Chp 7

We have expanded our ethical consideration over time

1. Rising economic prosperity in Western cultures has helped broaden our ethical domain. 2. Science demonstrating that people do not stand apart from nature, but rather are a part of it. 3. Ecology has made clear that all organisms are interconnected and that what affects plants, animals, and ecosystems also affects people. 4. Evolutionary biology has shown that human beings have evolved subject to the same pressures as other organisms

Ecofeminism critiques male attitudes toward nature and women

A number of feminist scholars saw parallels in human behavior toward nature and men's behavior toward women. Ecofeminism argues that the patriarchal structure of society which traditionally grants more power and prestige to men than to women is a root cause of both social and env'tl problems. Ecofeminists hold that a traditionally female worldview that interprets the world in terms of interrelationships and cooperation is more compatible with nature athan a traditionally make worldview that interprets the world in terms of hierarchies and competition.

Aldo Leopold's land ethic arose from the conservation and preservtion ethics

Aldo Leopold ceased to view certain species as good or bad and instead came to see that healthy ecological systems depend on the protection of all their interacting parts. Argued that humans should view themselves and "the land" as members of the same community. Drew analogies to machines.

The economy exists within the env't

All human economies exist within the natural env't and depend on it in vital ways. Economies receive inputs such as natural resources from the env't, process them in complex ways that enable human society to function, and then discharge outputs (waste) into the env't. The material input and waste-absorbing capacity the earth has is finite.

We live in a growth-oriented economy

All measures of economic growth are unprecedented and have never been this high. Brought people success but widened social gaps.

Several types of economies exist

An economy- a social system that converts resources into goods, material commodities manufactured for and bought by individuals and businesses; and services, work done for others as a form of business.

Ecolabeling

Another way of mitigating market failure is to provide better information to consumers so that they can use the information in making purchasing decisions. This method is called ecolabeling, serves to inform consumers which brands use env'tly benign processes.

Anthropocentrism

Anthropocentrism- people who have a human-centered view of our relationship with the env't show this. An anthropocentrist denies or ignores the notion that nonhuman things have intrinsic value. They also measure the costs and benefits of actions solely according to their impact on people. To evaluate a human action that affects the env't, they must use criteria such as human health, economic costs and benefits, aesthetic concerns. Ex. If the mine would provide significant economic benefits while doing little harm to aesthetics human health, an anthropocentrist would conclude its worthwhile even if it destroyed the env't.

Aspects of neoclassical economics have profound implications for the env't.

Assumptions for the neoclassical economy are: Resources are infinite or substitutable Costs and benefits are internal Future effects should be discounted Growth is good

Biocentrism

Biocentrism ascribes intrinsic value to certain living things or to the biotic realm in general. In this perspective, nonhuman life has ethical standing, so a biocentrist evaluates actions in terms of their overall impact on living things, humans and nonhumans. Biocentrist would oppose the mine bc it would destroy habitats. Some biocentrist advocate equal consideration of all living things, whereas others grant some types of organisms more consideration than others.

Several types of economies exist

Capitalist market economy- focuses on tension between the buyer and seller. Like interactions among the buyers and sellers determine which goods and services are produced, how many are produced, and how these are produced and distributed

Several types of economies exist

Centrally planned economies- the top of the hierarchy makes the decisions then it trickles down to the lower people. It is a top-down economy.

Corporations are responding to sustainability concerns

Companies finding ways of "greening" their operations. Ben & Jerry's, Patagonia, Seventh Generation, and Credo have developed eco-conscious images from the start. Credo donates a portion of its proceeds to env'tl and progressive nonprofit groups. Outdoor wear made using recycled materials made of corn biomass and recycled bottles. Greenwashing may mislead a shareholder into thinking a company is more sustainable than they actually are.

Conservation and preservation arose with the 20th century

Conservation ethic uses a utilitarian standard stating that in using resources, we should attempt to provide the greatest good to the greatest number of people for the longest time Preservation aims to preserve nature for its own sake and for out aesthetic and spiritual benefit, conservation promotes the prudent, efficient, and sustainable extraction and use of natural resources for the benefit of present and future generations.

Environmental ethics pertains to people and the environment

Does the present generation have an obligation to conserve resources for future generations? If so, how much are we obligated to save? Are there situations that justify exposing some communities to a disproportionate share of pollution? If not, what actions are warranted in preventing this problem? Are humans justified in driving a species to extinction? What if the destruction was beneficial and created thousands of new jobs? What if it was an owl species? What if the species was harmful to humans?

Ecocentrism

Ecocentrism judges actions in terms of their benefit or harm to the integrity of whole ecological systems, which consists of nonliving and living elements and the relationships among them. An ecocentrist values the well-being of entire species, communities, or ecosystems over the welfare of a given individual. They want to preserve systems not just certain proponents. Ecocentrist would respond to Jabiluka broadly acessing all the potential effects of the mine on water quality, air quality, wildlife populations and etc.

Is growth good?

Economic growth is an increase in an economy's production and consumption of goods and services. Neoclassical economics views growth as essential for maintaining social order. Affluenza-- the way that consumption and material affluence often fail to bring people contentment.

Can growth go on forever?

Economic growth stems from two sources: an increase in inputs to the economies (greater inputs of labor and natural resources) and improvements in the efficiency of production due to better technologies and approaches ( ideas and equipment that helps us produce more without more input). The Cassandra view (no, technological advances has not helped us) has been articulated most by a series of books The Limit of growth. Earth's resources

Economics studies the allocation of resources

Economics- study of how people decide to use potentially scarce resources to provide goods and services in the face of demand for them. Environmental problems are also economic problems that can intensify as population and per capita resource consumption rate

We can give ecosystem goods and services monetary values

Ecosystem services are nonmaket values- values not usually included in the price of a goof or service. One way to determine values for ecosystems is contingent valuation- uses surveys to determine how much people are willing to pay to protect or restore a resource. CV measures people's expressed preferences and revealed preferences

Economies rely on ecosystem goods and services

Ecosystem services support the life that makes our economic activity possible. Economic activity can also affect the environment. When we deplete our natural resources and generate pollution, we can degrade the capacity of ecological systems to function. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment concluded in 2005 that 15 of 24 ecosystem services were being degraded or used unsustainably. In turn, there will be negative effects on the economy.

Env'tl economists address shortcoming of mainstream economics

Environmental economics- a developing school of economics that modifies the principles of neoclassical economics to address env't challenges.

Environmental Justice seeks equal treatment for all races and classes

Environmental justice involves the fair and equitable treatment of all people with respect to environmental policy and practice, regardless of their income, race or ethnicity. The env'tl justice movement has been fueled by the perception that poor people and minorities tend to be exposed to a greater share of pollution, hazards, and environmental degradation tan are richer people and whites. This is thought to occur because lower-income and minority communities often have less access to information on env'tl problems and health risks, less political power with which to protect their interests, and less money to spend on avoiding or alleviating risks.

Ethical standards help us judge right and wrong

Ethical standards- the criteria that help differentiate right from wrong. German philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed the categorical imperative or golden rule, treat others they way you would want to be treated. It's a fundamental ethical standard. Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill proposed the principle of utility. The utilitarian principle holds that something is right when it produces the greatest practical benefits for the most people. It's a fundamental ethical standard.

Environmental Ethics

Ethics- a branch of philosophy that involves the study of good or bad, of right and wrong. Also, it refers to a set of moral principles o values held by a person or society. Ethicists help clarify how people judge right from wrong by elucidating criteria, standards, or rules that people use in making these judgements. Grounded in values such as welfare, individual freedom and minimizing pain and suffering

Environmental ethics pertains to people and the environment

First question relates to sustainability, leaving our descendants a world in which they can meet their needs at least as well as we have met ours. (golden rule) Second question relates to the heart of env'tl justice. The third one related to intrinsic values, and are typical of those that arise in debates over endangered species management, habitat protection, and conservation biology.

Ethical standards help us judge right and wrong

For the Jabiluka mine, defenders of the Mirarr asked the mine proponents how they would feel if someone disfigured their homeland.(golden rule) Supporters of the mine development argued uranium from the mine could benefit many thousands of people across Australia and possibly power nuclear plants.

Environmental Justice seeks equal treatment for all races and classes

From 1948-1960s, uranium mines employed Native Americans of the southwest. They were not made aware of the health risks involved and the U.S. and mining industry did not provide the Native Americans with safeguards and information. Cases of lung cancer started to become rampant among the Navajo. Researchers did not include the NA population while studying lung cancer claiming it a desire study of "homogeneous population." Later Americans enacted the Radiation Exposure Compensation act of 1990, a federal law that compensated Navajo miners who suffered health effects from unprotected work in the mines

We can measure economic progress differently

GPI- Genuine Progress Indicator adds the conventional economic activity with the positive contributions that were not paid for. Then subtract the negative impacts.

Conservation and preservation arose with the 20th century

Gifford Pinchot founded the U.S. Forest Service. Opposed deforestation and degradation. He took a more anthropocentric view of how and why we should value nature. He is associated with the conservation ethic- which holds that people should put natural resources to use but that we have a responsibility to manage them wisely.

We can measure economic progress differently

Gross Domestic Product- the total monetary value of final goods and services it produces each year. Gov't uses GDP to make financial policy decisions that affect billions of people. However, GDP is poor measure of economic well-being bc it doesn't account for nonmarket values and not an expression of an desirable economy. Crime boosts GDP.

We can measure economic progress differently

HDI- Human Development Index addresses standard living, life expectancy to access the economies health

Are resources infinite or substitutable

Human resources can substitute for financial resources, for instance, manufactured resources can substitute for natural resources. Ecosystem services and goods are treated as free gifts of nature because humans can find a replacements supposedly.

Environmental Justice seeks equal treatment for all races and classes

In Australia, critics have characterized the attempts of the Australian gov't and uranium mining companies (all predominately white) as violations of env'tl justice because the obstruct the land of the Aborigines.

Environmental Justice seeks equal treatment for all races and classes

In the early 1980's in Warren County, NC residents were against a toxic waste dump in their community- beginning of env'tl justice movement. The state had chosen to site the dump in the county with highest percentage of Blacks, residents suspected "environmental racism."

The industrial revolution inspired philosophers

Industrialization accelerated the consumption the natural resources and increased the rate of pollution. Philosophical movement called transcendentalism flourished. Espoused by Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoereau. Transcendentalists viewed nature as a direct manifestation of the divine, emphasizing the soul's oneness with nature and God. They objected to their fellow citizens' attraction to material things, and through their writing they pomoted their holistic views. Both Mirarr and transcendentalists identify a need to experience wild nature, and bth view natural entities as symbols or messengers of deeper truths.

We values things in two ways

Instrumental or Utilitarian value- valuing something for the pragmatic benefits it brings us is we put it to use. Intrinsic or Inherent value- to feel that something has a right to exist and is valuable for its own sake. Like we can perceive animals that can be hunted as food (utilitarian value) or value them for being organisms that think and feel and live lives on the same planet.

Conservation and preservation arose with the 20th century

John Muir (Scottish immigrant)- fueled by deforestation and env'tl degradation, his belief of the natural world should be treated with the same respect that cathedrals receive- the preservation ethic, which holds that we should protect the natural env't in a pristine, an unaltered state. Ecocentrist and anthropocentric argument by saying nature deserved protection for its own sake but " everybody needs beauty as well as bread"

Ecological economists propose a ready-state economy

John Stuart Mill hypothesized that resources became harder to find and extract, economic growth would slow and eventually stabilize. Ex. Aboriginal economies Herman Daly thought no. We will need to rethink our assumptions and fundamental change the way we conduct economic transactions.

Environmental Ethics

Many ethicists are relativists, people who believe that ethics do and should vary with social context. Also many ethicists are universalists, people who maintain that there exist objective notions of right and wrong that hold across cultures and contexts. For relavists and universalists, ethics is a prescriptive pursuit; rather than simply describing behavior, it prescribes how we ought to behave.

Are costs and benefits internal?

Many transactions affect other members of a society. Ex pollution and radiation discharge from the mine that affects the Mirrar. Costs or benefits that people other than the buyer and seller are known as externalities. A positive externality is a benefit enjoyed by someone not involved in the transaction. A negative externality or external costs, is a cost born by someone not involved in a transaction. Harm many and benefit a certain amount. External costs such as chronic human health problems, property damage, declines in desirable elements of the environment, such as fewer fish in a stream, stress and anxiety experienced by the people downstream or downwind from a polluted source, and declining real estate values resulting from these problems. The best way to compensate for external costs is to build the costs into market prices.

Should future effects be discounted

Market demand is greater for goods and services that are sooner than later. Tend to grant more importance to the present not the past. Discounting encourages policymakers to play down the long-term consequences of decisions we make today. Economists quantify this by assigning numerical discount rates in their calculations of costs and benefits. Discounting encourages policymakers to play down the long-term consequences of decisions we make today

Markets can fail

Market failure occurs when markets do not reflect the full costs and benefits of actions. Solutions are green taxes, economic incentives to promote fairness, resource conservation, and economic sustainability.

Several types of economies exist

Mixed economies- economies with hybrid systems. More flexibility. Gov'ts intervene in the market to eliminate unfair advantages held by single buyers or sellers, to provide social services, such as national defense, medical care, and education; to provide "safety nets" ( fro the elderly, victims of natural disasters and so on), to manage the commons, to mitigate pollution and other threats to health and quality of life.

Conservation and preservation arose with the 20th century

Muir and Pinchot both prevailed "development ethic," which hold promotes economic development without regard to its negative consequences.

We can measure economic progress differently

NEW- Net Economic Welfare- adjusts the GDP by adding the value of leisure time and personal transactions while deducting costs env'tl degradation.

Neoclassical economics incorporates psychology

Neoclassical economics examines the psychological factors underlying consumer choices, explaining market prices in terms of consumer preferences for units of particular commodities. In their theory, buyers desire the lowest paying price, whereas sellers acquire the highest paying price. Often phrased in supply, the amount of product offered for sale at a given price; and demand, the amount of product people will buy at a given price if free to fo so. Market moves to a equilibrium, supply and demand balance.

Cost-benefit analysis is a widespread tool

Neoclassical economists commonly use a method referred to as cost-benefit analysis. Estimated costs got a proposed action are tolerated up and compared to the sum of benefits estimated to result from the action. Problems arise because not all costs and benefits can be accounted or identified- cost-benefit analysis is controversial. Monetary benefits are more quantified than the env'tl ones

Environmental justice is an international issue

One common source of env'tl injustice amonf nations concerns the dumping of hazardous waste. An international treaty, the Basel Convention, prevents the international export of waste, but trade and illegal dumping have continued. US has not ratified the treaty. Env'tl justice is a key component in the triple bottom line of env'tl, economic, and social sustainability.

We have expanded our ethical consideration over time

Our expanding of ethical concern has begun to include nonhuman entities as well. Concern for the welfare of domesticated animals is evident in the wass many people provide for their pets. Increasing number of people today see intrinsic value in whole natural communities.

Environmental ethics has ancient roots

People have contemplated our ethical relations since ancient times.

Culture and worldview influence our perception of the environment

People with different worldviews can study the same situation yet draw complete different conclusions. ex. People both supported and opposed the Jabiluka mine. The people who supported the mine view uranium mining as beneficial source of jobs, income, energy, and economic growth. Mine opponents view the mine as disturbance to the landscape, pollutes the air and water, exposes miners to radiation, community disruption, substance abuse, crime.

Many factors shape our worldviews

Political ideology can shape a person's attitude towards the env't. One's views on the proper role of gov't may influence whether one wants gov't to intervene in a market economy to protect env'tl quality. Economic factors also say the way people perceive their env't and make decisions. An individual with a strong interest in the outcome of a decision that may result in his or her private gain or loss is said to have a vested interest. Need ethics and economics to help is understand how and why we value those things we value.

Many factors shape our worldviews

Religion and spiritual beliefs are among many factors that can shape a person's worldview and perception of the env't. Also, a community can have the same view if they lived through experiences together. Ex. Australia and North America view their env't as a hostile force because of inclement weather, killed livestock, wild and animals eating crops. Still influences the way Australia and North America view their frontier. Songs ans stories were made out of these experiences.

Economies rely on ecosystem goods and services

Scottish philosopher Adam Smith believed that self-interested behavior was constrained by the rule of law and private property rights and operated within fairly competitive markets. CLASSICAL ECONOMICS. He felt that the marketplace acts as an "invisible hand" that leads their actions to benefit society as a whole.

Several types of economies exist

Subsistence economy- economy that is formed by each individual taking care of themselves. They subsist on what they can gather or produce, rather than working for wages and then purchasing life's necessities. Mirrar lived in a subsistence economy.

Environmental Justice seeks equal treatment for all races and classes

Success story The mostly poor latino, farm workers of the San Joaquin Valley are exposed to the most air pollution from industrial agriculture produces pesticides emissions, dairy feedlot emissions, and windblown dust from eroding farmland yet the pollution was not regulated. Valley residents enlisted the help of sereval organizations and succeeded in convincing CA regulators to enforce Clean Air Act.

Many factors shape our worldviews

The Mirrar Clan's response was based on their worldview. They value the landscape around them as an embodiment of stories that express the beliefs and values central to their culture. It's a sacred text. They believe that spirit ancestors possessing human and physical traits traveled routes called "dreaming tracks," leaving signs and lessons. Modern Aborigines still engage in walkabouts by explaining the origins of specific landscape features, dreaming-track stories meaning to notable landmarks help them construct a mental map of the land. They pass the maps and stories down generations.

Environmental ethics pertains to people and the environment

The application of ethical standards to relationships between people and nonhuman entities is known as environmental ethics. Arose when industrialization started to change peoples thoughts about the env't. Ethical questions below

The economy exists within the env't

The mainstream worldview that policies are based off of is resources are unlimited and waste can be exported and absorbed by the env't at no cost. Modern economists explicitly recognize that human economies are subsets of the env't and depend crucially upon natural resources and ecosystems.

Is there a trade-off between the economy and the environment?

The view one takes depends in part on whether one thinks in the short term or long term or depends on whether one stands to benefit. Traditional economic schools have ignored the contributions from the env't to our economy. They equate env'tl protection with economic sacrifice. Newer economic schools will recognize human economies as couples to the encironment and reliant on its goods and services. For people holding this view, our economic health depends on some degree of env'tl protection. Concern of climate change, dependence on foreign oil, diminishing fossil fuel supplies has led many mainstream economists and policymakers to recognize the immense opportunities in building a green-energy based economy based on renewable energy technologies.

We have expanded our ethical consideration over time

We can simplify our continuum of attitudes toward the natural world by dividing it into three ethical perspectives. Anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism.

Ethics and economics involve values

We need to understand how people perceive their env't, how they value it, and how they relate to it philosophically and pragmatically. Ethics and economics both deal with questions of what we value and how those values influence our decisions and actions.

Culture and worldview influence our perception of the environment

We rely on costs and benefits to decide how to manipulate the environment. Most of our decisions are influenced by our culture and worldview. Culture- the ensemble of knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people. Worldview- culture and personal experience.

Ecological economists propose a ready-state economy

ecological economics- a developing school of economics that applies the principles of ecology and systems thinking to the description and analysis pf economies. Ecological economists maintain that civilizations are like natural populations with a carrying capacity. Ready-state economy was proposed, economy that neither grows nor shrinks.