Child and Adolescent Psych Exam #3

•Ainsworth's Strange Situation

-A standardized laboratory test with 12- to- 18-month-olds •Parent (P) and infant introduced to experimental room (30 sec) •P and infant alone; no P participation as infant explores (3 min) •Stranger (S) enters, converses with P, then approaches infant (3 min). P leaves inconspicuously. •First separation: S's behavior geared to infant (3 min OR LESS) •First reunion: P greets & comforts infant, leaves again (3 min or more) •Second separation: Infant is alone (3 min or less) •Continuation of second separation: S enters and gears behavior to that of infant (3 min or less) •Second reunion: P enters, greets and picks up infant; S leaves inconspicuously (3 min)

•Criticisms of Strange Situation test

-Artificiality of the test •J. Belsky (in Talbot, 1998): It may be artificial, but so is a treadmill test for the heart. That's a physical stress test - this is an emotional stress test. They're both artificial, but they're both diagnostic, too. -Cross-cultural differences •Germany: higher proportion of avoidant pairs than U.S.; Japan higher proportion of resistant à bias (mother's in Japan focus largely on relationships as opposed to independence) ? -Focus on exclusive care by mother (or primary caregiver) -Focus on infancy period •Importance of childhood (e.g., events like divorce) -Neglect of other factors (e.g., temperament) and their role for subsequent development

•Fostering secure attachments

-Availability of an attachment figure -Sensitive care and insightfulness •Consistent and responsive care-giving (e.g., let infant play role in timing of feeding) •Empathic in interpreting child's signals (risk of insec.-resistant attachment when mother misinterprets) -Interactional synchrony •Caregiver responds to infant's signals in well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and matches infant's emotional states (back and forth process) -Physical contact •Baby-wearing (slings in which you can wear your baby in front of you); breast feeding

•John Bowlby's Internal working models

-Based on parent-child interactions, child develops mental representations of self (e.g., self-worth), others (e.g., how accessible, responsive), and social relationships in general -These guide expectations, feelings, and behaviors in future adult relationships - Examine presence of internal working models in infancy (infants that were securely attached tend to dishabituate when they saw the unresponsive caregiver showing that was not what they expected, the have their own mental templates of relationships)

•John Bowlby's ethological theory of attachment

-Biological preparedness of both infant and mother •Babies are drawn to their mothers (voice, smell, etc.) •Mothers are drawn to their infant (includes cute response) -Specific interaction patterns between the two that are based on this preparedness then determine the quality of the relationship/attachment bond •Infant establishes more general internal working models

personality development

-Called temperament in infancy -Relatively stable individual differences in mood and behavior -Reflects how people express and regulate their emotions •Includes temperament, but also beliefs, habits, morals, social cognition (higher-order) •The Big Five -OCEAN Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism •Significant but modest correlations between 10-year-old personality measures and adult outcomes •Differences between delinquent and non-delinquent adolescents: delinquent high on E, low on A, C, O •Low conscientiousness in adolescence linked to increased risk behaviors, such as smoking, unprotected sex, reckless driving

Emotions in adolescence

-Changes in identity (incl. body) and increased self-reflection, increase in negative emotions •Relative to childhood -Positive emotions experienced more in peer than parent interactions •Striving for emotional autonomy (subjective sense of independence, esp. from parents) -Notion of adolescence as storm & stress not generally supported Emotional problems in childhood and adolescence -Internalizing and externalizing •Depression, anxiety (phobias, PTSD, OCD), eating disorders (internalized) •Acting out, e.g., oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) (externalized) -Uncooperative, hostile (esp. toward adults) •Internalizing: girls > boys; externalizing: boys > girls -May be linked to gender-specific evolutionary reproductive advantages (e.g., soliciting help with childcare versus gaining peer status) Percentage of students in grades 9-12 who reported symptoms of depression by gender 2011

•Fathers/multiple attachments

-Children develop multiple attachments •Different individuals fulfill different socio-emotional needs; children seem to prefer fathers over mothers for play-time -These attachments differ from one another qualitatively •Not a quantitative hierarchy

The role of parents

-Comfort crying infants (provide what ever is lacking) -Be warm, accepting, trusting -Emotion coaching versus emotion dismissing (teach them emotion vocabulary) •Validate, explain (label), and coach (regulation) rather than deny, belittle, try to change child's emotions •Encourage child to express emotions •Talk about emotion-eliciting situations, story characters •Model appropriate ways of dealing with negative emotions

•Mary Ainsworth's work

-Conducted extensive naturalistic (did not set up an experience, she just observed everyday situations) observations of everyday mother-infant interactions -Concluded that 2 key measures provide insight into the nature (or quality) of attachment between caregiver and child: •1. To what extent can child use caregiver as a secure base -Presence of trusted caregiver gives infant a sense of security allowing them to go off and explore •2. How infant reacts to separations from and reunions with the caregiver

•Why do infants love their mothers?

-Freud: because they feed them •Oral gratification -Behaviorists: because they feed them •Learn to associate mother with primary reinforcer -Harry Harlow's (1950s) important experimental work with rhesus monkeys •Preference for "cloth mother" despite having been fed by "wire mother" - especially when stressed •Creature comfort alone is not enough, however - monkeys reared in isolation become socially disturbed •The concept -Close emotional bond that ties infant to mother •Or primary caretaker (but mothers hold special status) •Note: mother to infant tie is called bonding -physical presence allows emotional security -Behavioral expressions •Exploration in presence of caregiver, distress upon separation (also stranger anxiety), happy when reunited

•Stages of attachment

-Gradual development based on interactions -Preattachment (birth - 6 weeks) •Indiscriminate social responsiveness -Attachment in-the-making (6 weeks - ~7 months) •Positive responses to most strangers •No substantial distress when separated from caregiver -Clear-cut attachment (~7 - ~18 months) •Wariness of strangers, distress when separated, physical proximity to caregiver -Reciprocal relationship •More balanced, 2-way relationship

risk factors for mental disorders

-Low-income household -Involvement in child welfare or juvenile justice systems •Abuse & neglect: PTSD -Racial minority status •E.g., suicidality higher in Latina than white HS students -Having disabilities •E.g., increased risk for depression, suicide in youth with learning disabilities

•The role of parents - Goodness-of-Fit concept

-Match child temperament and environmental demands •E.g., inhibited child in constantly changing context •Parents should -Notice and respect individuality ("belief" in temperament often only with arrival of 2nd child, who may be markedly different from 1st) -Structure the child's environment accordingly

•Insecure attachments

-Maternal depression •Depressed mothers show decreased responsiveness •Their infants show less activity as well as less positive and more negative emotions; insec.-avoidant attachment -Abuse/neglect associated with disorganized attachment •Approach/avoidance behavior of these children may be adaptive given that they never know what to expect -Irritable newborns may be more likely to develop insecure attachments, but not clear-cut •Goodness-of-fit (some parents will be able to deal well with "difficult" infants)

Emotion understanding

-More intellectual than expression, recognition (Cognitive Development) -Later developing aspect, approx. 3 - 11 years •3 - 7: Gradually recognize all emotional expressions and understand effect of reminders -E.g., seeing a dog that resembles yours that died •Increased perspective-taking ability •~9plus: Understand mixed emotions, use of cognition in regulating emotions Emotion regulation -Important skill •For one's own mental and physical well-being, but ability to inhibit inappropriate behaviors and use of cognitive strategies also linked to social competence, peer acceptance -Shift from caregiver- to self-regulation •Initially, parents do all the soothing and distracting •~3 months, initial self-regulation (gaze aversion, thumb-sucking) •Self-distraction becomes more popular over early years •From tantrums, pouting to discussing negative emotions -Use of cognitive strategies to control negative emotion •Early behavioral strategies replaced with rethinking goals and other cognitive strategies *being able to control your emotions especially negative emotions will be beneficial towards mental health and peer acceptance as people who reign in negative emotions get along better with others

Emotion recognition

-Neonates: Contagious crying (unclear what triggers this) -Social referencing •Starts at around 9 months •Greater attention to negative than neutral or positive cues (negativity bias)

parent shortcomings

-Parenting is not a one-way street •Child temperament influences parent behavior -Advantages and disadvantages of different styles vary across environments/contexts, cultures •Authoritarian style may be more adaptive in dangerous neighborhoods - and also seen as caring by the child (can be seen as more concerned or caring when there are rules) •Chinese parents appear more authoritarian (give child fewer options, etc.) - reflects different cultural values -"Style" implies consistency across time and situations, but little evidence- this is largely true for positive behaviors but not for negative behaviors

Emotional problems in childhood and adolescence

-Parents of 4- to 17-year-olds report that ~5% have distinct or severe emotional/behavioral problems •May be a conservative estimate -Many anxiety and impulse control disorders begin in childhood or adolescence and persist •~75% of young adults with psychiatric disorders first had a diagnosis between the ages of 11 and 18 years -Costello et al. (2011) 12- to 19-year-olds: •Total prevalence of psychiatric disorders ~21% •Most common: substance use or dependence (12%), anxiety disorders (11%), depressive disorders (6%) percentage of adolescents with selected mental disorders

factors influencing parenting style

-Parents' emotional adjustment •Psychologically healthy parents tend to be more effective (e.g., maternal depression) -Parents' marriage •Can be source of emotional support -Marital strife increases use of physical punishment •Good: co-parenting (coordination of goals & methods) -Social support •Help of extended family, friends; esp. important for single parents -Economic stability and SES

Empirical Evidence of development of gender identity

-Patricia Bauer (1993): Elicited Imitation with 25-month-olds •Stereotypically male action sequences (building a house) •Stereotypically female (changing diapers) •Gender neutral (b-day party) -No memory difference in girls, but boys show better memory for male and neutral than for female actions

alternatives to physical punishment

-Plan for and systematically reward positive behavior (like opportunities to help around the house and praise them) -Distract misbehaving child (try to get them to engage in other behaviors) -Punish problem behavior immediately and appropriately •E.g., child who doesn't clean up their toys cannot play with them for the rest of the day (so they can see the connection) •Time-out works best as prevention from gaining reward (e.g., laughter from sibs) for misbehavior •Figure out what's actually punishing and rewarding for your child

•Nonparental care and parent-child attachment

-Quality of care important •Child family care is generally better than center care •1 caregiver to 4 children (or fewer) & small groups •Adequate training of workers -Daycare per se does NOT lead to inferior quality of parent-child attachment relationship •Insecure attachments are likely if -Care is poor, child spends 10 hours/week there/has more than one care arrangement; and when mothers are not very sensitive •Nonparental care and parent-child attachment -Daycare may have benefits •Having a daycare attachment figure may partially compensate for insecure attachment with primary caregiver •Potential for social and cognitive growth

Attachment and Early Parent-Child Care Lecture 12 •Historical background of attachment research

-Rene Spitz (1940s) •Observed infants residing in orphanages •Noticed that despite good physical care many of them were generally sickly, developmentally retarded •Death rate of 37% compared with 0 in similar institution in which infants had daily contact with their mothers •Long-lasting negative effects also in those who survived •Realization that a crucial aspect of caregiving is the formation of a close emotional bond (Similar more recent observations in Romanian orphans) -Konrad Lorenz's ethological research on imprinting in birds •Shortly after hatching, goslings, chicks, etc. follow their mother -Critical period for this imprinting exists •Also noticed that particular features in offspring elicit caregiving behaviors (cute response, elicits caretaking) -Large eyes, large forehead •Main function of mother-infant links is survival of offspring (protection from predators)

•Four categories describing quality of the relationship

-Secure (approximately 60% of US middle-class children) •Explore novel environment in mother's presence (occasionally looking back); may be initially upset after her departure; seek contact with her after she returns and are comforted by it -Insecure-avoidant (~15%) •Actively avoid/are indifferent to mother upon return, frequently not very distressed by separation -Insecure-resistant/ambivalent (~10%) •Often clingy; very upset at separation; ambivalent mix of contact-seeking and -resisting upon return; great difficulty being soothed -Insecure-disorganized (~15%) •Contradictory behaviors; sometimes appear dazed, show stereotypical movements, "freezing"

•Consequences of (in)secure attachment

-Securely attached infants tend to ... •... be better adjusted children later on, more independent, explore more, richer symbolic play, more persistence in problem-solving, better relationships with parents and peers, self-esteem, etc. -Insecure attachment predicts ... •... depression, alcoholism, eating disorders in adults

•Stability over time

-Stability in attachment usually correlated with stability of parenting and environment over time •Parents who support their infant likely also support their toddler, adolescent, etc. -Changes in circumstances (serious illness, divorce, parental loss) can lead to changes in sensitivity •Which may lead to changes in attachment quality -Who has experiences with a BF or GF that remind them of the attachment behaviors seen in infants? Intergenerational transmission Pass on attachment status across generations (replicate experiences with your own children) VIEW OF SELF Positive Negative VIEW OF Positive Autonomous(Secure) Preoccupied (Resistant) OTHERS Negative Dismissing (Avoidant) Fearful(Unresolved; disorganized) •Most abusive parents report having been abused or neglected as children -But most abused children do not grow up to become criminals/abusers! (if a than b does not mean b than a)

the dynamic systems nature of families

-The family system includes subsystems/networks of ever-changing bi-directional relationships •Parent-child, marital, sibling, ... -The family itself is embedded in larger systems •Neighborhood, town, region, society, country, culture, hemisphere ... -Individual members of the family are parts of other networks •School, work, organizations, ... traditional nuclear family •Traditional nuclear family -Hubby plus wife plus their biological children with father as sole breadwinner considered the basic building block of society

Temper tantrums

-Whining, crying, screaming, kicking, breath-holding -Normal part of development •Usually occur from age 1 to age 3, in both boys and girls -Reasons •Attention-seeking, tired, hungry, uncomfortable •Frustration coupled with lack of inhibition -Frustration is an unavoidable part of kids' lives as they learn how people, objects, and their own bodies work -Handling tantrums •Keep cool & ensure physical safety; NO physical violence (instead: time-out) don't give in to tantrums they don't have the ability to calm themselves down yet

Changing Families

1.Family Structure: Number of parents and parental characteristics -Increasing # of children living with only one parent -Married versus unmarried parents -Increased age at first marriage -Divorced parents -Same-sex parents 2.Broader conditions -Employment and unemployment -Poverty

Describe some of the specific benefits as well as specific negative consequences of adolescent risk-taking, and explain why risk-taking generally increases in adolescence.

Associated factors: Age: increases when going into adolescence and decreases when coming out of adolescence. Critical developmental changes occur in brain pathways that regulate emotional expression, cognitive/attentional focus, and sensitivity to rewards Amygdala, dopamine system, myelination and synaptic pruning Peer pressure More common in boys that in girls Low self esteem or low conscientiousness Seeking novelty, social and environmental stimulation, exploration Neither inherently good or bad Risk taking can be seen as learning opportunities but can also cause harm. Unsafe sex (HIV, STDs, STIs, pregnancy) Reckless drunk driving (fatal injuries) Drug use (OD or addiction)

Emotional Development Lecture 11 Emotion

Capacity for emotion as a crucial human feature Emotions cause us to use our intelligence for some adaptive purpose we care for the outcomes of our behavior emotions as a behavioral compass -joy: repeat -anger: fight -fear: flee -sadness: stop

Define emotion regulation, explain why it is important, and describe major developmental changes in emotion regulation that take place between infancy and middle childhood.

Emotional Regulation- learning how to control emotions (negative) Shift from caregiver to self regulationInitially parents do all the soothing and distracting - Infants cannot self soothe early on. ~3 months, initial self-regulation (gaze aversion, thumb-sucking) Self-distraction becomes more popular over the early years From tantrums, pouting to discussing negative emotions Tantrums: child is overwhelmed with something Normal part of development (age 1-3)Reasons: attention-seeking, tired, hungry, uncomfortable, frustration coupled with lack of inhibition Frustration is an unavoidable part of kids' lives as they learn how people, objects, and their own bodies work. How to handle: keep cool and ensure physical safety: NO physical violence (timeout instead)Use of cognitive strategies to control negative emotion Early behavioral strategies replaced with rethinking goals and other cognitive strategies. Setting goals that are realistic for yourself.

Explain the differences between internalizing and externalizing emotional problems, provide some specific examples of each, and briefly describe common gender differences in childhood/adolescence.

Internalizing: the symptoms and the outcomes of the disorder are turned inward (towards themself) Ex: the person who is clinically depressed, this does not have a social problems but more individual problems Depression (symptoms can differ between gender - women cry and are sad, men get angry and aggressive), anxiety (phobias, PTSD, OCD), eating disorders Girls are more likely to internalize Externalizing: the symptoms and the outcomes of the disorder are turned outward (towards other people) Ex: Someone with ODD would act out aggressively which would hurt society more than the person themselves Acting out eg. oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) ODD- kids who act out aggressively Boys are more likely to externalize Social environment is stressingMay be linked to gender-specific evolutionary reproductive advantages (eg. soliciting help with childhood vs gaining peer status)

•Primary (basic) versus secondary (self-conscious) emotions

Primary-do not really require a self concept yet -At birth: Distress, interest, disgust; -1-3 months: joy; -3-6 months: anger, sadness, surprise; -6-8 months: fear Secondary-Require an understanding of self •Pride, shame/guilt, jealousy, gratitude, envy, shyness, ... -Differences •Primary appear during first 6 months, secondary later •Self-awareness needed for secondary •Strong biological predisposition (for primary) versus cultural learning (for secondary) •Secondary (self-conscious) emotions -Embarrassment •Beginning at around 18 - 24 months; often when made center of attention -Guilt & Shame: Sense of personal responsibility •With guilt the focus is on others, with shame on self; You did a bad thing versus You're a bad girl •Guilt is more "productive" as it is an opportunity to teach the impact you have on others as well as teach how they can atone for their guilt while shame gives little opportunity to correct behavior -Pride: Need to be able to differentiate easy/difficult things to accomplish (3 years), success/failure, agency (7 years) means when the positive outcome they received was due to something they did

Describe the three key differences between primary and secondary emotions and give at least two specific examples of each type of emotion.

Primary: Appear in the first 6 months At birth-distress, interest disgust 1-3 months-joy 3-6 months-anger, sadness, surprise 6-8 months-fear Secondary: self conscious emotions Understand idea of self at this point Pride, shame/guilt, jealousy, gratitude, envy, shyness Embarrassment: begins around 18-24 months Heavily influenced by culture Differences Primary appear during first 6 months, secondary later Self awareness needed for secondary Primary → Strong biological predisposition versus Secondary→ cultural learning

Peer Status as a Predictor of Risk

Risk is most common in rejected group and least common in popular group •For rejected kids intervention is necessary -Help in interpreting social cues -Teaching prosocial strategies -Role playing (feedback), modeling •Often more successful for children under 10, less so for adolescents

Lecture 11 In what sense do emotions serve adaptive functions with regards to behavior? Provide specific examples to illustrate the general principle.

They provide cues to things to repeat or things to stop doing. They make us care about the things we do and give us important information about our behavior. Emotions get associated with certain behavior that teaches us to either repeat or stop that behavior Anger - fight Joy - repeat Fear - flee Sadness - stop Disgust: steers you away from things that are toxic to you (food, people, etc) Fear is a response to perceived danger When physical support is lost (feeling like they are going to be dropped) can cause fear. Specific fears are not innate, but quickly learned. Fear of snakes (DeLoache & LoBue, 2009

Using the emotion of fear, explain what prepared learning is, and describe in some detail how DeLoache and LoBue (2009) tested whether a fear of snakes is innate or acquired.

Specific fears are not innate, but quickly learned Prepared learning is learning how to feel an emotion, but the emotion is not innate Example: a fear of snakes You don't know you are scared of snakes until you experience them and understand you are scared of snakes Listening to voices and hearing voices, the fearful voice allowed the children to look at the snake rather than the other picture Certain things we quickly learn to fear The slithering movement elicits the fear.

Define the term infant temperament and explain how it is similar to and different from later personality.

Temperament is based in a more biological basis, is present and observable at birth and is relatively stable over time. Chess and Thomas classify infants into 3 categories of temperament; easy, difficult and slow to warm up. Personality includes temperament, but also includes beliefs, habits, morals and social cognition and is therefore more focused on higher order processes. Temperament is a precursor to personality Temperament is a term for personality in infancy Temperament reflects regulating emotions Personality includes temperament, but also beliefs, habits, morals, social cognition An infant that is highly reactive will be more likely to keep to themselves when they are older because they are already easily overwhelmed THE BIG FIVE Personality Traits- OCEAN Openness to new experiences as opposed to sticking to routines. Conscientious- pays attention to detail, gets work done on town.Low conscientiousness in adolescence is linked to increased risk behaviors, such as smoking, unprotected sex, or reckless driving. Extroversion- how well you get along with others. Agreeableness: how well you get along with others. Neuroticism- how much a person worries about things.

Side Note: Child Care Cost

•2016 Economic Policy Institute report -In-state public college tuition in 23 states was lower than cost of FT childcare for a 4-year-old •Monthly costs for one 4-year-old range from $344 in rural SC to $1,472 in Washington, D.C.; costs are higher for families with multiple children •Some areas, like MA or DC, see average childcare costs for a 4-year-old at $12,781 and $17,842, respectively -Infant care is even less affordable •Only SD and WY have infant care that meets the DHHS' definition of affordable, i.e., consuming 10% or less of a family's income (in MA child care is considered unaffordable for over 80% of families

functions of the family

•Functions -Survival of offspring •Protect, feed, educate, clothe, house ... •2015 estimate: families can expect to spend ~$13,000 a year, on average, to raise a child - that excludes college -Economic function •Train children to acquire skills to provide for themselves in adulthood (education plays a large role) -Cultural training = Socialization •Process by which parents ensure that child's behavior, attitudes, etc. are in line with those considered appropriate by society

Trans Youth at School

•Obama's Department of Education issued guidance to public schools explaining that schools should allow students to use restrooms consistent with their gender identity in accordance with basic civil rights law under Title IX -Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 is a federal civil rights law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any education program or activity that receives federal funding •Secretary DeVos rescinded the Obama-era guidance in 2017, robbing transgender students of rights which should be afforded to every public school student •In February of 2018, DeVos continued to discriminate against transgender students by announcing that her department would not investigate any complaints filed by transgender students who had been banned from restrooms that match their gender identity

Crying

•One of the earliest means of communication/expression -Very aversive sound - how might that be adaptive? causes motivation to help the infant stop crying (illicit help) -Basic (e.g., hunger); angry (e.g., lost toy - longer crying phase than basic); pain (sudden onset, loud; gasping) -Can be distinguished by mothers after ~ 3 months •In early months related primarily to physiology, by 3 or 4 months more linked to psychology such as being upset or needing sleep •Issue of "spoiling" vs. "available parent" -Correspond to theoretical positions of behaviorism (picking baby up will reinforce crying) vs. Erikson (pick baby up to build trust) - key: differentiate! general recommendation: do not leave an infant crying (figure out what is going on and help them)

combating bias

•1: Become aware of your racial/ethnic bias(es) -E.g., Implicit Association Test (IAT) •Measures the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., black people, gay people) and evaluations (e.g., good, bad) or stereotypes (e.g., athletic, clumsy) •2: Become concerned about your racial/ethnic bias(es) -Understand the link between attitudes (both implicit and explicit) and discrimination and the effect of discrimination on people's lives •3: Replace automatic habits of prejudiced thought -Counter-stereotypic imaging: imagine examples of out-group members who counter the stereotype -Individualizing: view others according to their personal characteristics, not as members of stereotyped group -Perspective taking: adopt first person perspective as member of stigmatized group -Contact: increase exposure to out-group members •Colorblindness? -Apparently well-meaning, but not at all helpful -"We're all the same" negates people's experiences, culture, identities; also negates White privilege -Passive conformity can result

living with siblings

•80% of people in U.S. and U.K. have sibs -3 aspects characterize sib relationships: 1.Often intense emotions that are also expressed 2.Intimacy and personal knowledge of other person 3.Substantial individual differences! -Sibs can be source of support and of frustration •Older siblings often take on role of teacher •First-born often regresses & experiences jealousy with birth of second child •As they get older children spend more time with peers, seek out niches à sib similarity decreases (many parents do have a favorite to some extent and if there is a reason kids are ok with it but if there is not a clear reason than they are not ok with it) •Important factors -Temperamental similarity -Equal treatment by parents •Unless kids view unequal treatment as justified •Birth order effects -Firstborns •Tend to be more adult-oriented, intelligent, obtain more schooling, jobs with higher occupational prestige -Limited predictor once other factors are considered •Spacing of children, sex, etc. •Parental differential treatment -"Playing favorites" - "Why Mom liked you best" cover story by Jeffrey Kluger, TIME Oct. 3, 2011

child maltreatment

•Acts of commission = child abuse -Words or actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child -Deliberate and intentional (however, harm to a child may or may not be the intended consequence) •Physical and sexual abuse •Acts of omission = child neglect -Failure to provide for child's needs or to protect child from harm or potential harm •Failure to provide: physical, emotional, medical/dental, educational neglect •Failure to supervise: inadequate supervision; exposure to violent environments •DHHS/Admin. on Children, Youth, Families •~676,000 victims of child abuse and neglect in 2016 •74.8% suffered neglect, 18.2% physical, 8.5% sexual abuse; 14% suffered combination of types •~1,750 fatalities in 2016 •Who are the victims? Individual risk factors: -Children younger than 4 years are at greatest risk for severe injury or death (some parents are very ill-equipped to deal with infants ex. shaken baby syndrome) -Intellectual disability, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, physical disability, behavioral problems, or another medical problem -Low birth weight, difficult temperament -à Common denominator? (kids who make the task of parenting harder are more at risk) •Who are the perpetrators? -91.4% of victims were maltreated by one or both parents •Mothers more so than fathers, but relative to amount of time spent caring for child, fathers commit more physical and sexual abuse -Largest share of non-parent perp: male relative, male partner of parent •Risk factors -Individual parents •Substance (drugs and/or alcohol) abuse, financial problems, inadequate housing, stress, lack of understanding child development, own history of abuse, mental problems -Family level •Social isolation of family •Poverty, unemployment, and lack of education •Family dissolution and violence (incl. intimate partner violence) -Community •Run-down, violent, socially isolating, few resources for children and families, poverty -Society •Approval of physical force, freedom to parent at will, poverty, lack of resources for parents (e.g., subsidized daycare, parental leave), poverty •Consequences of abuse for victim -Improper brain development in infancy, childhood -~1,300 children experience severe or fatal head trauma as a result of abuse each year •Nonfatal consequences include visual (e.g., blindness), motor (e.g., cerebral palsy), and cognitive impairments (Shaken Baby Syndrome) -Adverse health effects and behaviors as adults •Incl. smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse, eating disorders, severe obesity, depression, suicide, sexual promiscuity •Negative effects on ability to establish and maintain healthy intimate relationships in adulthood •Abuse prevention -Public awareness activities for (prospective) parents, children, communities - e.g., TV ads, posters, articles •National network of "Don't Shake the Baby" state contacts established to inform public of dangers of shaking infants -Parent education programs •Home visitation programs (e.g., for new parents) - more delivery system than specific content •Help develop and practice positive discipline techniques, teach milestones of child development, help with locating and accessing community services and supports -Skills-based curricula for children •Schools and local community services teach safety and protection skills; e.g., distinguish appropriate from inappropriate touching

The Development of Sexual Behavior

•Adolescent romantic relationships -Adolescents spend more time in mixed-sex groups than middle schoolers -Having BF/GF may act as status symbol, sign of normalcy •Romantic relationships in adolescence do not necessarily involve love -Pros and cons of these relationships •Contribution to identity development, sexuality, peer relationships •Early involvement in sexual relationships linked with adjustment problems and depression (break-ups!)

Antisocial Behavior: The Development of Aggression

•Aggression is behavior intended to cause harm -Instrumental: aggression as means to an end -Hostile: aggression is the end (simply to inflict harm) •Adaptive value of aggression is more easily explained than that of prosocial behavior (could put themselves at risk for survival, not easily explained evolutionarily) -Obtaining resources, status •Sex differences -Boys somewhat more aggressive than girls at all ages -Boys mainly use verbal and physical, girls indirect relational aggression (ex. gossiping/rumors) •Age-related changes -Decrease over childhood (may find other means, competition, words) •Toddlers and preschoolers fight frequently •But expression of aggression in adolescence may have more damaging consequences (e.g., bullying) •Age-related changes -High stability of individual differences (relatively similar throughout their life) -High levels of aggression in adolescence predict involvement in criminal activities in early adulthood -Highly aggressive adolescents and young adults also have highest risk to be victim or perpetrator of homicide •Especially true for males, steeper risk for Black than White guys •Individual difference factors -Hormones •Small link with testosterone that weakens with age -Temperament •Bad combination: highly active child who tire out his parents, who then become permissive and do not enforce any kind of consequence •Individual difference factors -Family influences •Aggression, physical abuse by parents •Permissive parenting, ineffective strategies to stop child's aggressive behavior (not seeking professional help) -Peer influences •Aggressive children tend to befriend one another (aggression becomes expected behavior) -Social information-processing •Hostile attributional bias, etc. (perceive more threats, small non-aggressive behavioral repertoire) -Media exposure Pattersons et al.'s Model •Media use among 8- to 18-year-olds -Spend an average of ~8.5 hours per day with TV, computer, video games, and movies (lots of simultaneous usage) (Kaiser Foundation, 2010) •Concern over violent media effects -90% of video games rated for ages 10 plus contain aggression and/or violence •Aggression: behavior intended to inflict harm -includes physical, verbal, and relational aggression; violence: likely outcome is serious injury or death •Research on link between aggressive media content and aggressive behavior (Anderson et al., 2010, meta-analysis of 136 papers) -Positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and aggressive behavior (~ r equals .20) (substantial, there is clearly a link) (can go up to 1.0) •Includes correlational, experimental, and longitudinal studies (the latter control for aggression at T1) •Significant effects both in short- and long-term -Slightly smaller, but significant positive links between VVG and: aggressive cognition; aggressive affect; desensitization (not being faced by aggressive behavior); physio. arousal -Significant negative links with: prosocial behavior; empathy (more time spent on violent videogames equals less empathy) •Ways in which violence on TV influences a child: -Increased physiological arousal following aggressive show - increases chance of own aggressive acting out -Emotional desensitization -Exaggerated fear of becoming victimized -Learning & imitation, especially if perpetrator is not (immediately) punished

Sex and hiv education

•As of October 2018 (Guttmacher Institute): -22 states plus DC mandate both sex and HIV ed. -34 states plus DC mandate HIV education •12 of them only HIV education -13 states require that the instruction be medically accurate -37 states plus DC allow parents to remove their children from instruction •Gay, Lesbian, & Straight Education Network (GLSEN) information -"No Promo Homo" laws: Local or state education laws that expressly forbid teachers from discussing gay and transgender issues (including sexual health and HIV/AIDS awareness) in a positive light - if at all. Some laws even require that teachers actively portray LGBT people in a negative or inaccurate way. •GLSEN information -"No Promo Homo" laws -Example: Alabama -"Classes must emphasize, in a factual manner and from a public health perspective, that homosexuality is not a lifestyle acceptable to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state." Alabama State Code § 16-40A-2(c)(8) -Update Feb 2018

quality of schooling

•Black and Latinx students have less access to high-level math/science courses -~48% of high-poverty schools offer AP courses, vs. 72% of low-poverty schools (0 - 25% of students on free, reduced lunches) - Impacts college/career readiness •Black, Latinx, American Indian, and Alaska Native students are more likely to attend schools with higher concentration of inexperienced teachers

Albert Bandura's Experiments

•Children witnessed a model aggressively attacking a plastic clown (Bobo doll) •Model hit the doll, pummeled it on the head with a mallet, hurled it down, sat on it and punched it on the nose repeatedly, kicked it across the room, flung it in the air, and bombarded it with balls •Afterwards, the children were placed in a room with attractive toys as well as the Bobo doll •Bandura found that 88% of the children imitated the aggressive behavior •Eight months later, 40% of the same children reproduced the violent behavior observed before and also invented new forms of aggression (learned aggression more generally)

The development of sexual orientation

•College students -Americans are split on the origins of homosexuality whether is it due to a person's upbringing or something they are born with, americans with college degrees are more likely to say gays and lesbians are born that way -More than half of LGBT students conceal their orientation because of fear of harassment (NGLTF, 2011) -25% of students admitted anti-gay name-calling, 10% had been physically violent/threatened violence to others suspected to be gay (Franklin, 2002 in Rogers et al., 2009) •September 2010: Suicide of Tyler Clementi •Sometimes subtle: That's so gay; No homo •Causes of sexual orientation -Evolutionary theory has difficulty explaining same-sex attraction •But also no credible evidence for social learning, other environmental explanations (parenting, "recruiting," ...) -h estimates are moderate •.25 - .50 in males, less in females -Early gender nonconformity predicts later same-sex attraction •Sexual attraction, in turn, is linked to rise in hormones •Not a perfect prediction •Unclear what causes early nonconformity to begin with •Causes of sexual orientation -Research evidence suggests prenatal influences •Likelihood of male same-sex attraction increases with # of older biological male siblings - male fetus is treated as foreign to the mother's body, may influence her immune system, which may impact future male fetuses •Increased likelihood of male same-sex attraction also for extreme maternal stress during pregnancy •Prenatal high levels of testosterone exposure are associated with elevated rates of female non-heterosexuality -Male same-sex orientation likely not influenced by T/ androgens, but other prenatal factors •Research evidence suggests prenatal influences -Finger length is influenced by prenatal testosterone exposure -Bisexual and lesbian twins have more "male-typical" hands than their straight sisters, i.e., greater difference between the length of their index and ring fingers (2D and 4D, respectively) •Same is not true for men -Left- vs right-handedness are also associated with sexual orientation in both sexes •Lefties are more likely to show same-sex orientation Conversion "Therapy" for minors has no positive effects and does not work and actually inflicts a lot of damage (aversion therapy, shocks) states increasingly ban such practices •Even if exact causes of (any) sexual orientation are not known, it's clear that it's not a choice -Not a lifestyle, not a preference -Who would willingly choose something that will cause them lots of problems? •Same-sex orientation is not a disorder but typical variation -American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association •Side note: Several hundred other species show same-sex behavior (but only one shows homophobia)

The Development of Friendships

•Definitions of friendship change with age -Preschool: Physical proximity, shared activities (access most important) -5 plus: Someone who is fun, will share toys -7 plus: loyalty, commitment, shared interests, similarity in personality (psychological concepts more important) -11 plus: trust, psychological intimacy, self-disclosure

What works in sex ed

•Denford et al.'s (2017) "review of reviews" -AO can improve knowledge about STIs, teen pregnancy, but little to no impact on actual sexual behavior (e.g., unprotected sex, # of sexual partners, sexual initiation) •May even increase some negative outcomes, such as teen pregnancy -Comprehensive programs also improve knowledge and skills (e.g., skills re. sexual risk-prevention); plus, some studies find improved sexual behaviors (e.g., condom use; # of sexual partners) •Some of the features of effective programs -Focus is not on abstinence -Ensures activities are appropriate for participants' culture, age, and sexual experience -Is of sufficient duration and intensity -Includes school-based health centers (where students have access) -Specifies and targets mechanisms that regulate behavioral outcomes •E.g., self-efficacy to refuse sex, to obtain & use condoms, and to avoid risk; motivation to avoid sex or to restrict # of sex partners; intention to use condom; communication with partner and parents; avoiding situations that could lead to sex

stereotype threat

•Detrimental impact of a stereotype about one's social group on task-relevant performance -If a student from a poor family is aware of the stereotype that poor people aren't as smart as people who aren't poor, their performance on an intelligence test will be worse (and thus confirm the stereotype) •Racial identity and stereotype awareness -5- to 6-year-olds use socially constructed labels (Black, White) and begin to associate positive attributes with white and negative attributes with black •Racial identity and stereotype awareness -10-year-olds begin to understand stereotypes associated with their race, and prejudice •Importance of teaching (at home, school, in overall culture): history of racial group, positive role models, achievements •Shelvin et al. (2014) asked 10 to 12-year-old African American kids to list stereotypes they'd heard about Black people •All kids also took a challenging language test -Which two words out of a group best fit target list? •Target list: blue, green, orange, brown •Group: fox, car, red, computer, black •Target list: nuisance, disturbance, commotion •Group: construct, pierce, confusion, distress •Different instructions/conditions -Threat condition: This test is a measure of intelligence, and scores of Black children will be compared with those of White children -Neutral: individual questions are tested out to see if they should remain on future tests •Potential ways to curb it -Avoid activating threat •E.g., don't ask students to report their race/ethnicity on a demographic sheet before the test -Teach students the skill being tested is malleable rather than fixed -Highlighting situational rather than fixed-ability factors for performance -Self affirmations (e.g., writing about sense of belonging to the school)

Stranger Anxiety

•Developmental progression -From regarding strangers with interest 4 at months to slight distress at 6 and fear at ~ 7 to 9 months •Effect of context variables -Meet stranger in own home? On mother's lap? -Characteristics of the stranger -Mother's own reaction to the stranger = social referencing •Individual differences -Some children are more fearful than others, show more physiological arousal -Link to temperament

racial/ethnic achievement gap

•Differences emerge before children even enter school in terms of their school readiness •Three main sources of the achievement gap -Differential responses to education across ethnic/racial groups -Social class differences -Differential treatment/bias within educational system

Divorce

•Divorce rates high -Recent decreases likely due to people delaying marriage until they're financially stable, have successfully cohabited •Tied to education; racial disparities -An estimated 40% of children born to married parents will experience divorce •50% experience remarriage of parent within 4 years •10% experience two divorces by age 16 •Effects on children -Depends in part on age, in part on other factors -Elevated risk of depression, school drop-out externalizing problems •Difficult to disentangle effects of pre-divorce marital stress, divorce, post-divorce sequelae (e.g., hardship) •Parents should ... -Shield child from fighting -Make sure child knows they are not cause of divorce -Let child know the separation is permanent and how it will (and won't) affect them and the relationship with both parents -Provide as much stability as possible in other areas •Keep child in same school, observe usual daily routines -Provide emotionally warm and structured environment

maternal employment

•Effects on children -Depend in part on whether mother wants or has to work & what type of job she has -Role models (esp. for girls): more gender-egalitarian views -Latchkey children •Fosters independence and self-reliance, but also poses risk for deviant behavior - importance of distal monitoring, after-school programs •Parental UNemployment -Poverty (more details later), food insecurity, lack of access to healthcare, stress

differential responses to education

•Equal treatment ≠ equivalent treatment -E.g., teaching both English speakers and English learners in English is equal, but not equivalent -Differential educational needs should be met with different resources and approaches whenever possible (e.g., classes in native language) -Avoid activation of racial/gender etc. stereotypes in testing situations (can be as subtle as demographic sheet) to reduce stereotype threat

Same-sex parents

•Estimates -...are difficult to get, but 2 to 3.7 million US kids under the age of 18 may have a lesbian, gay, bi, or trans parent -About 200k US kids are being raised by same-sex couples (Gates, 2015) -But total number of children living with at least one gay parent ranges from 6 to 14 million (ACLU) •Rights -At least 21 states have granted second-parent adoptions to lesbian and gay couples, ensuring the benefits of having two legal parents for children -Majority of states no longer deny custody or visitation to a person based on sexual orientation -A few states have used parent sexual orientation to deny custody, adoption, visitation and foster care •FL and NH expressly bar lesbians and gay men from ever adopting children; AR just adopted a policy prohibiting lesbians, gay men, and those who live with them, from serving as foster parents •Rights -Until recently, MI DHHS permitted child placement agencies to turn away prospective foster and adoptive families headed by same-sex couples based on their religious objections •Despite 13,000 children in the foster care system and a lack of families willing and able to meet their needs •Myth: Children need a mother and a father to have proper male and female role models •Facts -Children have all kinds of role models outside their immediate family (relatives, teachers, etc.) -Children raised by lesbian moms are less gender conforming (e.g., less aggressive boys), but that is not a negative in and of itself -On a side note, this is not a concern voiced against single hetero mothers and fathers •Prejudice much? •Myth: Gays and lesbians don't have stable relationships •Facts -APA: majority of gay and lesbian adults are in committed relationships; like heterosexuals, same-sex couples form deep emotional attachments and commitments; same-sex and heterosexual couples face similar issues re. intimacy, love, loyalty and stability, and they go through similar processes to address them; lesbian and gay couples have levels of relationship satisfaction similar to or higher than those of heterosexual couples - despite facing discrimination -Previous lack of social, financial benefits of marriage made separation more likely -No evidence that two committed gay partners raising children are more likely than hetero parents to separate •High divorce rates for heterosexual couples •Myth: Gays/lesbians can't be good parents •Facts -Co-parenting of lesbian moms is actually betterin many ways than that of hetero couples (better at splitting chores, agreeing on parenting styles) (Biblarz& Stacey, 2010); gay dads show less parenting stress and more warmth, responsiveness, and less disciplinary aggression toward their kids than hetero parents (Golombok et al., 2014) -Child outcomes in GL families similar to or better than hetero families in long list of studies (review: Patterson/APA, 2005) •The few contradicting studies confound having same-sex parents with having experienced break-up of previous different-sex parent household •Myth: Children raised by gay or lesbian parents are more likely to grow up gay themselves •Facts -All of the evidence points to negligible effects of parent sexual orientation on child orientation -There is some evidence that children of gays and lesbians are more tolerant of diversity and feel more free to explore their sexuality •Myth: Gay or lesbian parents are more likely to abuse their children •Facts -There is no connection between homosexuality and pedophilia •Sexual orientation, whether hetero- or homosexual, is an adult sexual attraction to other adults •Pedophilia is an adult sexual attraction to children •90% of child sexual abuse is committed by heterosexual men -Gay and lesbian parents are less likely to use physical discipline than their hetero counterparts

Remarriage

•Factors influencing adjustment -Child's age •Remarriage most difficult for young adolescents -Blended families with step-siblings -Quality of relationship with non-custodial parent -Attitude of non-custodial parent to step-parent -Quality of parenting •Potential benefits for custodial parent: increased financial stability; emotional support •Stepfathers should establish emotional bond with child before taking on any disciplinary responsibilities

Peer Groups

•From middle childhood, children and adolescents form peer groups -Kids are often very concerned with their status within the peer group •How can a child's sociometric status be measured? -One way: questionnaire asking each child to nominate: •3 kids in class he/she likes the most (LM) •3 kids in class he/she likes the least (LL) •Tally of LMs and LLs leads to 5 major groups: Popular: lots of LM Rejected: lots of LL Controversial: lots of both Average: some of both Neglected: none or very few of both •Popular kids -Attractive; often athletic and/or academically competent; friendly, sociable, socially skilled (considerate, helpful); self-confident •Rejected kids (most problematic kids) -40-50% are aggressive, antisocial, disruptive, hyperactive -10-25% are anxious, withdrawn, socially unskilled (awkward), lonely •Social rejection tends to come before social withdrawal •Controversial kids -Often don't easily fit any stereotypical "mold," combine characteristics of popular and rejected kids •Factors associated with status -Superficial attributes (e.g., unusual names and physical appearance) -Social-cognitive skills •Children from different status groups differ in: -Goals: Relationship-oriented, like making friends, getting to know each other versus control-oriented ones, such as retaliation, showing who's the stronger one -Strategies: High status kids use more direct and friendly strategies ("Can you play with me?") -Behaviors: Reinforcing others, initiating contacts, asking for personal info, providing info, including in activities versus hovering, making inappropriate or hostile comments -Interpreting social situations: hostile bias •For rejected aggressive kids the root problem often lies with poor parenting -Inadequate monitoring, harsh punishment -Insecure attachment history -Lack of modeling appropriate social behavior -Family stress

Gender Differences

•Gender differences (some are likely sex differences heavily influenced by biology) -Boys have higher mortality rates at all ages (certain Y linked disorders are more common) -Boys can throw faster and farther -Boys take more risks -Boys are more physically aggressive and show more rough-and-tumble play -Boys' fantasy play tends to involve dominance, strength, danger; girls' relationships, glamour, romance -Girls are more socially, emotionally expressive -Girls tend to outperform boys in language •Gender differences (some are likely sex differences) -Temperament: differences in surgency and effortful control •Boys: greater motor activity, impulsivity, and pleasure from high-intensity activities •Girls: greater ability to focus and shift attention, inhibitory control, pleasure from low-intensity activities •Sexual dimorphism -The two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond the differences in their sexual organs John/Joan case: two twin boys needed circumcision and there was an accident and essentially burned off the entire penis and they raised him as a girl consistently (it was clear to david, however, he was a boy) when he was an adolescent the parents revealed that he was born a boy (gender identity is heavily influenced by biology)

Gender Schema Theory

•Gender schema theory -Schemas (naïve theories) about gender •Include any and all information related to gender from any source •Are used to filter, interpret, organize information -Only minimal knowledge about gender is needed in order to form schemata -Key difference to Kohlberg: As soon as children can identify their own gender, they are motivated to behave gender consistent •Full understanding of gender (i.e., constancy) is not necessary

Parenting Goals, Beliefs, & Styles

•Goals and beliefs -Vary by culture, but shared basic goals of safety, adopting value system of culture, become productive member of society -Low-SES parents ... •Tend to place more emphasis on goals of obedience to authority, respect (vs. independence, self-directedness) •Believe that biological milestones (sleeping through, potty training) are reached earlier than they are -Higher SES "accelerate" cognitive, socio-emotional development •Styles -Diana Baumrind •Observed differences in nursery-school children's behavior -3 groups: energetic-friendly, conflicted-irritable, and impulsive-aggressive -she figured something must be going on at the home life •Observed parents interact with their kids and noted 3 different corresponding styles -2 important dimensions: emotional warmth/support (responsiveness) and structure/demands (control) Parenting Styles 2 important dimensions Responsiveness and Demandingness Responsiveness Warm,responsive Cold, unresponsive Demandingness Restrictive, demanding Permissive undemanding Authoritative (warm responsive and restrictive) -associated with energetic/friendly children, can exercise good judgement and generally socially competent Authoritarian (cold unresponsive and restrictive) -conflicted, irritable and unhappy child, low independence, low self esteem and passive, rigid Permissive (warm responsive, permissive) -notion that children should be inherently good, they actually need to be taught good from bad, often are immature, self-centered, poor self control Uninvolved/Indifferent (cold unresponsive, permissive) -do not provide structure for children, they treat their children like strangers, these kids are withdrawn (neglected child)

The Role of Biology

•Hormones -Androgens (e.g., testosterone), estrogens (e.g., estradiol) •Two crucial periods: Prenatal & adolescence •Gene on Y chromosome leads to formation of testes; first synthesis of testosterone ~8 weeks -Hormonal differences contribute to differences in social behavior in non-human animals •Virilization of female monkeys when mother injected with testosterone during pregnancy (more assertiveness, threatening behaviors, rough play); similar effects if injected in puberty •Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) -Adrenal glands are involved in producing cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens (e.g., some testosterone) •Cortisol helps the body use glucose and fat for energy (metabolism), and it helps the body manage stress; cortisol production depends on release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from pituitary gland •Aldosterone helps regulate sodium and potassium levels in the body, which helps control blood pressure and the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the blood •Androgens fulfill variety of functions; e.g., testosterone enhances muscle mass, stimulates cell growth, involved in development of secondary sex characteristics •Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) -Collection of genetic conditions that limit adrenal glands' ability to produce enough cortisol -Pituitary registers lack of cortisol in bloodstream and keeps secreting ACTH to increase cortisol production (which is, of course, impaired) -à Over time, adrenal glands enlargen (= hyper-plasia) & increased production of other adrenal hormones (e.g., androgens) leaks into bloodstream -Can cause problems with normal growth and development in children, incl. normal development of the genitals; it affects both males and females •Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) -A.k.a. Adrenogenital Syndrome, AGS -Embryos who are exposed to abnormally high levels of androgens before birth (generally start steroid treatment after birth) •Small number of genetic females are born with ambiguous external genitalia •Girls with CAH -Most women/girls with CAH develop feminine gender identity, but some studies find increased gender dysphoria -Some (but not all) studies report decreased heterosexual orientation -Increased preference for toys generally preferred by boys (e.g., cars), decreased interest in dolls, etc. -Prefer boys over girls as playmates -Interest in stereotypically male types of play (active, rough-housing) •Early sex differences in toys and activities -3- to 8-month-old girls show visual preference for doll over toy truck, boys greater visual fixations on truck •These perceptual preferences thus predate concepts of masculine/feminine toys (Anderson et al., 2009) -Male rhesus monkeys show preference for wheeled over plush toy (Hassett et al., 2008) - Possibly influenced by sex differences in visual perception • E.g., preference for mechanical versus biological motion •Boys with CAH -Inconsistent pattern of findings; some studies report decreased male-typical rough-and-tumble play, other increase; many studies show no differences -Little information about development of gender identity and sexual orientation, but thus far no evidence of differences •Hormones -No consistent support for hypothesized influence of hormones on brain lateralization -Possibly feminizing effects of phthalates (in plastics; vinyl flooring, PVC shower curtains...) on boys when prenatally exposed to high doses •Endocrine-disruptor •Brain structure -Small but consistent structural differences •E.g., corpus callosum is larger and contains more dense nerve bundles in females •Females have more dense connection in language areas •In males, the area primarily responsible for spatial processing is larger -Some of these differences may result from influence of sex hormones on fetal brain and throughout development -But brain plasticity means wiring responds to experience as well!

Lecture 14: Competing and Cooperating with Peers

•Humans are a social species -Greatest achievements are collective -Flip side: competing for resources •From preschool to adolescence, peers become increasingly important agents of socialization -Similarities and differences between family and peer socialization: •Social learning, rewards and punishments for behavior, unconditional acceptance, social comparison (comparing yourself with other people to see how you add up) •Peers as important agents of socialization -Important for emotional well-being and the socialization process (stress if you are not accepted by others) •Peer competence/popularity linked to adult work success, satisfaction in romantic relationships, higher occupational status •But flip side: Involvement with antisocial peers linked to substance abuse, delinquent behavior, depression

U.S. wealth inequality

•In 2015, the top 1% of Americans made 26.3 times as much income as the bottom 99% percent -A family needed an annual income of $421,926 to be part of the 1% nationally •US wealth inequality is highest of any industrialized nation -Less than 40% of Americans have enough savings to cover a $1,000 emergency -Upward social mobility decreases, downward increases

Sex education in other countries

•In the Netherlands, comprehensive sexualityeducation starts in kindergarten -PBS documentary on "Spring Fever" week, a week of focused sexuality education in primary schools -By law, all primary school students in NL must receive some form of sexuality education -Core principles include encouraging respect for all sexual orientations and helping students develop skills to protect against sexual coercion, intimidation and abuse •Comprehensive sex education in NL -4-year-olds discuss liking and loving, hugging, kissing, etc. - no explicit mention of sex -8-year-olds discuss gender stereotypes, self-image -11-year-olds discuss sexual orientation and contraceptive options •Does it work? Yes! -Dutch teens do not have sex at an earlier age than those in other European countries or U.S. -Most 12- to 25-year-olds say their first sexual experiences were both wanted and fun •66% of sexually active US teens say they wish they had waited longer to have sex for 1st time -90% of Dutch teens use contraceptives the 1sttime -Dutch teens are among top users of the pill -Dutch teen pregnancy rate is one of the lowest in the world, five times lower than the U.S. -Rates of HIV infection and STDs are also low

the development of temperament

•Overall emotional reactivity and self-regulation -Strong biological basis, but clearly modified by experience -Chess & Thomas •Easy child (pos. mood, adapts easily, establishes routines) •Difficult child (frequent crying, irregular, dislikes change) •Slow-to-warm-up child (low mood intensity, slightly neg.) -Rothbart & Bates •Extraversion (vocal reactivity, smiling & laughter, approach) •Negative emotionality (fear, irritability, sadness...) •Effortful control (soothability, cuddliness...) -Kagan •Behavioral inhibition: -Highly reactive children tend to become shy, inhibited -Low reactive children tend to become sociable, fearless (experiment with young infants: some are really relaxed while toys are swung above them while some are highly reactive and are agitated)

social class differences in education

•In the U.S., the public school a student attends is still primarily determined by where their family lives •Most children are enrolled in district schools that receive, on average, nearly half of their funding through local property taxes -This ties school budgets to the value of local property wealth and incentivizes boundaries between upper- and lower-income communities "Our current school funding system often bolsters school district boundaries between rich and poor, holding resources in wealthy communities and keeping low-income students from accessing broader opportunities." •Washington Post/EdBuilder map shows poverty rates in every U.S. school district (as of July 2015): •"Dividing Lines" Map -Uses conservative Census (rather than USDA) definition of poverty, thus underestimates the extent of the problem •Census: The federal poverty line for a family of four was $24,250, but the same family is eligible for reduced price lunch up to an income of $44,863 (USDA) •2016 Gov't Accountability Office report finds growing % of schools with very high concentrations of Black and Hispanic and poor students -A new form of segregation by skin color •State racial achievement gaps are strongly correlated with state racial socioeconomic disparities •Strong overlap between race/ethnicity and SES -Chicken-and-egg problem -Ethnic/racial bias that leads to educational disparities in one generation will lead to SES disparities in next generation due to under-education and under-employment -Legacy of disadvantage that originally stems from race/ethnicity (slavery, school segregation)

changes in family structure

•Increase in children not living in 2-parent household •Increase in % of parents who aren't married -partly due to increase in cohabitation -Varies strongly by maternal race & education •Increased median age at first marriage •Increased average maternal age at first birth -Due to decline in teen births and increase in older women who have children •Strong effects of education and marital status •Increase in divorces & remarriages •Increase in children with gay/lesbian parents

The Development of Peer Interactions

•Infants rarely interact with one another -May touch other's face, smile, vocalize (not old enough to use cognitive thinking) •Toddlers in groups (daycare) engage in mutual imitation, frequent conflict (over toys or attention) •Childhood and adolescence -Increasing contact, often coordinated (games, conversations, sharing, expressing sympathy) -Adolescents spend ~2x more time with peers than parents (peer group becomes very important) •Peer acceptance; gossiping as means of defining in (people who you are closely affiliated)- and out (not close)-groups

Reactive Attachment Disorder

•Infants, young children don't establish healthy bonds with caregivers -typically neglected, abused or orphaned children -child's basic needs for comfort, affection and nurturing aren't met -may permanently change the child's growing brain, hurting the ability to establish future relationships •Symptoms -Withdrawing from others -Avoiding or dismissing comforting comments or gestures -Acting aggressively toward peers -Watching others closely but not engaging in social interaction -Failing to ask for support or assistance -Alcohol or drug abuse in adolescents •Inhibited (don't form close relationships) and disinhibited (they will attach to anyone) subtypes

Transgender Youth

•Internal gender identity does not match the sex assigned at birth (usually on basis of genitalia) •Gender dysphoria: describes the negative emotional states that transgender people usually experience, hormones play a role •Causes unknown; biologist Milton Diamond: Nature loves diversity, but unfortunately society hates it:describes how non-binary is natural •Endocrine Society guidelines for appropriate Tx •Middlesexes: Redefining He and She: 8-year-old Noah: born a boy, however, prefers girls fashion and toys •These children are not "attention-seekers" or "confused": implicit association test usually are difficult to influence -Resemble cisgender peers not just on explicit, but also implicit measures (e.g., IAT) (Olson et al., 2015) •High rates of victimization in home, school, public -Ignorance of gender identity versus sexual orientation as well as causes/controllability •Trying to understand trans* identity as a cis* person -As a cis man, don't try to imagine what it would be like to feel like or want to be a woman; instead: -Imagine what it would be like if you, as a man, were so easily mistaken for a woman that you had to pretend to be a woman just to avoid social repercussions •The question of bathroom use -Why it matters to trans kids •The most critical aspect of gender transition is to ensure that a transgender person is able to live, be seen and be treated by others in a matter consistent with the person's gender identity •Getting used to using the appropriate restroom is an important part of this process •Transgender people must take this step well before proceeding (if at all) to medical interventions involving hormones or surgery •The question of bathroom use -What are the concerns of some people? -Quote from Public Comments on the MI State Board of Education's draft statement and guidance on safe and supportive learning environments for LGBTQ students: "There could be huge adverse affects [sic] on people who are vulnerable to be exposed to opposite sex body parts before they are mature. Perverts will make their way into these areas and take advantage of the new freedoms." •The question of bathroom use -What's the actual evidence relevant to concerns? •National Child Traumatic Stress Network (funded by US Department of Health & Human Services, NIH, etc.): •The question of bathroom use -What's the actual evidence...? There is many common sexual behaviors in children under 4 years of age as they have curiosity about their own bodies and the bodies of other people, there is no repercussions for children seeing others naked, it is a natural part of development •Gender identity has nothing to do with sexual orientation, they are different phenomena •Blocking laws that benefit the well-being of people just because they may be abused is neither sound nor standard practice (e.g., Medicare fraud) •17 school districts with 600,000 students experienced no problems after implementing transgender protections •There are zero reports of sexual transgression committed by a trans person -In contrast, ~70% of trans people report experiencingverbal harassment in a situation involving gender-segregated bathrooms, ~10% report physical assault (UCLA's Williams Institute, 2013)

adverse childhood experiences

•Just under half (46%) of children in the U.S. have experienced at least one ACE -In16 states, a slight majority of children have experienced at least one ACE -In CT, MD, and NJ, 60% or more of children have never experienced an ACE •Economic hardship is the most common ACE nationally and in most states, followed by divorce or separation of a parent/guardian -Drug/alcohol abuse, exposure to neighborhood violence, and the occurrence of mental illness are among the most commonly-reported ACEs in every state •The prevalence of ACEs increases with child age -Except for economic hardship, reported about equally for children of all ages, reflecting high levels of poverty

Resilience in Adolescence

•Mental health is more than absence of disorders -Several dimensions of positive mental health, one of which is "resilience," the "ability of an individual to function competently in the face of adversity or stress" Factors promoting adolescent resilience -Appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition (incl. good emotional self-regulation) -At least one adult providing caring support -Intelligence, sound judgment , social skills -One or more talents (things a person does really well) -Belief in oneself and trust in one's ability to make decisions -Religiosity or spirituality

Interactions

•Nature and nurture interact -Evocative & active gene-environment interactions •Boys enjoy physical play more and that may cause parents' (esp. fathers') tendency to be more physically active with sons than daughters •Parents encourage less girl-typical and more boy-typical toy play in females with CAH (vs. control), likely in part as a reaction to the girls' interests (Wong et al., 2013) •Nature and nurture interact -Evolutionary explanation •Male-typical instrumental and female-typical expressive tendencies provided reproductive advantages -The differences between boys and girls in early play behavior are consistent with this perspective •Parents attempt to control sexual behavior of daughters more than sons, maybe to preserve her "mate value"

Smiling

•Newborn: Reflex smile (endogenous) not a reaction to external stimulation it is in reaction to physiological arousal ex. heartbeat -But has adaptive function as other people find it very pleasant and connect with the infant more •3 - 8 weeks: External stimulation elicits smiles -Touch, voices, bouncing •2 - 3 months plus: Happiness at controlling an event -E.g., making noise by banging a toy on the floor •3 months plus: Reliable social smiles -7 months: Smiling primarily at familiar people •Role of genetics -Twin studies onset and amount of smiling (similar to one another) -Conceptual age, not actual postnatal age important for onset of smiling

Michigan Bullies

•November 2011 controversy regarding Matt's Safe School Law -Matt Epling killed himself in 2002 at the age of 14 after being assaulted by bullies at the high school -Original version of bill (SB 137) passed by GOP-controlled senate included a last-minute added provision that permitted harassment by teachers and students if they can claim that their actions are rooted in a "sincerely held religious belief or moral conviction" -The provision was ultimately removed after considerable protest from Senate Democrats and the public (but still no enumeration in revised bill)

The Development of Prosocial Behaviors

•Positive behaviors that foster social relationships, that benefit others -Empathy •Perspective taking plus emotional experience •At the root of prosocial behaviors, such as sharing and helping -2-year-olds try to comfort other children in distress, but usually in ways that would make themselves feel better -2-, 3-year-olds sometimes share toys, assist others in tasks - but also frequently do nothing -Steady increase in prosocial behavior into older adolescence •Sharing -Toddlers often need prompting from parents to share toys (parents can do this to foster prosocial behaviors) -Reciprocal nature - If you shared with me, I'll share with you -Spontaneous sharing increases with age •Helping -Even preschoolers spontaneously offer help to adults; further increases over school years •Individual differences -Biology •Temperament (e.g., impulse control, emotion regulation) -Parents and peers •Modeling and teaching of values -E.g., pointing out the positive consequences of prosocial acts •Creating opportunities for prosocial activities -E.g., household tasks, community service,... •Discipline and parenting style -Good: discipline that involves reasoning, especially explanations of how child's behavior affects others

poverty and parenting

•Poverty and parenting -Parents more irritable, hostile, depressed; greater chance of marital discord -More punitive (punish more) and erratic to children (more unpredictable) •Low-SES parents (not necessarily poor) -Less likely to be authoritative (emotionally supportive and provide structure) -Talk less to children (causes problem with literacy), are more controlling, restrictive, more likely to physically punish •Low-SES parents (not necessarily poor) -Reasons for SES-related parenting differences •Parents may value qualities that are desirable in their own jobs -Working-class jobs tend to limit self-determination (want to follower orders in the place of giving them) •Spillover effects (good and bad mood) •Influence of stress: More concern with discipline than positive emotional communication •Level of education influences views of child development and parenting -Active v. passive child -Education as joint venture between teachers & parents as opposed to teachers alone changes in family broader context •Employment and unemployment -Increase in mothers in the labor force -But also increase in parental unemployment •Poverty -A very high percentage of children lives in poverty, especially when considering 2 times the FPL as poverty threshold -Stark differences by race and by family structure

The Development of Gender Identity

•Primarily cognitive phenomenon -Children acquire knowledge about self and others -Gender permeates everything •Culture, values, school, work, leisure, friendships, family relationships, etc. etc. -Egan & Perry: gender identity involves 1.Knowledge of category membership (am I male, female?) 2.Felt compatibility with one's group (gender typicality) 3.Felt pressure for gender conformity 4.Attitudes toward gender groups •Aspects 2 and 3 are linked to internalizing disorders •~7 months: discriminate male v. female voices •~10 months: discriminate faces •~13 months: associate voices with faces •~18 months gender-related expectations -E.g., after being shown a series of female faces, toddlers look longer at picture of doll vs. car •By ~2 ½ years, children know which gender category they belong to -Associated with increasing sex-typed play (comformity is stronger with boys) •Preschool into elementary school -Increase in sex-typed play, play mostly with same-sex peers; avoid children who violate gender-role norms -Increasingly rigid gender stereotypes, peak around 5 to 7 years (followed by increasing flexibility until adolescence, then reversal) •Kohlberg's theory: Children actively construct their knowledge of gender in 3 stages: -2 - 3 years: Gender identity (I am a boy/girl) -4 - 5: Gender stability (I will remain a boy/girl) -6 - 7: Gender constancy (superficial changes don't change one's gender - related to Piaget's concept of conservation) •Leo (4) to Jeremy: "You're a girl; only girls wear berets." <Jeremy drops pants & shows Leo his penis to prove he's a boy.> Leo: "Everyone has a penis; only girls wear berets!

Fear

•Response to perceived danger -Newborns display fear when physical support is lost; loud, sudden noise •Prepared learning -Specific fears are not innate, but quickly learned -Example: Fear of snakes (DeLoache & LoBue, 2009) -adaptive

other contexts of socialization (school)

•School -Most important context of socialization outside of family Necessitated/enabled by invention of moveable type & increasingly complex cultural values and technologies •Formal schooling dates back ~6,000 years (writing began), but only in last ~100 years has schooling become widespread through industrial nations -Teaches cultural techniques and skills, but also values, beliefs, citizenship -Important social function: peers! black, hispanic, American Indian and Alaska native have significantly lower high school graduation rates than white students

Risk-taking

•Seeking novelty, social and environmental stimulation, exploration -Neither inherently good(adolescents need to explore the world around them in order to be independent) nor bad (behavior can be dangerous and could kill them) -Learning opportunities, but may also cause harm •Adolescent risk taking includes unsafe sex (HIV infections), reckless/drunk driving (fatal accidents), drug use (addiction, OD) •In 2016, an estimated 8,451 13- to 24-year-olds were diagnosed with HIV in the U.S. -This corresponds to 21% of all new diagnoses -80% of them were 20 to 24 years old •At the end of 2015, there were an estimated 60,300 youth living with HIV in the U.S. -Of these, ~31,000 were living with undiagnosedHIV •In 2015, each day 6 teens (16 - 19) died from motor vehicle injuries (CDC) •Risk of crashes is higher among 16- to 19-year-olds than any other age group -Per mile driven, drivers 16 to 19 are three times more likely than drivers 20plus to be in a fatal crash •Other risk factors within 16 - 19 group -Death rate for male drivers and passengers was double that for females -Teens driving with teen passengers -Newly licensed teens •Associated factors -Age: increase into adolescence, decrease into early adulthood •Critical developmental changes occur in brain pathways that regulate emotional expression, cognitive/attentional focus, and sensitivity to rewards -Amygdala, dopamine system, myelination and synaptic pruning in PFC; later: increased PFC activity -Peer context/pressure •Social acceptance by peers processed similarly to other rewards in terms of brain systems -Sex/gender: boys > girls at all ages -Personality: low levels of conscientiousness

Lecture 15: The Development of Gender Identity and Sexuality Terminology

•Sex: Biological, physical aspects -Genitalia - not always clearly penis or vagina -Chromosomes - most females have XX, most males XY chromosomes, BUT: •XY person can be insensitive to androgens: female in most respects (have internal testes, but female external sex organs) •Gene that pushes gonads to become testes can jump from Y to X: male in every way except that he has XX chromosomes •People can have mix of cells with XY and cells with XX chromosomes -BUT: •XX people with malfunctioning ovarian gene can develop gonad with areas of both ovarian and testicular development •Mouse studies suggest that gonad identity (ovaries vs. testes) requires constant lifetime "maintenance" through hormones - shifts are possible long after birth -If broad definition is used, up to 1% of population may have some form of disorder of sex development •Biologically, sex is a spectrum, not a binary •Gender -Psychological and behavioral characteristics associated with males and females •Gender identity -Subjective sense of male, female, a blend of both, or neither •Sexuality -Erotic thoughts and behaviors

The role of socialization

•Social learning theory -Children observe males and females behaving in different ways in the home, at school, on TV, etc. -Young children pay more attention to and are more likely to imitate same-sex models •Especially true for boys - why?! (mainstream US culture tends to favor the man role) •Social learning theory in the home: Differential treatment by parents -Strong, consistent evidence thus far only for encouragement of gender-typical play and household chores & discouragement of atypical ones -Other influences may be more subtle, moderated by context and personality variables •YouTube clip on young boy getting immunizations (boy cries and the father lets him know it's not ok to show weakness) •Peer influence toward conformity •Cultural expectations -Behaviors while being observed when babysitting: Boys more passive, girls more active •Differences are attenuated when sitters feel unobserved -Reactions of adults to crying baby •Subtle physiological measures show no differences between mothers and fathers (also: females who are mothers react more than females who are not) •Simplistic female = caring, male = not is untenable (don't hold, oversimplified and a lot more to do with expectations) •Cultural expectations -Damaging effects of stereotypes •E.g., girls' math achievement, job aspirations, boys' emotional expression and experience

bias/differential treatment in schools

•Teachers tend to hold higher expectations for White and Asian than Black and Hispanic students -Pygmalion effect! (Rosenthal studies) told the teacher students were going to make huge academic gains (they were randomly selected) but by the end of the year they had done significantly better than there peers due to the teachers expectations effecting their success -This is likely bias rather than teacher reacting to differences in how students respond to teaching •Extent of implicit bias in educators is similar to that in the general population •Achievement gap widens more in high- than low-bias classrooms •Black, Latino, and Native American students are punished more severely (the punishment gap) -School zero tolerance policies disproportionately target Black students and fail to make schools safer -Out-of-school suspensions and expulsions •Do little to improve problem behaviors (can even increase anger, apathy) •Weaken student-school bonds further •Impair performance and increase drop out risk •(Potentially better: positive behavioral intervention and support practices) the punishment gap •2015 study: 13 southern states accounted for 50plus% of all suspensions/expulsions of Black students -Less than 25% of public school students in these states are Black, but 50% of all susp./exp. students are -In 181 school districts where Black students represented < 60% of enrollment, all of the students expelled during 2011-12 were Black •Black students are more likely to be suspended when educators have discretion in how they respond -E.g., when student is deemed disrespectful or violates a dress code •School-to-prison pipeline •The punishment gap is not simply due to minority students misbehaving more -And also not simply due to racial differences in SES because the effects of race persist even when controlling for SES •Okonofua & Eberhardt (2015) experiment -Study 1: Teachers read fake school record of a middle school student (Black vs. White) who had one or two infractions (insubordination; class disturbance) (IV race) -DVs: (1) How troubled are you? (2) How severely should student be punished? •Okonofua & Eberhardt (2015) experiment -Study 2: Black students were more likely to be labeled a troublemaker after 2 infractions than White students -The more strongly a teacher believed the student to be Black (based on stereotypical names like Darnell or Deshawn), the more likely they were to see his misbehavior as indicative of a pattern •In other words, they expected more trouble from that student in the future even there was no more or less indication of that than the white student •Preschool (!) suspensions and expulsions -Black kids make up 19% of preschoolers but 47% of children who get suspended at least once •Black preschoolers are 3.6 times more likely than White ones to receive one or more suspensions -Gilliam et al. (2016)'s studies with preschool teachers as participants (next slides)

Moral Development

•The cognitive, behavioral, and emotional aspect of growing up to be a "good" person -Knowing "right" from "wrong" -Having a conscience •Cognition: Moral Judgment -Kohlberg's theory •Presented series of moral dilemmas to 10- to 16-year-old boys (example: Heinz dilemma A man in a small town whose wife has a disease that needs treatment or she will die. The question is if he should steal or let his wife die.) •Derived 6 stages from the responses -Refinement of Piaget's theory (egocentrism vs. perspective-taking; abstract thinking, universal norms) •Kohlberg's 6 stages -Pre-conventional morality (not all that moral) •Stage 1: Obedience and punishment (defer to authority to avoid being punished) •Stage 2: Hedonistic, instrumental (conform to gain rewards) -Conventional morality (majority of people) •Stage 3: Good boy (maintain approval of others) •Stage 4: Social order (rigid rules to avoid chaos) (sometimes laws are inherently immoral) -Post-conventional morality (not a lot of people reach) •Stage 5: Democratic contract, individual rights (rules can be re-negotiated if max. benefit follows) •Stage 6: Conscience (internalized ideals of justice, equality, respect for others, compassion) •Evaluation of Kohlberg's theory -Evidence for invariant sequence of stages -Few appear to reach stages 5 and 6 -Cross-cultural differences (e.g., in New Guinea, community rights are valued higher than individual rights) -May have used overly simple dilemmas All of Kohlberg's participants were male, females are more likely to consider relationships than males Moral Dilemma? Freedom of Speech: Nazis parading throughout the streets •Correlation moral judgment & moral behavior -Often low, especially in young children •Behavior is often impulsive, not guided by rational thought -Importance of self-regulation •Delay of gratification -When told not to touch an attractive object in front of them, 18-month-olds wait ~20 seconds, 24-month-olds 70 sec., and 30-month-olds 100 sec. -Continues to increase throughout childhood -Moral behavior is situation-specific •Cheating, lying, honesty in some situations, but not others Ex. people who were taking a test in front of a mirror were less likely to cheat than those who were not placed in front of a mirror

The Effects of Friendship

•The effects of friendship -Development of social-cognitive skills •Learn about social norms, negotiation, cooperation, ... -Positive effects •In one LS study, having a reciprocal best friend in elementary school correlated with: -More maturity, social prominence, higher self-worth, less aggression in 5th grade -Better functioning family life, college, less depression at 23 -Negative effects •Children with aggressive friends tend to exhibit aggressive behavior themselves -Similar findings regarding alcohol and substance abuse

The development of sexual orientation

•The false dichotomy (or even trichotomy) •Better: orientation as a continuum •At least 3 components: 1.Sexual attraction/arousal 2.Sexual behavior 3.Sexual identity (how you describe yourself) -These 3 are not always highly correlated! •Consequences of "coming out" -In the home •20 - 40% of sexual minority youth are threatened or insulted by relatives (!) after disclosing •5% experience physical violence •Increased risk of youth homelessness -At school •Frequent verbal & physical harassment •Skipped school out of safety concerns (16 v. 8%) •Experienced threat/injury with weapon at HS (19 v. 8%) •Dramatically higher suicide attempt rates (33 v. 9%) •Biased Abstinence-only curricula -CLUE 2000: "Among Kinsey's most outrageous and damaging claims are the beliefs that pedophilia, homosexuality, incest, and adult-child sex are normal."

The Family as a Context for Socialization Lecture 13 The family

•The social group primarily responsible for raising children -Usually genetically related people (kin), but also stepparent, half-siblings, adopted children etc. etc. -Western model of monogamy (the minority, only 20% of cultures practice monogamy) •Versus polygamy (incl. polygyny and polyandry) blood is thicker than water: family ties are very strong, people will go to great lengths to support family members, however, blood relationship does not guarantee that it is a positive relationship or supportive ex. adoptive families

Poverty

•U.S. Census 2017 thresholds: -A family of 4 including two children under 18 had a poverty threshold of $24,858 -Threshold for 1 single adult without children: $12,752 -Many experts believe 200% of the federal poverty threshold is a better measure of economic hardship •Effects on child -Cognitive outcomes & education •Higher school drop-out rates •Lower-class children score ~10 - 15 points lower on IQ tests than middle-class children -Health •Lack of health insurance •Low birth weight, malnutrition, stunted growth •Higher rates of chronic illnesses like asthma •More health risks through maladaptive behaviors (smoking, risky sex) •Effects on child -Socio-emotional outcomes •Long-term poverty: anxiety, sadness •Current poverty: externalizing problems •Concepts of risk -Correlated risk •Risk factors tend to come in clusters (unhealthy food, crowded living, smoking etc) -Low SES correlates with mental illness, exposure to teratogens, hazardous living conditions -Cumulative risk •The more risk factors are present, the higher the risk of negative outcomes (you can take away these factors and that will reduce the impact if done quickly enough)

physical (corporal) punishment

•UN Committee on the Rights of the Child: -Corporal punishment is "any punishment in which physical force is used and intended to cause some degree of pain or discomfort, however slight"; physical punishment is "invariably degrading." (inhumane) •51 nations ban any form of corporal punishment of children (UN Tribune, 2016) -Sweden was first (1979) they are pretty progressive; most recent: Montenegro, Lithuania (2017) •Attitudes and prevalence in the U.S. -In 2012, 70plus% of Americans agreed that, "it is sometimes necessary to discipline a child with a good, hard spanking" (Cuddy & Reeves, Brookings Inst., 2014) -Over 80% of Americans spank their children (Gershoff et al., 2012) -Parents may believe it to be effective •"I was spanked, and I turned out OK!" (there is no control group, you do not know if you would turn out better if you were not spanked) -19 states allow physical punishment in schools •2011/12 school year: 160kplus students were disciplined •AL, AR, AZ, CO, FL, GA, ID, IN, KS, KY, LA, MO, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, WY •Factors influencing use of physical punishment -Age of parent: more prevalent in parents under 30 (less experienced) -SES: more prevalent in low-SES homes -Ethnicity: more prevalent in African American than White or Latinx families •Cultural normativeness hypothesis: maybe less negative outcomes for Black children because they expect more physical discipline? No consistent support for this. -Gender of child: more prevalent in boys (could be because boys engage in more rowdiness also the stereotype that they are tougher) -Geography: more prevalent in the South •What the research says does not work and comes with many consequences -Decades of research link more physical punishment with more child problem behaviors (Gershoff et al., 2018) •Mostly correlational evidence due to ethical constraints -Direction of causality (chicken/egg) problem: does spanking follow behavior problems or cause it? -Third variable problem: e.g., parental warmth -Physical punishment correlates with: •Lower long-term compliance; more aggression; more mental health problems; lower cognitive performance; lower parent-child relationship quality; higher risk for physical injury and/or abuse •What the research says -The distinction between "acceptable" physical punishment and physical abuse is semantic -both are linked to similar bad outcomes, just to different degrees (from a data driven perspective there is no level of physical punishment that is ok) •What the research says -Most longitudinal studies show that physical punishment predicts increases in problem behavior even while controlling for initial problem behavior •A few studies find no relationship, but not a single study finds improvements in problem behavior -Experimental reduction in parents' use of physical punishment predicts decline in child behavior problems -All in all: •No evidence that physical punishment is effective •Much evidence that it's harmful •Additional concerns -Physical punishment sets bad example (social learning) -It fails to teach child better alternative behaviors (missing an opportunity to teach) -Children associate parent with pain -Philosophically, it seems to be unworthy of (largely) rational, verbal human beings

The Development of Sexual Behavior

•Unfortunate consequences of cultural taboos concerning childhood (pre)sexual development -E.g., avoidance of all physical contact between teachers and students -Relative paucity of data -Negative reactions of parents to children's presexual behaviors and try to curb them •Sexual behavior in adolescence -Puberty: maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics -Surge in sex hormones lowers activation threshold for brain pathways dealing with erotic content (much more easily sexually stimulated) -Sexual attraction begins ~ 10 years of age •Sexual development for most U.S. youth: erotic fantasies followed by masturbation, making out, petting, intercourse •Masturbation is very common and natural, yet often associated with negative feelings (e.g., guilt) •Data from CDC on adolescent sexual behavior -In 2017, 40% of HS students had ever had sexual intercourse, and 10% of high school students had had four or more sex partners during their life -7% had been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when they did not want to -46% of currently sexually active HS students did not use a condom during last sexual intercourse •~14% did not use any method to prevent pregnancy •19% had drunk alcohol or used drugs before last sexual intercourse -Each year, there are approximately 20 million new STIs, and half of them are among youth aged 15 to 24 •Sexual behavior in adolescence -On average, young people in the U.S. have sex for the first time at about age 17 -More U.S. adolescents under 15 years become sexually active than kids in Western Europe, Canada -Also have more sexual partners, more teenage pregnancies/births/abortions, more STIs -Likely combination of highly sexualized media and puritanical baggage re. sex education •U.S. culture sends very mixed messages about sex

single parent families

•Very diverse group -Divorced parents, single-mothers-by-choice, unmarried teen parents -Difficulty finding/paying for daycare, balancing home and work, emotional support for self and child •Financial hardship more likely for divorced single mothers than fathers •Teenage mothers often deficient in parenting skills (lack of education, economic hardship) •Better: older, financially stable adoptive or single-parent-by-choice mothers (the older you are when you first get married the better decision it most likely is and the more stable the marriage will be)

Sexuality Education

•Where and what kind of info are teens getting? -Formal instruction (school, church, community center) •60% of women (55% of men) received info on birth control, 82% on saying no to sex, 90% on STIs, 86% on HIV -All of the 2011-13 % values are significantly down from 2006-2010 (longitudinal Survey of Family Growth) •Increase in saying no without info on birth control (22% of women, 35% of men) •~75% of youth reported receiving AOUM (abstinence only until marriage) education •25% of teens did not receive instruction on any birth control topic •Many adolescents do not receive formal instruction until after they've already become sexually active •Where and what kind of info are teens getting? -Parents •22% of girls and 30% of boys did not discuss any of six key topics (e.g., contraception, STIs, HIV, saying no to sex, methods of BC, where to get BC and how to use a condom) with their parents -Media •E.g., YouTube channels such as Sexplanations (Johnston, 2017) •Not always reliable source of information, either •American Academy of Pediatrics (2016) -Sexuality education is more than the instruction of children and adolescents on anatomy and the physiology of biological sex and reproduction. It covers healthy sexual development, gender identity, interpersonal relationships, affection, sexual development, intimacy, and body image for all adolescents, including adolescents with disabilities, chronic health conditions, and other special needs. -Children and adolescents ... will benefit [from] accurate and developmentally appropriate information about the biological, sociocultural, psychological, relational, and spiritual dimensions of sexuality. -Ideally, this education happens conjointly in the home and in the school. •Different approaches and focus points (e.g., pregnancy prevention; HIV prevention) •One major distinction: AO vs. comprehensive -Abstinence-only (AO)/abstinence-only-until-marriage (AOUM); new lingo: "sexual risk avoidance" •Strong religious roots: "teaches that a mutually faithful monogamous relationship in the context of marriage is the expected standard of human sexual activity" (U.S. federal funding policy, Title V, Section 510 of 1996 Social Security Act) -Comprehensive sexuality education •These programs, too, aim to prevent, stop, or decrease sexual activity but they also promote condom use and other safer-sex strategies for sexually active participants •Demographic trends run counter to AOUM -Increasing median age at first marriage •For women, 26.5 years, for men 29.8 years -Decreasing median age at first sex •For women, median age at first intercourse is ~17.8 years; for men, 18.1% -The resulting gap for premarital sex is 8.7 and 11.7 years, respectively (Santelli et al., 2017) •AOUM curricula -Are ethically and morally problematic •Have profoundly negative impact on gender & sexual minority youth; stigma contributes to suicidality and other mental health problems •Violate the government's responsibility to provide accurate and complete information about sexual health (e.g., UN Committee on Economic, Cultural, & Social Rights) •Dismiss sexually active adolescents as less worthy -Both those coerced into sexual activity and those voluntarily engaging in it (shaming them) -Rise of AOUM funding associated with decline in schools requiring/providing sex ed, especially info about contraception and STI prevention