Chapter 8: The media - government

8. From which form of media are baby-boomers most likely to get their news?

Baby Boomers (currently aged 54-72) are most likely to get their news from television, either national broadcasts or local news

22. How did the press develop?

Between 1830 and 1860, machines and manufacturing made the production of newspapers faster and less expensive. Benjamin Day's paper, the New York Sun, used technology like the linotype machine to mass-produce papers (Figure 8.6). Roads and waterways were expanded, decreasing the costs of distributing printed materials to subscribers. New newspapers popped up. The popular penny press papers and magazines contained more gossip than news, but they were affordable at a penny per issue. Over time, papers expanded their coverage to include racing, weather, and educational materials. By 1841, some news reporters considered themselves responsible for upholding high journalistic standards, and under the editor (and politician) Horace Greeley, the New-York Tribune became a nationally respected newspaper. By the end of the Civil War, more journalists and newspapers were aiming to meet professional standards of accuracy and impartiality.

13. What six conglomerates control most of the broadcast media in the United States?

Comcast, Disney, 21st Century Fox, Time Warner, Viacom, CBS

32. Which president was most closely associated with fireside chats?

Franklin D. Roosevelt

46. What is slander? Is it protected by the First Amendment?

slander is to speak false information with an intent to harm a person or entity, it is NOT protected by the First Amendment

6. What are the different forms of media?

social media, such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook, television, either national broadcasts or local news affiliates, Cable and satellite providers, print (newspapers, magazines) internet /websites, billboards, radio

51. What is the equal-time rule?

states that registered candidates running for office must be given equal opportunities for airtime and advertisements at non-cable television and radio stations beginning forty-five days before a primary election and sixty days before a general election.

30. What is a digital paywall?

subscriptions that require for readers to access newspapers content

49. What is the significance of the Pentagon Papers case?

the U.S. government sued the New York Times and the Washington Post to stop the release of information from a classified study of the Vietnam War. The Supreme Court ruled that while the government can impose prior restraint on the media, meaning the government can prevent the publication of information, that right is very limited. The court gave the newspapers the right to publish much of the study, but revelation of troop movements and the names of undercover operatives are some of the few approved reasons for which the government can stop publication or reporting.

16. What is agenda setting?

the act of choosing which issues or topics deserve public discussion.

59. What is framing?

the creation of a narrative, or context, for a news story. The news often uses frames to place a story in a context so the reader understands its importance or relevance. Yet, at the same time, framing affects the way the reader or viewer processes the story.

67. Do the media have a stronger agenda-setting effect on the president or Congress?

the media has a stronger agenda-setting effect on the president

23. Who was Joseph Pulitzer?

newspaper publisher of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the New York World.

21. What was the party press era?

1780s,-partisanship and political party loyalty dominated the choice of editorial content.

37. Which was the first presidential election to feature a televised debate?

1960 election also featured the first televised presidential debate. By that time most households had a television. Kennedy's careful grooming and practiced body language allowed viewers to focus on his presidential demeanor. His opponent, Richard Nixon, was still recovering from a severe case of the flu. While Nixon's substantive answers and debate skills made a favorable impression on radio listeners, viewers' reaction to his sweaty appearance and obvious discomfort demonstrated that live television had the potential to make or break a candidate.

48. What is the significance of New York Times v. Sullivan?

A public figure must show that the publisher or broadcaster acted in "reckless disregard" when submitting information as truth or that the author's intent was malicious. This test goes back to the New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) case, in which a police commissioner in Alabama sued over inaccurate statements in a newspaper advertisement.64 Because the commissioner was a public figure, the U.S. Supreme Court applied a stringent test of malice to determine whether the advertisement was libel; the court deemed it was not.

36. How did the arrival of television change news delivery and political campaigns?

As television programming expanded, more channels were added. Networks such as ABC, CBS, and NBC began nightly newscasts, and local stations and affiliates followed suit. television allows politicians to reach out and connect with citizens and voters in deeper ways. Before television, few voters were able to see a president or candidate speak or answer questions in an interview. Now everyone can decode body language and tone to decide whether candidates or politicians are sincere. Presidents can directly convey their anger, sorrow, or optimism during addresses.

33. Who was Edward R. Murrow?

CBS reporter- first by radio- reported live about Germany's actions from his posts in Europe. His reporting contained news and some commentary, and even live coverage during Germany's aerial bombing of London. made the move to television in 1951 with his news show See It Now, television journalism gained its foothold (

9. What are the different media formats that television uses?

Cable programming , on demand programming, internet subscription services, (netflix, hulu, etc)

60. What is the difference between episodic framing and thematic framing?

Episodic framing- occurs when a story focuses on isolated details or specifics rather than looking broadly at a whole issue........... Thematic framing takes a broad look at an issue and skips numbers or details. It looks at how the issue has changed over a long period of time and what has led to it.

12. What are some examples of social media?

Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, other sites like Snapchat and , Tik Tok, Yik Yak appeal mostly to younger users. The platforms also serve different functions. Tumblr and Reddit facilitate discussion that is topic-based and controversial, while Instagram is mostly social.

4. Who are journalists, reporters, editors, and publishers?

Journalists and reporters are responsible for uncovering news stories by keeping an eye on areas of public interest, like politics, business, and sports. Once a journalist has a lead or a possible idea for a story, he or she researches background information and interviews people to create a complete and balanced account. Editors work in the background of the newsroom, assigning stories, approving articles or packages, and editing content for accuracy and clarity. Publishers are people or companies that own and produce print or digital media. They oversee both the content and finances of the publication, ensuring the organization turns a profit and creates a high-quality product to distribute to consumers. Producers oversee the production and finances of visual media, like television, radio, and film.

52. What are sunshine laws?

Laws that mandate federal and many state government proceedings and meeting documents be made available to the public

29. How have newspapers tried to adapt to revenue declines?

Many newspapers now maintain both a print and an Internet presence in order to compete for readers. Some local newspapers, in an effort to stay visible and profitable, have turned to social media, like Facebook and Twitter. Stories can be posted and retweeted, allowing readers to comment and forward material.26 Yet, overall, newspapers have adapted, becoming leaner—though less thorough and investigative—versions of their earlier selves.

7. From which form of media are millennials most likely to get their news?

Millennials (currently aged 21-37) are more likely to get news and information from social media, such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook,

25. With which newspaper was Adolph Ochs most closely associated?

New York Times

41. Which presidential candidate is most famous for using Twitter to deliver campaign messages?

President Trump

20. What form did the media take in colonial America?

Print media- the print press- newspapers

55. Who is Walter Lippmann? With which theory is he most closely associated?

Reporter and commentator Walter Lippmann noted that citizens have limited personal experience with government and the world and posited that the media, through their stories, place ideas in citizens' minds. - associated with hypodermic theory

10. What is the first 24-hour news network?

The Cable News Network (CNN) was the first news station to take advantage of this specialized format, creating a 24-hour news station with live coverage and interview programs.

27. What book did Upton Sinclair write?

The Jungle it led to changes in the way industrial workers were treated and local political machines were run.

1. What is mass media?

The collection of all forms of media that communicate information to the general public is called mass media,

11. What are niche media outlets?

The ease of online publication has made it possible for more niche media outlets to form focussed on target areas. The websites of the New York Times and other newspapers often focus on matters affecting the United States, while channels like BBC America present world news. FOX News presents political commentary and news in a conservative vein, while the Internet site Daily Kos offers a liberal perspective on the news. Politico.com is perhaps the leader in niche journalism.

69. How does media coverage portray women?

The lack of women in the newsroom, politics, and corporate leadership encouraged silence. poor coverage of women and the women's movement to continue until women were better represented as journalists and as editors. Media coverage of women has been similarly biased. women's issues were not part of the newsroom discussion. As journalist Kay Mills put it, the women's movement of the 1960s and 1970s was about raising awareness of the problems of equality, but writing about rallies "was like trying to nail Jell-O to the wall."137 Most politicians, business leaders, and other authority figures were male, and editors' reactions to the stories were lukewarm.

68. How do the media represent (or misrepresent) criminals, crime victims, police officers, welfare recipients, and persons living in poverty in terms of race and ethnicity?

The media choose what they want to discuss. This agenda setting creates a reality for voters and politicians that affects the way people think, act, and vote. Voters were thus more likely to assume that most criminals are Black and most victims and police officers are White, even though the numbers do not support those assumptions. Studies have also found that the media's portrayal of race is flawed, especially in coverage of crime and poverty. One study revealed that local news shows were more likely to show pictures of criminals when they were African American, so they overrepresented Black people as perpetrators and White people as victims.129 A second study found a similar pattern in which Latino people were underrepresented as victims of crime and as police officers, while White people were overrepresented as both.

65. Are most campaign stories positive or negative?

The media's discussion of campaigns has also grown negative.

54. What is reporter's privilege?

The practice of granting anonymity to sources; Fueled by the First Amendment's protection of the press, journalists have long offered to keep sources confidential to protect them from government prosecution.

28. Why has the amount of investigative reporting declined?

The scarcity of journalists and the lack of time to dig for details in a 24-hour, profit-oriented news model make investigative stories rare. First, one potential shortcoming is that the quality of news content will become uneven in depth and quality, which could lead to a less informed citizenry. Second, if investigative journalism in its systematic form declines, then the cases of wrongdoing that are the objects of such investigations would have a greater chance of going on undetected.

24. What was yellow journalism? With whom was it most closely associated?

The tabloid-style paper included editorial pages, cartoons, and pictures, while the front-page news was sensational and scandalous. - associated with Joseph Pulitzer/ New York World

39. How have changes in the media affected the ability of presidents to communicate with the public?

Viewers can watch nearly anything at the click of a button, bypass commercials, and record programs of interest. The resulting saturation, or inundation of information, may lead viewers to abandon the news entirely or become more suspicious and fatigued about politics.47 This effect, in turn, also changes the president's ability to reach out to citizens. For example, viewership of the president's annual State of the Union address has decreased over the years, from sixty-seven million viewers in 1993 to thirty-two million in 2015.48 Citizens who want to watch reality television and movies can easily avoid the news, leaving presidents with no sure way to communicate with the public.49 Other voices, such as those of talk show hosts and political pundits, now fill the gap.

70. How does media coverage affect women's decisions to run for office?

Women are less likely than men to run for office. One common reason is the effect negative media coverage has on families.146 Many women do not wish to expose their children or spouses to criticism.

44. Did the Framers of the Constitution favor a free press? How do we know?

Yes- 1st amendment

56. What is the hypodermic theory of the media?

argues that information is "shot" into the receiver's mind and readily accepted.

57. What is the minimal effects theory of information transmission?

argues the media have little effect on citizens and voters.

64. On what do the media focus during a campaign?

attacks on opponents 40 percent of the time.

18. How do the media promote the public good?

by offering a platform for public debate and improving citizen awareness. Network news informs the electorate about national issues, elections, and international news.

62. What was the bubble?

campaigns maintained their carefully drawn candidate images by also limiting photographers and television journalists to photo opportunities at rallies and campaign venues. The constant control of the media became known as the "bubble," and journalists were less effective when they were in the campaign's bubble. Reporters complained this coverage was campaign advertising rather than journalism, and a new model emerged with the 1996 election.

5. What is public relations?

communication carried out to improve the image of companies, organizations, or candidates for office. Public relations is not a neutral information form. a public relations spokesperson is paid to help an individual or organization get positive press. Public relations materials normally appear as press releases or paid advertisements in newspapers and other media outlets. Some less reputable publications, however, publish paid articles under the news banner, blurring the line between journalism and public relations.

15. What are the functions of the media?

entertain, inform, or interest the public and maintain a steady stream of consumers. The media are also watchdogs of society and of public officials. keep an eye on what is happening and sounds an alarm when the public needs to pay attention. Some refer to the media as the fourth estate, with the branches of government being the first three estates and the media equally participating as the fourth. This role helps maintain democracy and keeps the government accountable for its actions, even if a branch of the government is reluctant to open itself to public scrutiny.

31. What is the Huffington Post? Why is it a threat to legacy print media?

free news blogs that has made it difficult for newspapers to force readers to purchase online subscriptions to access material they place behind a digital paywall

14. What is Gannett Company?

holds a large number of newspapers and news magazines in its control. Many of these were acquired quietly, without public notice or discussion. Gannett's 2013 acquisition of publishing giant A.H. Belo Corporation caused some concern and news coverage, however. The sale would have allowed Gannett to own both an NBC and a CBS affiliate in St. Louis, Missouri, giving it control over programming and advertising rates for two competing stations. The U.S. Department of Justice required Gannett to sell the station owned by Belo to ensure market competition and multi-ownership in St. Louis.

58. What is the cultivation theory of media transmission?

hypothesized that media develop a person's view of the world by presenting a perceived reality.106 What we see on a regular basis is our reality. Media can then set norms for readers and viewers by choosing what is covered or discussed.

2. What are the various forms of media?

including television, print, radio, and Internet.

47. What is libel? Is it protected by the First Amendment?

libel, print false information with an intent to harm a person or entity. It is NOT protected by the First Amendment

19. What role do media, especially local news, play in informing the public?

make sure voters can easily find out what issues affect the nation. Is terrorism on the rise? Is the dollar weakening? The network news hosts national debates during presidential elections, broadcasts major presidential addresses, and interviews political leaders during times of crisis. Cable news networks now provide coverage of all these topics as well. Local news has a larger job, despite small budgets and fewer resources (Figure 8.5). Local government and local economic policy have a strong and immediate effect on citizens. Is the city government planning on changing property tax rates? Will the school district change the way Common Core tests are administered? When and where is the next town hall meeting or public forum to be held? Local and social media provide a forum for protest and discussion of issues that matter to the community.

40. What is horse-race coverage of a campaign?

modern journalists analyze campaigns and blunders or the overall race, rather than interviewing the candidates or discussing their issue positions. Some argue that this shallow coverage is a result of candidates' trying to control the journalists by limiting interviews and quotes. In an effort to regain control of the story, journalists begin analyzing campaigns without input from the candidates.

3. What are affiliate stations?

national networks—like CBS or NBC—purchase the rights to programs they distribute to local stations across the United States. Most local stations are affiliated with a national network corporation, and they broadcast national network programming to their local viewers.

17. What role do the media play in agenda setting, especially social media?

numerous examples of agenda setting show how important the media are when trying to prevent further emergencies or humanitarian crises. traditional media determined whether citizen photographs or video footage would become "news." In 1991, a private citizen's camcorder footage showed four police officers beating an African American motorist named Rodney King in Los Angeles. After appearing on local independent television station, KTLA-TV, and then the national news, the event began a national discussion on police brutality and ignited riots in Los Angeles. The agenda-setting power of traditional media has begun to be appropriated by social media and smartphones, however. Tumbler, Facebook, YouTube, and other Internet sites allow witnesses to instantly upload images and accounts of events and forward the link to friends. Some uploads go viral and attract the attention of the mainstream media, but large network newscasts and major newspapers are still more powerful at initiating or changing a discussion.

42. What is citizen journalism?

occurs when citizens use their personal recording devices and cell phones to capture events and post them on the Internet.

45. Why was Peter Zenger arrested in colonial America in 1733?

one of New York's first newspapers, the New York Weekly Journal, began under John Peter Zenger in 1733 with the goal of routing corruption in the colonial government. After the colonial governor, William Cosby, had Zenger arrested and charged with seditious libel in 1835, his lawyers successfully defended his case and Zenger was found not guilty, affirming the importance of a free press in the colonies (

53. What is the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)?

passed in 1966 and signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The act requires the executive branch of the U.S. government to provide information requested by citizens and was intended to increase openness in the executive branch, which had been criticized for hiding information. Citizens wishing to obtain information may request documents from the appropriate agencies, and agencies may charge fees if the collection and copying of the requested documentation requires time and labor.90 FOIA also identifies data that does not need to be disclosed, such as human resource and medical records, national defense records, and material provided by confidential sources, to name a few.

43. What is soft news?

presents news in an entertaining and approachable manner, painlessly introducing a variety of topics. Younger viewers, especially members of Generation X and Millennials, like their newscasts to be humorous. The popularity of The Daily Show and The Colbert Report demonstrate that news, even political news, can win young viewers if delivered well. While the depth or quality of reporting may be less than ideal, these shows can sound an alarm as needed to raise citizen awareness (

66. How do the media cover the president?

press for answers. presidents spent much effort to cultivate relationships with the media in order to court public opinion, - Currently, the White House controls the information coming from the executive branch through the Office of Communications and decides who will meet with the press and what information will be given. stories about the president often examine personality, or the president's ability to lead the country, deal with Congress, or respond to national and international events. They are less likely to cover the president's policies or agendas without a lot of effort on the president's behalf.

35. With which form of media are Rush Limbaugh and Don Imus associated?

radio talk shows

50. What is the Communications Act?

replaced the Radio Act and created a more powerful entity to monitor the airwaves—a seven-member Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to oversee both radio and telephone communication. The FCC, which now has only five members (Figure 8.13), requires radio stations to apply for licenses, granted only if stations follow rules about limiting advertising, providing a public forum for discussion, and serving local and minority communities. With the advent of television, the FCC was given the same authority to license and monitor television stations. The FCC now also enforces ownership limits to avoid monopolies and censors materials deemed inappropriate. It has no jurisdiction over print media, mainly because print media are purchased and not broadcast.

63. What is pack journalism?

shallow press coverage we see today, sometimes dubbed pack journalism because journalists follow one another rather than digging for their own stories.

26. What is muckraking?

the writing and publishing of news coverage that exposed corrupt business and government practices.

38. How do presidents use media to enhance their popularity?

used television to reach citizens and gain support for policies. When they made speeches, the networks and their local affiliates carried them. With few independent local stations available, a viewer had little alternative but to watch. During this "Golden Age of Presidential Television," presidents had a strong command of the media. presidents used television to inspire and comfort the population during a national emergency. These speeches aided in the "rally 'round the flag" phenomenon, which occurs when a population feels threatened and unites around the president.

61. What is priming?

when media coverage predisposes the viewer or reader to a particular perspective on a subject or issue. If a newspaper article focuses on unemployment, struggling industries, and jobs moving overseas, the reader will have a negative opinion about the economy. If then asked whether he or she approves of the president's job performance, the reader is primed to say no. Readers and viewers are able to fight priming effects if they are aware of them or have prior information about the subject.

34. What is the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)? What does it regulate?

works with radio stations to assign frequencies and set national standards, as well as oversee other forms of broadcasting and telephones. The FCC regulates interstate communications to this day. For example, it prohibits the use of certain profane words during certain hours on public airwaves.