Chapters 6-8 (Research Methods)

Problems with Victim Surveys

- Cost of large samples - False reporting - Mistaken Interpretation of Incidents - Sampling Bias - Overreporting and/or underreporting - Memory failure, decay, and telescoping - Interviewer effects - Coding and Mechanical Error - Problems measuring certain crimes

Advantages of Telephone Surveys

- Eliminates the use of a field staff - Simpler monitoring of interviewer bias, because the supervisor can be present at the time interviews are conducted by listening to the interviewers or listening in on calls - Primary intent of telephone surveys is to obtain wide and representative samples - These surveys are inexpensive and quick, generally yield a low non-response rate, and provide easy and inexpensive follow-up. - The growing tendency of organizations to obtain WATS lines, flat rate charges that permit fairly unlimited long-distance calls, has made national telephone surveys more of an economic possibility - Sudman suggests that phone surveys are more effective in obtaining hard to locate respondents than person-to-person interviews - The potential for high refusals can be circumvented, particularly if short "yes' or "no" answers are used. It should be mentioned that the Federal Trade Commission exempts survey and opinion research from the Do Not Call Registry, which was primarily targeting telemarketers

Disadvantages of Telephone Surveys

- May have difficulty in obtaining in-depth responses or considered answers over the telephone - May be some loss of qualitative detail provided by face-to-face interviews - A major objection to telephone surveys have been that they tended to exclude those who do not own telephones or who have unlisted or new telephone numbers. - Although household telephone ownership overall is estimated by the Census Bureau at approximately 92%, it is less than this for African American and minority groups Ownership for Hispanics in areas of the Southwest is as low as 65 percent - While telephone surveys can be quick and inexpensive, if the survey is global in nature, the cost could be prohibitive - Difficulties with telephone surveys include possible high refusal rates. This is related in part to problems in employing sensitive Screening Questions (questions made by the interviewer to determine whether the person who has answered the telephone fits the target population, such as income and occupation) - Telephone surveys must compete with unethical telemarketing such as "push polls" political negative campaigning disguised as legitimate polls

Advantages of Participant Observation

- Produces less prejudgments - Less disturbing to respondents than experiments - More flexible and natural than artificial means of data gathering - Contradictions between attitudes and behavior become apparent - Researcher can double check assumptions regarding the meaning of observations - Excellent means of gathering detailed qualitative data, particularly about subjects on which little information exists

Three basic forms of interviews

- Structured - Unstructured - Depth

Benefits of Victim Surveys

- They have become a model spurring international imitation - Such studies present an opportunity to obtain a picture of victims and their characteristics - Because of non-reporting in official statistics, victim surveys may be a more accurate estimate for commission of such crime as rape and assault - The potential exists, using telephone surveys, for local jurisdictions to conduct their own victim surveys to gauge, plan, and evaluate elements of police services. - Victim surveys are additionally useful for measuring crime costs with respect to injuries, insurance, and crime prevention programs - They also assist in obtaining better descriptions of criminals and their methods of operation - Such surveys also assess such issues as fear of crime, satisfaction with police services, attitude towards police, and reasons for not reporting crimes to police

Controlling for Error in Victim Surveys

- Use of panels - Bounding of target groups - Evaluations of coding - Reverse record check surveys of known groups - Reinterviews of the same group - Interviews with significant others

Disadvantages of Participant Observations

- Very time consuming - Not the easiest, nor preferred method for most - Observer is not in a position to control the actions of the people being observed - Over identification or dislike of the group being studied can be problematic - Problem of gaining entry into and acceptance by the group - Most personally demanding technique (Whyte had to vote multiple times in the same election, Becker performed in a jazz band) - Ethical dilemmas can be raised - Observes must make attempts to control biases - Generally yields non-quantitative data

Types of Participant Observation

1. Complete Participation 2. Participant as Observer 3. Observer as Participant 4. Complete Observation

Decker's 11 specific procedures or items of concrete advice on conducting offender interviews

1.) Establish the goals of the interview 2.) Choose offenders to interview 3.) Determine who should conduct the interviews 4.) Find appropriate subjects 5.) Convince the subjects to participate 6.) Maintain field relations 7.) Conduct interviews 8.) Sort out the truth 9.) Analyze the interview results 10.) Present the findings 11.) Apply the interview results to tactical and strategic problem solving

Tulson, Marquart, and Mullings ten tips for "breaking into prisons" and other criminal justice organizations

1.) Get a contact 2.) Establish yourself and your research 3.) Little things count, such as being on time and showing up when it is convenient for them, not you 4.) Make sense of agency data by keeping in contact 5.) Deliver competent, readable reports on time 6.) Request to brief the agency, and give a formal presentation of your findings 7.) Write a personal thank you note to everyone involved 8.) Deal with adversity by planning ahead 9.) Inform the agency of data use including providing copies of the publication 10.) Maintain trust by staying in for the long haul and keep in contact

Berg's ten commandments of Interviewing

1.) Never begin an interview cold. Make small talk and set the stage 2.) Remember your purpose. Keep the subject on track 3.) Present a natural front. Be relaxed and natural 4.) Demonstrate aware hearing. Be a real listener and provide appropriate nonverbal response 5.) Think about appearance. Dress appropriately 6.) Interview in a comfortable place. One where the respondent will be afforded both privacy and safety 7.) Don't be satisfied with monosyllabic answers. Simple yes or no answers usually call for more probing 8.) Be respectful. Assure them that you are really interested in what they have to say 9.) Practice, practice, and practice some more 10.) Be cordial and appreciative. Do not close the door for future researchers by performing inappropriate actions

Major Types of Unobtrusive Measures

1.) Physical trace analysis 2.) Archival, existing data, and autobiographies 3.) Simple Observation 4.) Disguised Observation 5.) Simulation

Examples of Depth Interviews

1.) Smykla with the approval of a state Department of Corrections, wrote to death row inmates and later, through further correspondence and visitation, requested from them names, addresses, and telephone numbers of family members. He was able to arrange interviews with forty family members and describe what he called their "distorted grief reactions." 2.) Sutherland's "The Professional Thief" (1937), the result of in=depth interviews with a professional thief 3.) Laub's "Criminology in the Making" (1983) an oral history of American criminology based on interviews with leading criminologists 4.) Cressey's "Other People's Money" (1953) which involved extensive interviews with 133 incarcerated embezzlers also serves as an example

Examples of Case Studies

1.) The classic example of a landmark case study in criminology was Sutherland's The Professional Thief in which his informant, Chic Conwell, described the world of the professional thief.

Steffensmeier validity checks from "The Fence: In the Shadow of Two Worlds"

1.) The interview format provided a cross check: Did the second, third, and fourth interviews all say the same thing 2.) Documents such as newspapers, personal documents, court records, letters, sale receipts, advertising, and the like were examined 3.) Observations of Sam Goodman at work were supplemented with interviews and meetings with customers, friends, and dealers 4.) Consultation took place with police and legal officials 5.) The data were consistent with biographies and autobiographies of thieves

General Procedure in Interviews

1.) Training and orientation session 2.) Arranging the interview 3.) Administration of the interview 4.) Probing 5.) The Exit

Telephone Focus Groups

A useful technique to tap participants from large or remote geographic areas Can be conducted using a simple conference call using ordinary telephones, cordless phones, or speaker phones A reminder call the day before the session is a must Smaller groups (4-6) people work better than larger face-to-face groups

Member Checking

A way of verifying the accuracy of your observations by having participants check your report to see if you are misinterpreting or misunderstanding anything

Demeanor of Interviewer

Advice to interviewers can be as simple as beware of dogs, carry a charged cellphone in case of emergency, and dress appropriately for audience and weather Where possible, the field surveyors should match, as closely as possible, the subjects with respect to age, sex, race, social class, and dress Attire should be comfortable, but the interviewer should be neither overdressed nor under-dressed for the occasion. Interviewers should have experienced a few practice interviews beforehand so that they become familiar with the flow of the instrument to be employed The interviewers language style should also be adapted to the group being studied The interviewer should assure the respondents that their responses will be held in strictest confidence, the interviewer should attempt to build up rapport with the subjects by being friendly and diplomatic, as well as convincing, regarding the importance of the study The interviewer should attempt to give the impression that the interview will be a pleasant, interesting, and rewarding experience Interviewers should try to communicate an air of acceptance of respondents' statements but must maintain their neutrality In addition to being a sympathetic diplomat, the interviewer must be prepared to be a persistent boor, a person willing to ask the types of sensitive questions that generally are considered nosey in nature

Memory Failure

Also known as recall decay, refers to the phenomenon of progressive memory loss as the distance increases between the time of the event and the time of the interview concerning the event

Interviewing Aids and Variations

Although most standard interviews are recorded more or less on the spot by the interviewer, using either an interview schedule, a structured interview protocol, or, in the case of depth interviews, notes that can be reconstructed into finished form immediately after the interview, a variety of mechanical aids exist that lend even greater versatility and accuracy In a a small number of important interviews videotapes may be used. The ASC/ACJS oral history project conducted videotape interviews of famous criminologists The recording of interviews by means of tape recorders releases interviewers from the task of taking on the spot notes and enables them to concentrate on conducted the interview Dictaphone transcription enables verbatim reconstruction of interviews and although it produces an enormous amount of material, presents the researcher with the raw material to digest after the fact, rather than at the time of the interview. Albini (1971), in "The American Mafia: Genesis of a Legend" reported great success with mail interviews using cassettes. An inexpensive electronic patch can be purchased at any electronics store and easily attached to a telephone to permit verbatim cassette recording of interviews (It is standard procedure to ask, prior to beginning the interview, the respondent's permission to record) Pictorials, photographs, and motion pictures have all been successfully utilized to enhance studies involving interviews

Going Native

An even more common outlook resulting from close contact with a new group over a sustained period is the tendency of observers to over identify with groups There are examples in the literature of an anthropologist who married a cannibal chief and of other individuals who without being aware of it, have taken on the mannerisms of the groups they have studied. Going native is a situation in which the researcher identifies with and becomes a member of the study group and in the process abandons his or her role as an objective researcher. Toby (1986) attacked criminologist John Irwin for a speech he gave before the American Society of Criminology. Toby accursed Irwin of romanticizing criminals. In 1999, a researcher at John Jay College of Criminal Justice was removed from a Health and Human Services sponsored research project and accused of using, as well as buying heroin for his research subjects. Allegedly he gave some junkies heroin as an incentive for granting interviews

Mistaken Reporting

Another source of error in victim surveys Thomas' "definition of the situation" holds that, if individuals inaccurately feel that a situation is real, it is nevertheless real in its consequences. A person who has lost something may inaccurately, but honestly, believe it was stolen.

Stooge Effects

Artificial behavior that can come as a result of being aware that you are being studied. Can also be associated with the Hawthorne Effect

Why didn't the National Violence Against Women Survey use the word stalking in their questionnaire?

Because it would have assumed that victimized persons knew how to define stalking and perceived what happened to them as stalking.

Glasser and Strauss (1967)

Call for a grounded theory approach, by which a theory is developed during the data gathering, thus grounding it in the real world, rather than artificially predetermining which hypotheses will be looked at.

Polsky

Contrary to advice offered by writers of leading criminology textbooks such as Sutherland and Cressey, Polsky suggests that it is not unwise or impossible to study criminals in their natural environment In his book, Hustlers, Beats, and Others (1967) Polsky describes how he successfully employed participant observation in studying uncaught organized criminals, pool hustlers, drug deals, and con artists Advocates of participant observation such as Polsky feel that we have been too dependent on studies of imprisoned criminals in an unnatural environment or on unquestioned use of official statistics, and that this has led to an inaccurate view of criminals and criminal behavior. During his study, Polsky describes how some of the uncaught criminals he was studying told him that he would make a fine wheelman or steerhorse (someone who fingers the score in a con game.)

Verbal Reports vs. Behavior

Critics of such quantitative research suggest that little relationship exists between attitude and behavior and that more sensitizing strategies involving field studies contain greater accuracy LaPiere's Restaurant Study (1934) illustrates this point LaPiere traveled with a Chinese couple to a large number of restaurants on the West Coast and observed the treatment they received. Only 1 of 251 establishments refused them service. Later he sent the same establishments a questionnaire; more than 90% replied that they would deny service. The disparity between what people say (attitudes) and what people do (behavior or deeds) illustrates the hazards of attitudinal measurement of behavior items In other studies, people were inaccurate in reporting voting behavior, time of vaccination of children, money in savings accounts, level of loan debt, etc. Studies of known crime victims found that a significant number failed to report to interviewers victimizations that they had already reported to the police. Critics of more quantitative and artificial means of measurement indicate that instead of speaking of error in measurement, it would be more accurate to speak of the error of measurement. These errors in surveys and experimental studies include variability in response as a result of the non comparability of studies and differences caused by the methodologies employed. Bias of auspices or sponsorship may compromise the results of many studies. For this very reason many criminal justice programs bring in outside, objective evaluators to analyze program outcomes. Design imperfections, in either the instrument or the analysis, can produce inaccurate results. Failure to account for non-respondents may compromise the results of surveys Orne found that subjects in his experiments were willing to put up with boring, uncomfortable, painful, and ridiculous tasks if asked to do so by the experimenter. For these and other reasons, some critics feel that findings based on surveys and experiments are questionable, that much "artificial" research is really measurement error; therefore, more natural methods of data gathering should be employed

Offender Interviews

Decker points out that interviews with active offenders provide a picture of a different pattern of offending and different perceptions than those of incarcerated offenders. Such studies have particularly focused on drug dealers and users, residential burglars, armed robbers, gang members, and gun offenders The now defunct Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring System used interviews with offenders to discern their drug use behavior Studies of active residential burglars in Odessa, Texas, Delaware, and St Louis documented the variety of motivations of burglars centered around a lifestyle of partying and keeping up appearances. Most of the projects interviewing active offenders have relied on offers of incentive s to participate. This may be in the form of cash (which works best) or vouchers Most researchers tape-record their interviews and transcribe them at a later date. Locations for the interview should be a place where offenders are not at undue risk. Validation of the information achieved though interviews is a paramount concern. This may be achieved by repeat interviews, interviews with peers, and comparisons with other sources of data

Arranging the Interview

Depending on the sampling plan, either a preliminary letter is mailed or a telephone call is made to schedule an appointment for the interview Interviewers conducting household surveys should not arrive too early or too later, generally no earlier than 10:00 AM and no later than 8:00 PM. Surveyors should possess at all times identification to avoid being taken for door-to-door salespersons On arrival be sure that the proper person to be interviewed within the household is located At this point the interviewer should not ask if the respondent wishes to be interviewed now, but rather matter-of-factly indicate that the respondent had received a letter about the survey and that the interviewer is there to conduct it. If the interviewer is unsuccessful in scheduling a meeting with the respondent, he or she should keep written track of callbacks and avoid recalls on the same days or same times.

Observer as Participant

Describes the one-visit interview. Even though the interviewers may not think so, they are also short-term participant observers Holzman and Pines (1979) employed in-depth interviews of thirty primarily white, middle class "johns" and were unable to find support for the pathology ridden depictions of the clients of prostitutes. Cressey's "Other People's Money" (1953) involved interviews with 133 incarcerated embezzlers

Douglas

Douglas (1972, 1976) suggests that similarly participant observation may be viewed as the beginning point of all other research. Before one can design a survey or experiment, one must observe the subject of the investigation sufficiently to know the proper areas to probe.

A defense of Quantitative Research

Error is ever present in all research and the only perfect research is no research.

CART (Continuous Audience Response Technology)

Especially suitable for focus group research Such purposely selected groups are brought together to measure some stimuli. Respondents observe various video presentations and give their reactions on a continuous basis by means of a handheld keypad (similar to a remote control device) by pressing appropriate buttons For example, the buttons might represent 0 (negative reaction) to 10 (positive reaction) Group and individual responses can be instantaneously recorded, calculated, plotted, displayed on the video screen, and played back and reanalyzed.

Complete Observation

Experimental and unobtrusive measures may be viewed as this type of participant observation Stein (1974) employed one way mirrors and was able to secretly observe and record hundreds of sessions between prostitutes and their clients. In reality, specific studies seldom fall into any one of these categories, or "ideal types" and might better be viewed as falling along a continuum

Vignettes and Scenarios

Finch describes vignettes as "short sotires about hypothetical characteristics in specified circumstances, to whose situation the interviewee is invited to respond." These vignettes are often short or typical scenarios (short descriptions of future possibilities) or stories about individuals, situations, and structures. These can be used on individuals or focus groups The stories are varied with respect to age, gender, ethnicity, and the like and are useful in exploring sensitive topics.

Training and Orientation Session

For interview surveys, an adequate amount of time must be spent on training interviewers These training sessions, which may last anywhere from a day to a week depending on the complexity of the study, should familiarize the interviewers with the organization carrying out the survey as well as the study's purposes Hoinville, Joweell, et al. indicate that an effective manner of impressing the importance of confidentiality of responses on interviewers is to ask them to sign a declaration of confidentiality promising not to disclose any information in their possession.

Unstructured Interviews

Generally provide open-ended responses to questions Have many variations depending on the purpose. Sometimes referred to as focused, clinical, or nondirective interviews. No predetermined response categories are provided Examples include: Do you think the police are better or worse in preventing crime in your local neighborhood than last year? ______________________ Open-ended questions may present a tabulation nightmare, but provide the qualitative detail and complexity of response that may be required, particularly if the subject of study is little known.

SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

Has software for analyzing open-ended survey responses

Problems Measuring Certain Crimes

Helen Eigenberg points out that the data on rape have been inadequate because NCVS never asked respondents directly whether they had been raped. Although she feels the new screening questions are an improvement over the old ones because they ask whether the subject has ever been assault, she thinks that "researchers must note that the NCVS has traditionally operationalized rape poorly" Improved operationalization of rape and domestic violence in the redesigned NCVS was implemented in 100 percent of the samples beginning July 1993 In August 1995, the NCVS released the first report on rape data

Redesign of the National Crime Victimization Survey

In 1974, in response to an evaluation by the National Academy of Sciences and an internal review by a predecessor of the BJS, a project was begun to evaluate and redesign the NCVS Implementation of some of these redesign plans was begun in 1986; others were phased in later The first changes, those which would have minimal impact on NCVS victimization rates, were introduced in July 1986. Most of these items related to the expanded list of questions, those that were added to the questionnaire that had remained fundamentally unchanged since 1972 New questions related to drug and alcohol use by offenders, self-protection measures, police actions, location etc. Among other changes was the decision to use CATI technology. The redesigned NCVS program is also considering but has not implemented CAPI technology, which makes possible the use of laptops in field interviews Efforts were made in redesigning the NCVS to avoid disrupting the integrity of its longitudinal study

Victim Surveys: A Balanced View

In 1974, when LEAA released the findings from its 13th central city surveys, Donald Santarelli, then head of the organization, was quoted as having remarked "for the first time in history, we now have an accurate measure of crime in America, at least in these 13 cities." After review of the advantages and disadvantages of victim surveys it seems fair to conclude that: - For the types of personal and household crimes, both victim surveys and the UCR measure, the true rate is most likely somewhere between victim surveys, which overestimate crime , and the UCR which underestimates crime - For other types of crimes such as occupational, corporate, and public order crime, both measures underestimate crime - Despite shortcomings, victim surveys present a needed separate and independent assessment of crime and other criminal justice matters of important. Cost cutting measures due to budgetary restrictions threaten the viability of the NCVS

Case Studies

In-depth, qualitative studies of one or a few illustrative cases The types of studies included as examples of the case study approach vary greatly, from general field studies to studies of one individual Travis has noted a decline in coverage of the case study approach in criminology and criminal justice texts and attributes this to its eclipse by quantitative methods and the unfortunate labeling of any case study as an example of a "one-shot case study" by Campbell and Stanley

Recording the Interview

Interviewers should be instructed to write legibly in pencil as much of the relevant substance of the interview as possible. The interviewer should distinguish personal observations form the actual interview by using parentheses Editing entails reviewing the interview schedule after completion of the interview and cleaning it up and preparing it for analysis The interviewer should have covered each item in the schedule. Unanswered questions should be marked NA for not applicable or simply X to indicate inappropriate If an observation has an impact on the understanding of another question, some notion such as (see Q. 10 for further explanation) would be in order Interviewers should avoid summarizing or paraphrasing responses but rather try to use the respondent's own words. Paraphrasing requires interpretation and may change the color and gusto of the real remarks Personal observations can be added at any point they appear pertinent to an understanding of the response (the respondent appeared very fearful) If the research project can afford the luxury of two interviewers per respondent, then much of the difficulty of recording and conducting an interview can be split, with one interviewer asking the questions and the other concentrating solely on recording responses.

Victim Surveys in Criminal Justice

Involve questioning a representative sample of the population to obtain an estimate of victimization, a portion of which is note reported to the police Unrecorded crime, or the dark figure of crime, as it was referred to by early European criminologists, has always escaped such official statistics Victim surveys can be traced back to as early as 1720, but it was not until the late 1960s that victim surveys were conducted on a large-scale basis to measure crime By far the most ambitious and sustained effort has been conducted in the United States by the Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which utilizes the U.S Census Bureau as the data-gathering agent. The BJS was created by an act of Congress to coordinate the crime data generated by separate local, state, and federal agencies Other pilot surveys conducted by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) in the early 1970s were extremely useful in identifying major methodological issues to be addressed in later larger BJS surveys (Such issues as recall periods, reverse validity checks, problems of under and over-reporting, credibility of respondents, and sampling questions were noted and had the benefit of a trial run

Probing

Involves asking follow-up questions to focus, expand, clarify, or further explain the response given The interviewer should be familiar with what response is needed to each question to know when a probe is necessary. The probe should not appear to be a cross-examination, but a natural extension of the interview Conversation can be stimulated by frequent "uh-huh's" and "I see's" and by repetition of the respondents answer while recording. Occasional silence, although uncomfortable at times, may encourage more thoughtful and considered responses (Silence may also indicate that the interviewer is not going to accept that response) If a respondent goes off on a tangent then putting down one's pencil or closing the interview schedule may work at getting them to snap out of it. If the digression takes place after the interview, a polite excuse such as another appointment will usually work

ACASI (Audio Computer Assisted Self-Administered Interviewing)

Involves having the information on the screen simultaneously being played in earphones. They found much greater reporting of illegal drug use and multiple sex partners with ACASI than with CASI CASI (Computer Assisted Self Administered Interviewing) involves the respondent interacting directly with the computer but without audio. Respondent reluctance to admit sensitive information to an interviewer can be overcome in part by self-administration of the survey via computer. Tourangeau and Smith reviewed many studies of the effect of a computer as a tool for self-administered surveys and found no superiority

Administration of the Structured Interview

It is important for interviewers to become familiar with the flow of the questionnaire. The instrument should contain good transition statements that in a conversational style help the respondent to anticipate what comes next It should be administered in an easy, informal, and friendly manner to avoid the appearance of an inquisition. (it should at not time be referred to as an investigation) Interviewers should be instructed not to reword or change the questions in any way. (in general, questions should be asked in the order listed on the questionnaire) If clarification is necessary, the interviewer should mark down and list such necessary comments on the questionnaire itself If the person being interviewed resists answering sensitive questions, explain that the study is interested in a group picture of people of different incomes, ages, and backgrounds, and this information is important to the purposes of the study. In addition, the interviewer must assure the respondent that the information will be held in strictest confidence and no individuals will be identified in the final report.

Gatekeepers

Leader or person who is willing to accept the purpose of the study and vouch for the researcher's presence. A community worker's introduction of Whyte to Doc, leader of the Norton Street Gang, made access to Cornerville possible because Doc told everyone that Whyte was his friend Agar indicates that transfer to the street with a trusted native has several advantages: - You have a guide to the territory. - You have an introduction into at least some groups on the scene. Walker and LIds suggest the employment of indigenous observers, paid researchers from the ranks of those to be studied. Adler in "Researching Dealers and Smugglers" (2000) gained access to drug dealers and smugglers by befriending a neighbor who was a member of one of the drug smuggling crew. Patricia Adler observed the neighbor at work and got to know other members of the crew and their women. The crew advanced the author's research by serving as key informants and giving taped interviews

A Comparison of UCR, NCVS, and Self-Report Data

Menard examined 5 year to 10 year trends in crime and juvenile delinquency using UCR (official police data), the NCVS (victimization data), and the National Youth Survey (NYS) (self-reported delinquency) While the UCR showed steadily increasing rates of crime, the NCVS and NYS indicated stable or decreasing rates Although the increase in the official statistics in the face of relatively stable crime commission rates might be taken as a positive sign of increased reporting and police effectiveness, it may also reflect an increased reliance upon formal legal controls and police professionalization

Depth Interviews

More intensive and detailed interview, usually of fewer subjects than is the case in a standard survey, and is particularly useful in life histories or case studies In a depth interview, the researcher has a general list of topics to be explored, but exercises great discretion and flexibility in the manner, timing, and direction of questioning. Such interviews are excellent for hypothesis generating or exploratory research

Characteristics of Participant Observation

Most distinctive qualities of participant observation are its demands on time and personal cost Cost here refers to personal involvement, not financial obligations. As a general rule, the researcher is committed to studying a group for a considerable period, ranging from several weeks or months to several years. Participant observers hope to understand the frame of reference of the group they are studying. This is done by joining the group in their normal activities to experiences things as they do. The observer must attempt to operate mentally on two different levels: becoming an insider while remaining an outsider The observer cannot be so far inside or socialized into the group that everything seems so normal as to not be worth reporting. Similarly, the observer must be able to report patterns of behavior and interrelationships objectively and without moral bias The role of outsider can be very valuable in that subjects may be willing to share important information because she or he is an outsider The researcher must avoid over-socialization or going native.

Unobtrustive measures

Nonreactive methods of gathering data; that is, means of obtaining information in which subjects are not aware of being studied Webb describes it as nonreactive methods in which undisturbed subjects are observed in natural or manipulated settings Nonreactive methods usually involve clandestine, novel, and often "oddball" observations of existing situations.

Mnemonics

Often it is unwise or impossible to record notes on the spot. It may however be crucial that one be able to reconstruct in exacting detail much of what has taken place. Skilled researchers train themselves in an ancient art used by preliterate tribes to pass down word for word their traditions Alex Haley's Roots (1976) states that after asking the tribal leader whether a Kunta Kinte ever lived in this village, received no direct answer. Instead he had to listen to hours of oral recitation of the chronological history of the tribe until the wise one mentioned the sought-for information. Using mnemonics, a system of memorizing, the elder was merely using his mind as a vast computer memory bank and effortlessly provided an extensive oral printout of information. Examples of mnenomic devices include: ROYGBIV for the color spectrum. Anagrams (words or names) first letters of important lists, caricatures, and mental associations all permit later recall, reconstruction, and recording of important information The recording of detailed notes on a Dictaphone and their later transcription can be effective, although this method may prevent the researcher from thinking thorough the material and may yield huge transcripts that must be boiled down.

The Exit

Once the interview is completed the interviewer should carry on light conversation and be alert for any additional comments that the respondent may then offer The interviewer should thank the subjects for their time and hospitality and should clear up any concerns or doubts the respondent may have regarding the survey before leaving. Informal discussions after the interview can often lead to important "off-the-record" information. The interviewer can elicit such information by asking in an easy manner, "what do you think?"

Advantages of Interviews

One chief attraction of the interview is the opportunity it provides for personal contact between the researcher and the subject - Interviews are more flexible, may elicit more spontaneous responses, and can utilize more complex lines of questioning than is often possible in mail surveys - Interviews generally bring about a higher response rate than mail surveys - Interviewer can clear up any misunderstandings or confusions the respondent may have in interpreting questions - Interviewer can also act as an observer, and not only record verbal responses, but also make note of his or her own impressions regarding the respondents and their environment - Interviewer can also read questions to those with literacy problems and thus obtain a more representative sample - Interviews provide an opportunity for the interviewer to make use of cards, charts, and other audiovisual aids - Interview can make return visits if necessary and pitch the language to the level of the respondent. - Interviewers can determine the actual individual who is responding and can use their discretion as to the appropriate time at which to ask the more sensitive questions (with guarded or suspicious respondents, questions regarding income and the like can be saved for last, so as not to prematurely abort answers to the other questions)

Field Notes

One important practice that is essential in field studies is the keeping of extensive and detailed field notes or diaries According to Webb, "the palest ink is clearer than the best memory." It is necessary to take complete notes on as many details as possible, even those that appear trivial, because it may be these very unimportant details that later provide the key to some important facet of the study. As much importance and time should be allotted to recording observations as to participating, observing, and gathering such information. Berg claims there is a 4:1 ration of field-note writing to time in the field "word crunching", the use of computers in qualitative analysis has increased tremendously

Randomized Response Technique (RRT)

Originally developed by Warner Uses indeterminate questions; that is, the actual question answered is known only to the respondent and is unknown to the researcher. In Tracy and Fox's example, 100 married men are brought together in a room and asked to flip a coin. Next, they are asked to raise their hand if they either get a head on the coin or if they have abused their wives. If 60 hands are raised, we can assume 10 wife abusers among those with heads on the coin, because 50 heads would be expected by chance. Additionally, ten of the fifty with tails would also be assumed to be abusers for a total of twenty estimated abusers Despite some possible shortcomings, randomized response procedures have been found to yield more accurate results than direct questioning methods on sensitive items. Guerts, Andrux, and Reinmuth posed questions to subjects in pairs, one sensitive and one innocuous. The question answered is determined by a coin flip. They used the technique to analyze shoplifting, destruction, price altering, and other consumer violations Technique has also been used to study abortion and fertility control, drug use, child abuse, drunk driving, sexual behavior, illegal gambling, and shoplifting.

Demand Characteristics

Overagreeableness on the part of those surveyed is a related problem in surveys of public victimization

CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews)

Phone surveys can be done quickly and they can make maximum use of computerization through CATI Software packages exist to promote CATI systems. The computer flashes the question to be asked on the monitor, the interviewer keys in the answer, and the program chooses the next question to be asked. This is particularly useful for contingency questions, ones in which the interviewer is instructed to skip to different sequences of questions contingent upon the answers to others The computer immediately stores the response, can track inconsistencies in response, and can even track interviewer performance.

Gaining Access

Polsky advises that one learn the argot (specialized jargon) of the group being studied, but avoid overusing it or trying too hard to be an insider. Initial introductions to criminals in the field may be gained by frequenting their haunts or sharing other common recreational interests. Talese was successful in establishing contact with Bill Bonanno during a trial recess. After many months Talese began to establish contact with young Bill and his family, although at first the family was suspicious and skeptical, but Talese was accepting of this. Becker suggests various strategies for studying deviants. if previous status provides access to deviant groups, it should be taken advantage of. Ianni and Ianni were able to gain cooperation on the basis of mutual ethnic identity. Tewksbury and Gane suggest the following roles to gain entry: knowledgeable insider, potential participant, marginal member, emphatic outsider, and knowledgeable outsider working with a knowledgeable insider. Steffensmier gained access to information by finding a man named Sam Goodman through the recommendation of other burglars. Bryan offered counseling services to prostitutes

Tips on Participant Observation.

Polsky suggests some tips on studying criminals in their natural environment. He suggests that one should keep in mind that the subject is in greater jeopardy as a result of beign studied in the field than is someone in jail. The researcher is more of an intruder, and the subjects are certainly free not to cooperate. In studying criminals on their turf, researchers should avoid taking notes on teh spot and using standard data-gathering tools such as questionnaires or tape recorders. Initially they should spend their time observing and listening, and avoid asking a lot of questions.

Announcement of Intentions

Polsky suggests that if researchers gain access on the basis of some common interest, for instance, gambling or drinking, they should very early on indicate their true purpose. Most subjects will accept the simple explanation that the research is writing a book on the subjects.

Single Subject Designs

Quantitative case studies that involve the longitudinal measurement of a dependent variable on a single subject or case Single subject designs measure populations in which N=1. In such designs the time interval is usually divided into a baseline period (A), an intervention period (B), and any number of additional variations There are three basic types of single subject designs 1.) Basic AB Design 2.) Reversal Design (ABA, ABAB) 3.) Multiple Treatment Design (ABACA) PAGE 234 The single-subject technique is viewed as promoting research by practitioners simply because clinical service providers find it to be more practical than group designs

Reciprocity and Protection of Identity

Reciprocity: involves a system of mutual obligations. The research subjects help the investigator; now what is owed them? Of great importance in participant observation, particularly of criminals in the field, is protection of the identity of informants. Most researchers use pseudonyms (aliases) to shroud the actual names of the subjects. Sutherland's professional thief "Chic" Conwell is a famous example. Decided beforehand is the degree to which researchers wish to be privy to criminal activity. Klockars struck a deal with Vincent "I also told Vincent that I would not reveal his identity unless it meant that I was going to jail if I did not, and he told me that he really could not expect me to do more. Polsky tells us that although a researcher should not pretend to be "one of them" he or she should also not stick out like a sore thumb.

Life History/Oral History

Recounts of events by particiapnts Journalists use the term autobiography, whereas historians and social scientists use documentary expression or oral history. Laub in "Criminology in the Making: An oral History" examines the history of criminology by means of in-depth interviews with major criminologists Frank Taylor in the 1990s has been instrumental in organizing and conducting the "Oral History Project" a joint undertaking of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences and the American Society of Criminology, to conduct videotape interviews with pioneers in criminal justice and criminology. Such research can be used to test theories and generate hypotheses for future research.

Random Digit Dialing (RDD)

Sampling procedure that enables the researcher to overcome a major shortcoming of telephone surveys, new or unlisted telephone numbers Procedure can be summarized: Step 1.) Find the universe of exchanges for the area to be surveyed. Some telephone books conveniently list these in the first few pages of the directory. The complete list of such numbers constitutes the universe (population) to be surveyed Step 2.) Use some randomized scheme to select the numbers. For example, take every nth name on a page selected by means of a table of random numbers and use that telephone number Step 3.) Retain the first four digits and, using a table of random numbers to complete the number, be careful not to go beyond the range of the universe as determined earlier. By this procedure, persons with unlisted and new numbers are included in the sample, although those who do not own telephones are not. Such random numbers can also be generated one at a time by a CATI system.

Other Recording Methods

Sanders, in a participant observation study of detectives would leave his notebook open in the detectives' offices at the end of each day to show he had nothing to hide. Later he ceased taking notes on the spot altogether and used the time for relaxed observation Sanders also took photographs to improve recall. These acted as a second type of field notes. Tape recorders, videotapes, films, and other mechanical aids can greatly improve recall. Nevertheless, such devices must be used with caution or perhaps not at all if the subject matter is criminal activity.

Gaining Access to Prisons

Scholars who undertake ethnographic research in prisons complain of growing hurdles to doing such investigations These include: - Suspicious wardens - State approval boards - Institutional Review Boards Britton, author of At Work in the Iron Cage: The Prison as Gendered Organization, suggests that scholarly research be proposed that can help wardens with practical problems in their prisons. Before the late 1970s, researches gained entry to prison settings on the basis of employment or a relationship with a connected person. Since that time, gaining entry to correctional environments has become more complicated.

Techniques employed in telephone surveys

Sensitive items such as income can be handled by a line of questioning employing a branching procedure in which income is narrowed down to broad estimates. The likelihood of refusals is greatest during the first minute of the telephone conversation. Even questions requiring scaled responses rather than simply yes or no answers can be answered over the telephone. For example, respondents can be asked about their attitudes or ratings of a subject by being requested to respond by picturing a thermometer ranging from very cold, cold, mild, warm, and very hot. Telephone dials or buttons themselves can be utilized to measure degrees of response ranging for instance from zero to nine

Sampling Bias

Skogan points out that Males, African Americans, and youths are much more likely than others to fall victim to most crimes, but they are less likely to be found and questioned.

Sampling for Participant Observations

Snowball sampling is recommended

Disadvantages of Interviews

Some principal disadvantages of field interviews are that they may be very time consuming and costly (although these problems can be offset in part by cluster sampling, covering widely dispersed households in person can be a problem) - Interviewer effect or bias may be responsible for distorted results - Interviewer may make mistakes in asking questions or recording information (Because of these problems, the use of even a few interviewers requires supervision, training, and monitoring) - In assigning and coordinating field interviews, the supervisor should be aware of the need for weekend and evening interviews to obtain representative responses - Interviewing becomes a particularly difficult strategy when attempting to obtain information from hard-to-reach populations although by way of trade-offs respondents who do not own telephones can be reached - Interviewers may be problematic for respondents if factual data that must be looked up are requested. They are sometimes less convenient to the respondent and afford less anonymity than mail surveys. - Perhaps the chief potential problems rest in the quality, integrity , and the skill of the interviewers, factors that may be uneven in interview surveys. - Question wording in interviews can alter response

Critique of Experiments and Surveys

Some researchers feel that social science and criminal justice research have been overdependent on the artificial elements of questionnaires, interviews, and experimental settings Such data-gathering approaches are viewed as creating, as well as measuring, attitudes and bring about atypical roles and responses. Whyte laments the recent ascendancy of quantitative methods and decline of qualitative fieldwork and says that if a history of the current period of sociology were to be written, one of the chapters would have to be "Captured by Computer."

Structure Interviews

Sometimes called closed interview schedules Usually consist of check-off responses to questions that are either factual or to which most responses easily fit an expectable pattern. The interviewer should avoid soliciting additional comments but, when they occur, record them verbatim The principle disadvantage of close ended questions is that they generally elicit only limited response patterns; their advantages are easy administration and data processing as will be seen later.

Physical Trace Analysis

Study of deposits, accretion of matter, and other indirect substances produced by previous human interaction. Much like the archaeologist or crime science dt

Complete Participation

Takes place when the researcher not only joins in but actually begins to manipulate the direction of group activity. Such a strategy is rare and tends to violate an essential element of good participant observation, that the researcher attempts to avoid influencing the attitudes or behavior of the subjects under study. Can also be labeled as disguised observation Most frequently cited example of complete participation in the social science literature is the case of a group of researchers who joined a small doomsday cult called "When Prophecy Fails". because the group was small, questions were raised as to the extent to which researchers brought about the behavior they wished to investigate Describe his research strategy as "complete participation" Marquart (1986) worked as a prison guard for nineteen months while collecting data on prison life. He was able to enter into more sensitive aspects of guard work, particularly after he established his credibility by successfully defending himself against an attack by an inmate.

Community Crime Victimization Survey Software

The BJS has produced Crime Victimization Survey (CVS) software that can be used by local government agency researchers to conduct their own victimization surveys It uses the same questions asked in the NCVS, in addition it can measure citizen attitudes toward crime, their neighborhood, and local policing services. The latest version, Justice Survey Software (JSS) is a free Web-based software for justice agencies to conduct their own surveys using standardized questions available from various sources.

Defense of Victim Surveys

The Department of Justice's BJS is constantly monitoring and attempting to update the methodological accuracy of the NCVS. In 1985, a panel of experts in criminology (The National Crime Consortium) was charged with the task of devising better screening questions to obtain better control over forgotten as well as sensitive items

Concern for Accuracy

The Iannis developed a pecking order or scale that they used to assign validity to the data they gathering: 1.) Data gathered by direct observation where we were participants 2.) Data gathered by direct observation where we were not direct participants 3.) Interviews that can be checked out against documented sources. For example, records of arrest or business ownership 4.) Data corroborated by more than one informant 5.) Lowest priority is assigned to data gathered from only one source. In addition, informants were graded from "always reliable" to "unreliable"

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

The National Crime Surveys were initiated in July 1972. Originally, the National Crime Surveys comprised the National Crime Panel Surveys and the Central City Surveys. Now, only the National Crime Panel Studies are conducted and these are referred to as the National Crime Victimization Surveys (NCVS) These surveys began as a collaboration between the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the U.S. Census Bureau. In 1969, LEAA, which had been created as a branch of DOJ in 1968 evolved a subbranch, the National Criminal Justice Information and Statistics Service (NCJISS) that became involved in the early surveys. Since 1980, the NCJISS has become BJS

Panel Design of the NCVS

The crime panel repeats interviews every six months to bound or provide a benchmark for crime reports. Bounding involves using a pretest or initial interview to set a reference point for the survey reporting period Each subgroup of the crime panel is interviewed every 6 months for three years and then is rotated out of the panel and replaced by a new bounded subgroup The NCVS is conducted for the BJS by the Census Bureau Core survey averages approximately 30 minutes per household. Survey has two parts: screening questions and incident reports. If victimization is claimed in the screening instrument, then the incident reports instrument is used to follow up on such details. Questions regarding personal victimization are asked of each household member 12 years of age or older (if the person victimized is hospitalized, incompetent, or temporarily absent) proxy respondents are accepted

Computers in Survey Research

The first wave of computer usage in the social sciences involved data management and statistical analysis The second wave has involved the development of software that has enhanced data collection.

Objectivity in Research

The research must avoid not only over-identification with the study group but also aversion to it. Anthropologists occasionally find some of the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the societies they study repugnant and immoral; however, they are trained not to judge but rather to record the meaning of these behavior patterns to the people who practice them. Famous anthropologist Malinowski, author of Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922), and other fine early studies of the Trobriand islanders, has been pointed to as a model of objectivity. Yablonsky criticized Polsky's view that the field researcher in criminal justice should avoid moralistic stances. Yablonsky feels that such a posture is going too far, whereas Polsky claims that such a position is necessary to gain a full picture of group activity. Manning faced an ethical dilemma while observing the police. Asking himself if it occurs, of brutality, harassment, incompetence, or malfeasance, is the observer require to reveal immediately to the policeman's superiors what he observes. Will a complete study have even greater cumulative impact on the organization than revelation of instances of wrongdoing. On this same general issue, some researchers take the stance that participant observation is obnoxious manipulation and immoral, or psychological espionage. Is this true or is it necessary deception in order to obtain needed data.

CAPI (Computer Assisted Programmed Interviewing)

The researcher uses a laptop computer instead of a clipboard. The interview protocol appears on the screen, and the interviewer enters the responses Inexpensive computers can be place in respondent homes for longitudinal research. In one project, on completion of the study the respondents were given the computers as an incentive for having participated Computerized interviews may even have advantages over standard interviews in eliminating interviewer bias, obtaining more standardized responses, assuring anonymity, and reducing coding error

NCVS Sampling Method

The surviving set of surveys of the NCVS (the national crime panel) consists of national surveys of housing units. Since 1991 the National Crime Survey has been known as the NCVS. Ongoing since 1973, data are obtained each year for a nationally representative sample of 77,200 households or nearly 134,000 people. A housing unit remains in the sample for three years. The subsamples are designed so that every six months one group is rotated out of the sample and replaced by a new group Rotation (reinterviews and replacement of panel sub units) enables the crime panel to remain fresh and representative. The first and fifth interviews are conducted in person, while the others are via telephone. The NCVS is conducted using a complex stratified multistage cluster sample.

Telescoping

The tendency of respondents to move forward and report as having occurred events that actually took place before the reference period.

Participant as Observer

The type that most people identify as constituting participant observation. The researcher usually makes his presence known and although attempting not to influence situations tries to objectively observe the activities of the group.

Visual Criminology

The use of photographs in field studies has a long tradition particularly in anthropology. Classic anthropologist Frank Boas used the technique in his study of the Trobriand Islanders. He used photo-elicitation in which photographs were shown to the subjects in order to get them to talk about specific rituals Autodriving: the respondents themselves are asked to take photos and comment on them Reflexive Photography: involves giving respondents cameras and asking them to take pictures that are then explored in subsequent interviews. Photo Novella (picture stories): another form of photo interviewing in which taking photos gives people a photo voice by later discussing particular needs or problems illustrated by these photos. Cecil Greek (2005) describes visual criminology as using photography as an ethnographic research method in criminal justice settings. Whether the researcher is aware of it or not, a newcomer to a group is assigned a role by the old members. He or she is viewed as a potential, if not actual, disturbance. Generally, it takes some time before the newcomer is accepted to the degree that the group becomes less suspicious and begins to act more naturally. Usually the smaller the group, the greater the potential disturbance introduced y the researcher; however, the longer the participant is present, the less the disturbance over time because he or she is eventually accepted by the respondents.

General Procedures in Participant Observations

There is no one and only method of participant observation McLuhan whimsically stated that "the last person to ask how the water is is a fish." This is his way of suggesting that it is generally not a good idea to attempt to study a group in which one has been a lifelong member. The old speaker's rule of thumb holds that one must travel at least 100 miles from home grounds to be regarded as an expert

Bounding

Time period during which events were recalled as having taken place can be established

Participant Observations

Variety of strategies in which the researcher studies a group in its natural setting by observing its activities, and to varying degrees, participating in its activities. Participant observations has long been the favorite tool of anthropologists in studying preliterate tribes Howard Becker's teacher, Robert Park, in the 1920s told his students to "get the seat of your pants dirty in real research" The Chicago School of Sociology in the 1920s pioneered much of the early ethnographic work in criminology. Perhaps with the demise of the funded "golden age of criminal justice research" researchers may return to the qualitative methods and people-oriented Chicago School style research The target populations of criminal justice research (the public, victims, criminals, and criminal justice functionaries) have been subject to a variety of methodological analyses Although some find examples of the use of participant observation exist in the field, it has been viewed as a neglected and underused technique in criminal justice. A disproportionate number of police studies have utilized participant observation as the major means of data gathering.

Cost of Large Samples

Victim surveys require such large samples because of the need to ensure the appearance of rare events. Also because sampling error is proportionate to the size of the sample instead of the size of the population being sampled, one often needs as large a sample to estimate victimization in small or large cities as would be necessary for the entire nation

Verstehen Approach

Weber (1949) referred to such strategies other than questionnaires as illustrative of a Verstehen approach. One in which the researcher purposefully attempts to understand phenomena from the standpoint of the actors or to gain critical insight through an understanding of the entire context or frame of reference of the subjects under study.

Malestream

What feminist researchers called mainstream male approaches to empirical criminal justice research for not incorporating feminist views. One researcher used in-depth interviews as a way of getting at women's experiences that are obscured in standard surveys.

Journalistic Field Studies

William Foote Whyte acknowledges his debt to the writings of turn-of-the-century journalist Lincoln Steffens, author of "The Shame of the Cities" (1904) for having inspired him to undertake participant observation. Investigative journalists are interested in documenting and exposing social conditions and are generally less interested in theoretically incorporating their findings into the social science literature. In "Paper Lion" Geore Plimpton participated in the training camp of the Detroit Lions football team.

Interviewing

can refer to a variety of face-to-face situations in which the researcher orally solicits responses. Berg defines interviews as conversations with a purpose; the purpose being to gather information

William Foote Whyte

in his study "Streetcorner Society" Whyte was never able to do an entirely successful analysis of the rackets in Cornerville because he blew an opportunity with a racketeer to whom he had been introduced. While with his informant, Doc, Whyte asked a gambler if they had paid the cops off. This question threw off the entire conversation and ruined the evening An American Fulbright scholar in Uruguay, Smykla described how his initial involvement entailed "inoffensive social interaction."