Chapter 9: Learning

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term reward

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate Application: when receiving exam results, people with an internal locus of control tend to praise or blame themselves and their abilities

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed Application: The employee receives reinforcement every seven days, which may result in a higher response rate as payday approaches.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Application: A mother gives her son praise (reinforcement) for doing homework

Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can be used to address behavioral problems.

Behavior Modification can lead to behavior problems because you are changing how you behave in order to please something therefore, the ability to revert back to yourself and how you are supposed to behave seem to blur from time to time. Biofeedback is a process in which a process whereby electronic monitoring of a normally automatic bodily function is used to train someone to acquire voluntary control of that function. This can help behavioral problems by enhancing an impaired function within your brain such as temperature control and PTSD. It can also badly affect behavioral problems because the individuals with low motivation are not willing to take an active role in any treatment. Coping Strategies are ways to alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods and it can address behavioral problems because it helps alleviate the stressful or the "bothersome" activities to boost a more positive behavior and lifestyle. Self-Control is the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term reward and it can help behavioral problems because it teaches the individual to contain the malicious behavior in order to create better and postive habits and behaviors.

Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions.

Biological constraints such as a mental disability or a motor disability can create learning predispositions because their nerves are not set up like everyone else there for learning for them needs to be adjusted to their biological constraint in order to learn more and in an effective manner.

Distinguish the differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

In classical conditioning shows how an organism learns by establishing associations between different events and stimuli. In operant conditioning shows how an organism learns through influence by either a positive or negative reinforcer or punishment. Observational learning is one of the most common in which we learn by watching others and their mistakes. By learning from other mistakes, we can imitate others in order to achieve the same or similar effect.

Predict how practice, schedules of reinforcement, and motivation will influence quality of learning.

Practice, schedules of reinforcements, and motivation are all key factors in order to influence the quality of learning. Through practice, we can enhance our knowledge of the topic and can understand it clearly in order to apply it into daily life. By scheduling our reinforcement, we can reinforce our behaviors so that the topic we are learning can be maintained within our long-term memory. Finally, if one has a positive motivation to learn, then they can learn and study more, thus enhancing our knowledge.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively of its own sake Application: someone who writes music for his own listening pleasure is relying on intrinsic motivation. A person who writes music to sell for profit is using extrinsic motivation.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stmulus in one conditioning neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power throught its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer Application: money, grades and praise

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Application: Having a job and going to work every day to receive a paycheck.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Application: At a young age, a girl had some oysters and got a stomach flu the next day. Whenever she smells or thinks about eating them, she gets nauseated

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Application: An infant smiles for the first time, and the mother smiles back at the child or makes cooing sounds. The child likes the mother's response and smiles again.

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it Application: A new sound in your environment may initially draw your attention or even become distracting

external locus of control

the preception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate Application: Whenever he fails a test, the boy always has an excuse ready: the room was too hot, he wasn't feeling well, the test was unfair. He never seems to feel culpable, even if he simply hasn't studied enough.

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Application: A rat is taught to push a lever when a light is flashed. Later, he is taught to push the lever when the bell is rung. He stops pushing the lever when the light is flashed. Months later, when the light is flashed he begins to push the lever again.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses Application: a dog conditioned to salivate to a tone of a particular pitch and loudness will also salivate with considerable regularity in response to tones of higher and lower pitch.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologist agree with (1) but not with (2)

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientist believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

unconditional response (UR)

in classical conditioning , an unlearned naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus Application: In Pavlov's dog experiment, the UR is the salivation

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Application: In Pavlov's dog experiment, the CR is salivation

unconditional stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response (UR) Application: In Pavlov's dog experiment, the US is the sight of food

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening or a reinforced response Application:

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus Application: whenever you come home from work, the first thing you do is feed your dog. As a result, your dog gets excited as soon as he hears your car pulling up at the driveway, barking and running to the door. he learns to distinguish only the specific sound that means food is coming, and learns to ignore all other car sounds as not relevant to his getting fed.

operant chamber (skinner box)

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Application: Typically, you check your email at random times throughout the day instead of checking every time a single message is delivered. The thing about email is that in most cases, you never know when you are going to receive a message. Because of this, emails roll in sporadically at completely unpredictable times. When you check and see that you have received a message, it acts as a reinforcer for checking your email.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only a specified number of responses Application: A worker earns a commission for every third sale that they make.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning; a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Application: Call centers often offer random bonuses to employees. Workers never know how many calls they need to make to receive the bonus, but they know that they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response Application: A father gives his daughter candy (reinforcing stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior).

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment) Application: Bob does the dishes (behavior) in order to stop his mother's nagging (aversive stimulus).

observational learning

learning by observing others. Also called social learning Application: After witnessing an older sibling being punished for taking a cookie without asking, the younger child does not take cookies without permission

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Application: A student is taught how to perform a special type of addition, but does not demonstrate the knowledge until an important test is administered.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the timel results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement Application: Facebook users checking to see how many likes they received for a post and Twitter users counting followers are working on a variable ratio partial reinforcement schedule.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Application: you, as a researcher, might present a food pellet every time the rat presses the lever.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events by watching others, or through language

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS), occurs in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced Application: Imagine that you taught your dog to shake hands. Over time, the trick became less interesting

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Application: a child who performs poorly on math tests and assignments will quickly begin to feel that nothing he or she does will have any effect on math performance.

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response Application: A shiny object for a baby

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment Application: Supermarkets use loyalty cards and discounts, airlines use air miles, companies use bonuses and commissions.

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows Application: A child touches a hot stove (behavior) and feels pain (aversive stimulus).

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need Application: Food, drink, and pleasure

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning Application: In Pavlov's dog experiment, the NS is the bell

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) Application: In Pavlov's dog experiment, the CS is the bell

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as an operant conditioning)

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Application: an animal can be taught to push a lever to receive a bite of food as a reward. When the animal receives a treat for its behavior, it becomes more willing to continue to perform the behavior

Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning: Bandura, Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Thorndike, John B. Watson

Albert Bandura is a Canadian psychologist and he contributed into the psychology of learning by conducting the "Bobo" doll test in order to test for agressiveness but, it lead to understanding observational learning. Observational learning is learning by observing or watching others Ivan Pavlov is a Russian psychologist who discovered classical conditioning through his dog experiment. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. B.F. Skinner is an American Psychologist who is well known for conducting the Skinner Box, which is a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking experiment. This experiment lead to the discovery of operant conditioning which is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Edward Thorndike is an American Psychologist where he theorized the law of effect which is a principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. John B. Watson is an American Psychologist who is considered the father of the school of behavorism because he believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observation on behavior. He is also well known for his little Albert experiment in which a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly-by challenging the stressor or the way we interact with stressor

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences