chapter 9

Latent learning

A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an observable response It occurs without reinforcement learning the whole time, just no reason to act on it. when given reason to act on it, can

neutral consequence

A neutral consequence neither increases nor decreases the probability that the response will recur

Higher-order conditioning

A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Conditioned response (CR)

A response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus Occurs after the CS has been associated with the US Is usually similar to the US

Behaviorism

An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Elicits a response in the absence of learning

Continuous reinforcement

Every occurrence of a response is reinforced.

Conditions necessary for classical conditioning

For classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should precede the unconditioned stimulus. We learn that the first stimulus predicts the second.

Taste Aversion

Happens when we dislike a food because we got sick after we ate it Can happen even if two are unrelated Can happen with one pairing Probably evolved through natural selection to help animals identify dangerous foods

Stimulus generalization

In classical conditioning, occurs when a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response

Extinction- operant conditioning

In operant conditioning, occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer

Biological Limits on learning

Instinctive drift:

When punishment fails

It is inappropriate or mindless Recipient responds with fear, anxiety or rage Effectiveness often temporary and depends on presence of punishing person Hard to punish behavior immediately Punishment conveys little information Punishing action might be a reinforcer

Intermittent reinforcement

Only some occurrences of a response are reinforced. Fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, variable-interval Best choice for continuation of response

Social-cognitive view and aggression

Other factors intervene in the relationship between what we see, what we learn, and how we respond. Perceptions Interpretations Personality dispositions

Primary punishers

Primary punishers are inherently punishing

Primary reinforcers

Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need.

The Garcia Effect

Rats conditioned with sickness learn a stronger aversion to taste than to light & noise

Intrinsic reinforcers

Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced- feeling of accomplishment from finishing paper and enjoyment of task

Extrinsic reinforcers

Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced and come from outside sources- like money or a gold star can undermine pleasure of doing something

Learning to fear

Research suggests we can learn fear through association. Watson and Raynor conditioned "Little Albert" to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise). Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear generalized to other furry objects.

Secondary punishers

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers.

Secondary reinforcers

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers.

Social learning

Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained. Through observation and imitation of others Positive consequences Cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs

Stimulus generalization- operant conditioning

Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to trigger a response.

Behavior modification

The application of operant conditioning techniques To teach new responses To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior Also called applied behavior analysis

Conditioning

The association between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses

Classical conditioning

The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity (CS) to elicit a response (CR) through association with a stimulus (US) that already elicits a similar response (UR)

Operant conditioning

The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences

Punishment

The process by which a stimulus weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.

Unlearning fear- counterconditioning

The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits an incompatible response. Another child's fear of rabbits was removed by pairing rabbits with a stimulus that elicited happiness.

Unconditioned response (UR)

The reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning

Stimulus discrimination operant conditioning

The tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another

Stimulus discrimination

The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli In classical conditioning, occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned response

Extinction

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response In classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous Recovery- reappearance of response

Shaping

To teach complex behaviors, may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response

Positive reinforcement

When a pleasant consequence follows a response, making the response more likely to recur.

Negative punishment

When an pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur.

Positive punishment

When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur.

Negative reinforcement

When an unpleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response more likely to recur

When punishment works

When it immediately follows the behavior When it is mild rather than harsh When it is consistent

Observational learning

involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience.

Spontaneous recovery

reappearance of response

Reinforcement:

strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur

Instinctive drift:

the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior

Punishment:

weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur