chapter 9
Latent learning
A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an observable response It occurs without reinforcement learning the whole time, just no reason to act on it. when given reason to act on it, can
neutral consequence
A neutral consequence neither increases nor decreases the probability that the response will recur
Higher-order conditioning
A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Conditioned response (CR)
A response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus Occurs after the CS has been associated with the US Is usually similar to the US
Behaviorism
An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Elicits a response in the absence of learning
Continuous reinforcement
Every occurrence of a response is reinforced.
Conditions necessary for classical conditioning
For classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should precede the unconditioned stimulus. We learn that the first stimulus predicts the second.
Taste Aversion
Happens when we dislike a food because we got sick after we ate it Can happen even if two are unrelated Can happen with one pairing Probably evolved through natural selection to help animals identify dangerous foods
Stimulus generalization
In classical conditioning, occurs when a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response
Extinction- operant conditioning
In operant conditioning, occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer
Biological Limits on learning
Instinctive drift:
When punishment fails
It is inappropriate or mindless Recipient responds with fear, anxiety or rage Effectiveness often temporary and depends on presence of punishing person Hard to punish behavior immediately Punishment conveys little information Punishing action might be a reinforcer
Intermittent reinforcement
Only some occurrences of a response are reinforced. Fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, variable-interval Best choice for continuation of response
Social-cognitive view and aggression
Other factors intervene in the relationship between what we see, what we learn, and how we respond. Perceptions Interpretations Personality dispositions
Primary punishers
Primary punishers are inherently punishing
Primary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need.
The Garcia Effect
Rats conditioned with sickness learn a stronger aversion to taste than to light & noise
Intrinsic reinforcers
Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced- feeling of accomplishment from finishing paper and enjoyment of task
Extrinsic reinforcers
Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced and come from outside sources- like money or a gold star can undermine pleasure of doing something
Learning to fear
Research suggests we can learn fear through association. Watson and Raynor conditioned "Little Albert" to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise). Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear generalized to other furry objects.
Secondary punishers
Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers.
Secondary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers.
Social learning
Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained. Through observation and imitation of others Positive consequences Cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs
Stimulus generalization- operant conditioning
Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to trigger a response.
Behavior modification
The application of operant conditioning techniques To teach new responses To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior Also called applied behavior analysis
Conditioning
The association between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses
Classical conditioning
The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity (CS) to elicit a response (CR) through association with a stimulus (US) that already elicits a similar response (UR)
Operant conditioning
The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences
Punishment
The process by which a stimulus weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.
Unlearning fear- counterconditioning
The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits an incompatible response. Another child's fear of rabbits was removed by pairing rabbits with a stimulus that elicited happiness.
Unconditioned response (UR)
The reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning
Stimulus discrimination operant conditioning
The tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another
Stimulus discrimination
The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli In classical conditioning, occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned response
Extinction
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response In classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous Recovery- reappearance of response
Shaping
To teach complex behaviors, may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response
Positive reinforcement
When a pleasant consequence follows a response, making the response more likely to recur.
Negative punishment
When an pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur.
Positive punishment
When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur.
Negative reinforcement
When an unpleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response more likely to recur
When punishment works
When it immediately follows the behavior When it is mild rather than harsh When it is consistent
Observational learning
involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience.
Spontaneous recovery
reappearance of response
Reinforcement:
strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur
Instinctive drift:
the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior
Punishment:
weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur
