" or "smart." see their flaws without developing a negative self-esteem. realize they can have conflicting emotions

discipline

methods of molding character and of teaching self-control and acceptable behavior -includes rewarding desired behaviors and drawing attention to how actions affects others

Altruism

motivation to help another person with no expectation of reward -entails cost, self- sacrifice, or risk -hear of prosocial behavior

What is Erikson's third psychosocial development stage?

need to deal with conflicting feelings about the self: initiative versus guilt

Nick and Ben are sitting next to each other playing with blocks. Although they are sharing blocks, they are working independently on their structures. Nick and Ben are engaged in

parallel play

How do children show stability in their --- of themselves

perceptions

Harsh punishment has been linked to which of the following?

physical aggression relational aggression impulsivity

Categories of discipline:

power assertion and withdrawal of love inductive techniques -both are not effective and are harmful

When does dramatic play peak and decline?

preschool years -declines as school-age children are more involved in formal games with rules (organized games with procedures and penalties like tag or jacks and marbles)

Jake is concerned that his fellow preschoolers don't have a hat and gloves. Jake gives one his hat and the other his gloves. Jake is demonstrating ______ behavior.

prosocial

Which techniques are included in the psychological definition of discipline?

punishing undesirable behavior pointing out how someone's actions affect other people rewarding desired behavior

Evolutionary approach- gender

sees gendered behavior as adaptive and reflecting the evolved mating and child-rearing strategies of adult males and females

According to Darwin, what is the theory of sexual selection

selection of sexual partners in response to differing reproductive pressures that early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival of the species -men prefer more sexual partners to reproduce -male competitiveness and aggressiveness and female nurturance develops during childhood as preparation for adult roles -plays a role in development of gender roles; inflexible and resistant to change -push for men and women in one direction that is minimized or maximized by cultural and environmental influences -men and women have cognitive adaptions designed to be sensitive to environmental input

Children's self-definition is what

the way they describe themselves- typically changes between 5 to 7 -reflecting self-concept development and advances in cognitive ability

Before children reach the final stage of gender constancy, what happens?

they show gender-typed preferences. ex. gender preference in toys and playmates appears as early as 12 months (1 year) -today, cognitive-developmental theorists do not claim that gender constancy must precede gender-typing. Gender-typing is heightened by sophisticated understanding that gender constancy brings

The main causes of fearfulness in young children are

things that look frightening. confusing appearance with reality. having an intense fantasy life.

Self-concept

total picture of our abilities and traits. -cognitive construction; a system of descriptive and evaluative representations about the self which determines how we feel about ourselves and guides our actions -social aspect: children incorporate into their self-image their growing understanding of how others see them -A person's evaluation of his or her own abilities and traits is called

Children with emotional self-regulation are better able to

understand their feelings. be considerate about other people's feelings. control how they reveal their feelings.

Prosocial behavior

voluntary, positive actions to help others -understand at age 3, engage at age 4

Do children view failure or criticism as an indictment of their worth and feel helpless to do better?

yes, they have a fixed mindset or a belief that their abilities are finite, and that putting effort into tasks shows they are bad at that task