Chapters 1-6 Pathology and Anatomy

factors which determine membrane permeability

- size -polarity -molecular nature

describe how temperature, pH, and inhibitors (competitive and noncompetitive) affect enzyme activity

- temperature can either make the enzyme denature (when it gets to a certain temperature) or can speed up the rxn. 37 degrees C is optimum temperature - the optimum pH for most human enzymes is 6-8. There is an optimum pH that can speed up rxn rate - competitive inhibitors: compete with the substrate and when they bind, the substrate cannot get there in time. Binds to active site and competes with the substrate to get to the active site. - noncompetitive (allosteric) inhibitors: binds to the allosteric site, which changes that shape of the enzyme so that the substrate can no longer bind to the active site.

identify the principle parts or regions of the generalized animal cell

-plasma membrane -nucleus -cytoplasm

describe the 4 classes of biomolecule (include definitions, functions, monomers, and polymers) Know representative examples.

1) carbohydrates- means hydrated carbon. Nearly every carbon is hydrated with the equivalent of a water molecule- that is, both an OH and an H are usually attached to every carbon. Monosaccharides are the monomer to the polymer carbohydrate. 2) lipids- are a very diverse group of fatty, water-insoluble (hydrophobic) molecules that function as stored energy, components of cellular membranes, and hormones (4 classes of lipids: Phospholipids, Eicosanoids, Triglycerides, Steroids) *lipids are not composed of monomers. 3) proteins- polymers composed of one or more linear strands of amino acid monomers that may number in the thousands 4) nucleic acids- are biological macromolecules within cells that store and transfer genetic, or hereditary information. Originally discovered in the nucleus, nucleic acids ultimately determine the types of proteins synthesized within cells. These polymers are composed of nucleotide monomers.

What are the 11 organ systems of the human body?

1. Integumentary system 2. Skeletal System 3. Muscular System 4. Nervous System 5. Endocrine System 6. Circulatory System 7. Reproductive System 8. Immune System 9. Respiratory System 10. Digestive System 11. Urinary System

identify and describe the functions of the major components of the plasma membrane

1. Physical barrier: establishes a flexible boundary, protects cellular contents, and supports cell structure. Phospholipid bilayer separates substances inside and outside of the cell. 2. selectively permeable boundary: regulates entry and exit of ions, nutrients, and waste molecules through the plasma membrane 3. electrochemical gradients: establishes and maintains an electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane 4. communication: contains receptors that recognize and respond to molecular signals

3 examples of positive feedback

1. a mother breastfeeds her baby. 2. blood clotting cascade. 3. Uterine contractions involved in labor and childbirth.

Describe the 2 laws of thermodynamics

1st law: energy can neither be created nor destroyed- it can only be transformed, or converted, from one form to another. 2nd law: every time energy is transformed from one to another, some of that energy is converted to heat. That means there is never 100% conversion from one form to another, Energy conversions have a price, and that price always appears as heat.

solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

solvent

A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances

negative feedback

A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation. resulting action is always in the opposite direction.

selective permeability

A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.

base

A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

acid

A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a solution.

Electrolyte

A substance that is dissolved in solution and some of its molecules split or dissociate into electrically charged atoms or ions

identify the molecules of energy storage in the human body

ATP

energy currency of the cell

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

differentiate between acids and bases on the basis of pH

An acid increases the concentration of H+ that is free in a solution. A base decreases the amount of H+ free in a solution. Acids have a lower pH number than bases do. (0-14 scale)

Describe the structure of an atom

Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons. protons + neutrons no charge electrons -

isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. EG. Carbon-12, Carbon- 14, etc.

What is the basic unit of life?

Cells are the basic unit of life which embody all the characteristics of living things

mediastinum

Centrally located space between the lungs

isomer

Compounds with the same formula but different structures.

abdominal cavity

Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver, and other organs

put in order the strength of ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds

Covalent bond > ionic bond > hydrogen bond.

parasagittal plane

Divides body into unequal right and left sides

explain that lactic acid is produced under conditions of insufficient oxygen

Lactic acid buildup occurs when there's not enough oxygen in the muscles to break down glucose and glycogen. This is called anaerobic metabolism. ... Most forms of lactic acidosis are caused by too much L-lactate. - If insufficient oxygen is available, pyruvate will be converted by lactate dehydrogenase to lactate to regenerate NAD+ so glycolysis can continue

diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

describe the basis of protein structure and denaturation (include pH and temperature)

Proteins denature in response to increased H+ (decrease in pH) as H+ is added to the negatively charged R group or decreased H+ (increase in pH) as H+ is removed from the positively charged R group. Proteins also dentature when temperature goes up.

identify the 3 states of matter and the example of each from the lecture slides

SOLID-bone , LIQUID-blood, GAS-oxygen

cell

The basic unit of structure and function in living things.

Describe the fluid mosaic model of the structure of the plasma membrane

The fluid mosaic model states that the phospholipid bilayer behaves like a fluid more than it behaves like a solid. The membrane's lipids and proteins can move laterally within the bilayer, like a boat on the ocean. (or a beachball)

Physiology

The study of body function

anatomical position

To stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward

hydrophobic

Water fearing

superior/inferior

above/below

active and passive processes as they relate to movement of materials into and out of cells

active processes: use a carrier protein (low to high concentration) requires energy passive processes: diffusion, osmosis (high to low concentration movement)

differentiate the quantities of ATP made in aerobic vs anaerobic respiration

aerobic respiration is much more sufficient and can produce up to 38 ATP, whereas Anaerobic respiration creates 2 ATP.

Describe the octet rule and how it relates to chemical stability. Can 10 electrons be on the same level?

atoms obtain an outer shell with eight electrons and gain chemical stability through the loss, gain, or sharing of electrons. atoms are most stable with a full outer shell or an empty outer shell. - ten electrons cannot be on the same level.

What are the hierarchical levels of living things from atoms to organism?

atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems

dorsal/ventral

backside/belly side

control center

both integrates input information from the receptor and integrates input information

abdominopelvic cavity

both the pelvic and abdominal cavities

effector

causes the change or effect

describe the basics of cellular respiration: write the overall reaction, where each of the 4 major stages occur, which require oxygen, where carbon dioxide is made, how much ATP is made in each reaction

cellular respiration is a multistep metabolic pathway whereby organic molecules as broken down in a controlled manner by a series of enzymes. During this disassembly, potential energy stored in the molecule's chemical bonds is released; the energy is. then used to make new bonds between ADP and P (free phosphate) to for ATP. C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + H2O - it is an exergonic reaction Where each of the 4 stages occur?? 1. glycolysis (within the cytosol) 2. intermediate stage (mitochondria) 3. citric acid cycle (mitochondria) 4. electron transport system: inner mitochondrial membrane (mitochondria) Which stages require oxygen?: the intermediate stage, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport system Where is carbon dioxide made?: Carbon dioxide is made in the Citric Acid Cycle How much ATP is made in each reaction? - 2 ATP made in glycolysis - 2 from Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs) - 34 from Electron Transport Chain - 0 from intermediate stage = 38 total APT made from one molecule of glucose

give the anatomical names of the major body regions and areas identified in class.

cephalic- head frontal- forehead orbital- eye buccal- cheek nasal- nose oral- mouth mental- chin coxal- hip inguinal- groin cranial- surrounding the groin occipital- back of the head auricular- ear vertebral- spinal column lumbar- lower back sacral- sacrum (tailbone area) gluteal- buttock sural- calf crural- lower leg calcaneal- heal plantar surface- sole tarsal- ankle popliteal- back of knee femoral- thigh antecubital- front of elbow ante brachial- forearm carpal- wrist deltoid- shoulder sternal- sternum (in between pecks)

thoracic cavity

contains heart and lungs

cranial cavity

contains the brain

pelvic cavity

contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction

receptor

detects the stimulus

pericardial cavities

encloses the heart

kinetic energy

energy of motion

explain the basis of enzyme function, structure, and activation. Include how many reactions can be catalyzed by an enzyme and how many times it can catalyze that reaction.

function of enzymes: accelerate normal chemical activities structure of enzymes: substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme forming enzyme-substrate complex. Enzyme changes shape to create induced fit. The enzyme can be reused and the shape of the enzyme is specific to the substrate that attaches.

identify the following structures from a picture or diagram of a typical cell and describe the functions of the following cell structures: endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth), ribosomes, Golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes and proteasomes, cytoskeleton components, cilia and flagella, nucleus, and nucleolus

functions of endoplasmic reticulum (rough): (1) Synthesis: synthesizes proteins for secretion, incorporation into the plasma membrane, and as enzymes within lysosomes. (2) Processing molecules: modifies proteins and store proteins, (3) organelle formation: helps form peroxisomes, (4) vesicle formation smooth ER: synthesis, processing molecules, detoxification, and vesicle formation ribosomes function: protein synthesis: bound ribosomes synthesize protein destined to be incorporated into the plasma membrane, exported from the cell, or housed within the lysosomes. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use within the cell. Golgi apparatus : synthesis, processing molecules by modifying and storing protein that was formed by the ER, organelle formation (synthesizes digestive enzymes for lysosomes, vesicle formation: forms secretory vesicles for delivering components of the plasma membrane and releasing contents from the cell by exocytosis mitochondria: energy harvesting; digest organic molecules (ie glucose) to produce ATP by aerobic cellular respiration; called the powerhouse of the cell lysosomes: digestion- breakdown molecules within vesicles that enter cell by endocytosis, remove damaged organelles and cellular components (autophagy), and break down cellular components following cellular death (autolysis) proteasomes: protein digestion- degrade proteins that are damaged, incorrectly folded, or no longer needed (digest unwanted protein) cytoskeleton components:structural support and organization of cell, cell division (separate chromosomes during cell division and split cell into 2 daughter cells by cytokinesis), facilitates movement cilia: moves mucus flagella: helps to propel the entire cell nucleus: control center, houses nuclear DNA nucleolus: synthesizes ribosomes

transverse plane

horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions

pH

hydrogen ion concentration

what happens if we change the number of electrons in an atom?

if you change the number of electrons in an element, you change the charge (it becomes either a cation or an anion)

what happens if we change the number of neutrons in an atom?

if you change the number of neutrons in an atom, you will get an isotope of the same element

what happens in a covalent bond if the electrons are shared unequally and what is it called?

in a covalent bond, where the electrons are shared unequally, it is called a polar covalent bond.

posterior aspect (dorsal cavity)

includes the cranial cavity and the vertebra canal

anterior aspect (ventral cavity)

includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity

describe ionic and covalent bonds. What happens if we put each in water?

ionic bonds- positively charged cations and negatively charged anions may bind together by electrostatic interactions called ionic bonds. The structure typically formed is a salt. - when you put ionic bonds in water, Ionic compounds dissolve in water if the energy given off when the ions interact with water molecules compensates for the energy needed to break the ionic bonds in the solid and the energy required to separate the water molecules so that the ions can be inserted into solution. Covalent bonds- forms when both atoms require electrons to become stable. This takes place when the participating atoms that form the chemical bond have 4, 5, 6, or 7 electrons in the outer shell. They share electrons. - when you put covalent bonds in water, Covalent bonds do not dissolve in water, but some covalent compounds do. ... Water molecules are attracted to each other by strong H-bonds. A polar solute may be attracted to the water molecules as strongly as the water molecules are attracted to each other.

pleural cavities

lateral subdivision of Thoracic Cavity, enveloping a lung, and the Medial Mediastinum

prone

lying face down

supine

lying face up

identify the 2 components that compose everything in the universe

matter (made of atoms) and energy

simple diffusion

movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

proximal/distal

nearer the trunk or attached end/farther from the trunk or point of attachment

what process maintains homeostasis?

negative feedback loops maintain homeostasis

identify the 6 major elements that compose the majority of our bodies

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus

oblique plane

passes through the body at an angle

how does potential and kinetic energy relate

potential energy is stored energy or energy of position. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Potential energy can be converted or changed to kinetic energy and vice versa.

homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

Define radioisotope

radioactive isotope. Radioisotopes are generally unstable because their nuclei contain an excess number of neutrons. Radioisotopes usually lose nuclear components in the form of high-energy radiation that includes alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays as they decay or break down into a more stable isotope.

define these terms describing chemical reactions: reactants, products, catabolism, anabolism, metabolism, exergonic, endergonic

reactants: are the substrate, or substances that are present prior to the start of the chemical reaction; they are usually written on the left side of the equation. products: are the chemical reaction, they are usually written on the left side of the chemical equation catabolism: decomposition reactions in the body (break apart) anabolism: all synthesis reactions in the body metabolism: all biochemical reactions that occur within the body exergonic: involve reactants at the start of a reaction that have more potential energy within their chemical bonds than do the products that are formed. "energy goes out", or is released during the course of breakdown reactions. Decomposition reactions are usually exergonic reactions. endergonic: involve reactants that have less energy within their chemical bonds than do the products. Energy must be "put in" or supplied to proceed. Endergonic reactions yield products that have a net increase in chemical energy as compared to what was present in the reactants. Synthesis reactions are endergonic reactions.

components of a homeostatic system

receptor, control center, effector

identify the four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity and the point through which the lines of the quadrants are drawn

right upper quadrant left upper quadrant right lower quadrant left lower quadrant

vertebral (spinal) cavity

runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord

BE able to recognize each of the components in the homeostatic system that regulates body temperature.

stimulus: Cold environmental temperatures lower body temperature to below normal receptors: sensory receptors in skin detect cold control center: hypothalamus od brain compares sensory input regarding temperature decrease to normal set point 37 C effectors: blood vessels in skin constrict; sweat glands become inactive; skeletal muscles shiver to generate heat homeostasis: body temperature returns to normal

potential energy

stored energy

describe a serous membrane structure and function. Be sure to be able to identify visceral and parietal layers of the pleura, pericardium, and abdomen.

structure: form 2 layers: (1) a parietal layer that typicallyy lines the internal surface of the body wall and (2) a visceral layer that covers the external surface of organs (viscera) within that cavity. Between the parietal and visceral serous membrane layers is a potential space called the serous cavity. E.g. the parietal pericardium is the outermost layer of the serous membrane and forms the sac around the heart. Whereas the visceral pericardium forms the heart's external surfeit. The parietal cavity is the serous cavity between the parietal and visceral layers of the pericardium, and it contains the serous fluid. -parietal and visceral Pleura with the pleural cavity. -parietal and visceral pericardium with the pericardial cavity parietal and visceral peritoneum with the peritoneal cavity

know which molecules can be used as fuel for cellular respiration and how they generally fuel cellular metabolism

the glucose molecule is the primary model for cellular respiration. During cellular respiration, glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Energy released during the reaction is captured by the energy-carrying molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate). other fuel molecules such as fatty acids and amino acids can also be oxidized to generate ATP. fatty acids- preferred molecule for muscle tissue at rest. provide long-term energy reserves

define atomic number

the number of protons in an atom (in the nucleus and whole atom)

positive feedback loop

the stimulus here is reinforced to continue in the same direction until a climactic event occurs

Anatomy

the study of structure and form

define mass number

the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

identify the type of bond found between 2 polar molecules as discussed in class

the type of bond formed between 2 polar molecules is called a hydrogen bond

differentiate the 3 membrane junctions

tight junction: functions as spot welds to seal off the intercellular space and prevent substances from passing between the cells; this requires all materials to move through, rather than between, the cells. desmosome: provides structural integrity to cells that are exposed to stress, such as the external layers of the skin and cardiac muscles gap junction: provide a direct passageway for substances to move between neighboring cells. top of page 133

dissolve

to form a solution by mixing evenly

dissociate

to separate

superficial/deep

toward and away from the body surface

anterior/posterior

toward the front and back of the body

medial/lateral

toward the midline/away from the midline

frontal (coronal) plane

vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions

describe how the properties of water relate to biology (eg surface tension)

water is a polar molecule. -Cohesion is the attraction between water molecules. They are inclined to "stick together" because hydrogen bonds form between these molecules. - Surface tension is the inward pulling of cohesive forces at the surface of water. This inward attraction occurs because water molecules at the surface are pulled by hydrogen bonds in only three directions, whereas water molecules that are internal in the liquid are pulled by hydrogen bonds in four directions. -Adhesion is the attraction between water molecules and a substance other than water. This occurs when hydrogen bonds form between water molecules and the molecules that compose those other substances.

hydrophilic

water loving

buffer

weak acid or base that can react with strong acids or bases to help prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH

what happens if we change the number of protons in an atom?

when we change the number of protons in an atom, we change the chemical characteristics of it. The element changes. You change the element to a different element. Sometimes when you add a proton to an element, the element will become radioactive.