cj exam 3

What type of crime is most likely across bias types for person versus property crimes?

-Property destruction damages and vandalization

1968 Civil Rights Act

-main difference between this act and 1964 was that this act gave ways to go after people who were discriminating and actually giving them punishments In 1968, this Civil Rights Act became the way the Federal Government could go after those discriminating • Anyone who "willfully injures, intimidates or interferes with, or attempts to injure, intimidate or interfere with ... any person because of his race, color, religion or national origin" • Punishments: Vary by the degree of crime • Range from fine / imprisonment of up to one year, or both to the death penalty

Victimization of Persons with Disabilities- Extent: when began collecting stats, what are the stats from 2012

1998: Crime Victims with Disabilities Awareness Act of 1998• Goal to increase public awareness and establish data collection• Thus, NCVS began collecting data on persons with disabilities NCVS Definitions: • Disability: the product of interactions among individuals' bodies; their physical, emotional, and mental health; and the physical and social environment in which they live, work, or play. A disability exists where this interaction results in limitations of activities and restrictions to full participation at school, work, home, or in the community. 2012- There was a spike in the rate of people with disabilities victimized violently -People with multiple disabilities had the highest violent victimization rate for simple assault

Measurement & Extent of Hate crimes - Assess for both UCR and NCVS- Who is most at risk for each category?

2 Federal Sources of Data on Hate Crime FBI's Hate Crime Statistics Program •Part of the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program •Hate crime data compiled from law enforcement agencies since 1990s Bureau of Justice Statistics' National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) •Nationally representative, household-based survey administered by the U.S. Census Bureau •Hate crime data collected since 2003 -Both sources define hate crime according to the Hate Crime Statistics Act •Motivated by bias against the victim due to his or her race, ethnicity, gender or gender identity, sexual orientation, religion or disability --For both UCR and NCVS, race or ethnicity-based hate crimes are highest, people are most at risk for experiencing hate crimes based on their race or ethnicity

What type of harassment bias is most common?

45% alleged harassment on the basis of sex,

What role does alcohol play?

Alcohol Between 75% and 96% of college students consume alcohol Almost half of college students binge drink and do so specifically to get drunk College students who drink heavily are more likely to be both criminal offenders and victims of crimes Effects of Alcohol- Impaired cognitive functioning = decreased ability to assess situations as risk

1962 Events by KKK

BACKGROUND OF HATE CRIME LAWS 1962 - Racial tensions increase as Black people are given more rights • ....especially in the south • KKK burned 9 black churches within 1 month • 2 freedom riders were wounded while helping with voter registration • University of Mississippi denied a black man (James Meredith) admittance to law school. Kennedy sent National Guard and federal marshals to ensure Meredith's enrollment. Led to a campus riot, killing two people. • Kennedy signs executive order banning racial discrimination in federally financed housing

Definitions for the different types of bullying

Bullying: the intentional infliction of injury or discomfort (or the attempt to do so) on another person repeatedly over time when there is a power imbalance between the perpetrator and the victim Direct bullying: perpetrator is in the presence of the victim Indirect bullying: when someone undermines another's reputation through rumors or other gossip within their social group- more subtle and harder to detect, often referred to as "social" bullying, examples include isolation, make obscene gestures, excluding from activities and manipulation; victims may not realize that they are being targeted at first Verbal bullying: is a means of using words in a negative way such as insults, name calling, teasing, put downs, making threats, etc., to gain power over someone else's life Physical bullying: hitting, punching, pulling chars out from under people, punishing, tripping and other physical action Cyberbullying: the use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically by sending messages of an intimidating or threatening nature.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 - highlights

Civil Rights Act of 1964 • Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private" • Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion, or national origin • Enforced the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act • Prevents discrimination by programs and activities that receive federal funds • Prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of (covered: an employer with 15+ employees regularly) --Discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin targeted by the act, Still missing other populations

Who is victimized

Classified into six limitations: • Hearing: deafness or serious difficulty hearing • Vision: blindness or serious difficulty seeing, even when wearing glasses • Cognitive: serious difficulty in concentrating, remembering, or making decisions because of a physical, mental, or emotional condition • Ambulatory: difficulty walking or climbing stairs • Self‐care: a condition that causes difficulty dressing or bathing • Independent living: physical, mental, or emotional condition that impedes doing errands alone, such as visiting a doctor or shopping General Definition (CDC): any condition of the body or mind (impairment) that makes it more difficult for the person with the condition to do certain activities (activity limitation) and interact with the world around them (participation restrictions)

College Victimization: General Findings

College students are less likely to be victimized than non-college students except for rape and sexual assault where there is no difference Crime most likely to experience theft Violent Victimization: Most common: simple assault Most are committed by strangers More likely to be off campus (20 times the rate experienced on campus) Most do not result in physical injury

Results from the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project

Conducted by the University of Chicago • Three waves (time-periods) of data collection • 2005—2006, completing 3,005 interviews with a nationally representative sample of adults born between 1920 and 1947 aged 57 to 85 at the time of recruitment • 2010—2011, completing nearly 3,400 interviews including some from prior waive and some new subjects • 2015—2016, completed 4,777 surviving subjects from previous waves and new cohort of baby boomers First wave findings: • 9% reported verbal maltreatment• 3.5% reported financial maltreatment • 0.02% reported physical maltreatment

Institutional Response, Constitutional Requirements: Farmer v. Brennan, 1994:

Constitutional Requirements: • Farmer v. Brennan, 1994: U.S Supreme Court • Ruled that allowing inhumane treatment of prisoners was a violation of the 8th Amendment (It's Cruel & Unusual) • Have to provide a humane environment • If they don't prison officials can be held liable • If they acted with deliberate indifference to inmate health or safety

Typologies (types and their definitions) of workplace victimization

Criminal intent incidents: include incidents in which the perpetrator has no legitimate relationship to the business at which the crime occurs -Violence usually occurs while offender is in the process of committing a nonviolent offense such as a robbery or burglary. Customer/Client Incidents: when the perpetrator has a legitimate relationship with the business and becomes violent when receiving services from the business. Example: a patient who feels the doctors took way too long to make a diagnosis and punches the doctor. Worker-on-worker incidents: the perpetrator is a current or former employee of the business and aggresses against another employee Personal relationship incidents: the perpetrator has a personal relationship with with the intended victim and is targeted while at work.

What type of legislation exists for sexual harassment specifically (if any)?

Currently there is no national set of standards to the prevention of workplace violence; there are federal agencies that provide legislation guidance for workplace safety and health. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): only handle research and recommendations for workplace violence Some states have standards and enforcement policies Generally, all employers are required to provide a safe work environment that is free of recognizable hazards that are likely to cause death or harm while on duty, employers may be liable if they fail to disclose dangers workers face or if they negligently ignored the threat of workplace violence

Victimization of the Mentally Ill-- Defining Mentally Ill:

Defining Mentally Ill: Most of the research on victimization focuses on the severely mentally ill • Severely mental ill: often have symptoms of "impaired reality testing, disorganized thought processes, impulsivity, poor planning and poor problem solving." • Some studies only include people who have been on medication for a specified period of time • Some studies focus on specific mental illnesses

Stats (what types of crimes most likely to be victims of) pay special attention to the NCVS

Estimated that 449,924 (almost half a million) elderly persons experience abuse and/or neglect • Only 16% had their cases reported to and substantiated by Adult Protective Services • In 1996, 236,479 reports of suspected maltreatment were made • Almost half were substantiated • Most involved abuse by another (62%) as opposed to self-neglect • In 2003, 253,426 reports of maltreatment were made • 76% were investigated • 35% were substantiated

Events that launched a formal investigation and by whom and why? What happened to the offenders?

Events that launched a formal investigation= 3 freedom riders went missing • The murders of civil rights workers set off the visible and sustained federal effort to protect and foster civil rights for African Americans. • Also increased support for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 • 1967: Seven of the 18 defendants were found guilty of violation of civil rights (including a Deputy Sheriff); None were found guilty of murder • Only served about 6 years • One of the men was finally convicted of manslaughter on June 21, 2005, the 41st anniversary of the crimes

Findings from RISCS

Findings - Report on Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2020 Crime & safety issues that became less prevalent (in the last decade, ages 12 -18) Any criminal victimization (including theft and nonfatal violent victimization) during the previous 6 months (2 % in 2019 vs. 4 % in 2009), Being bullied during the school year (22 vs. 28 %), Being called hate-related words (7 vs. 9 %) & seeing hate-related graffiti (23 vs. 29 %), Gang presence (9 vs. 20 %) at school. Being in a physical fight on school property in the previous 12 months (8 vs. 11 %) Carrying a weapon on school property during the previous 30 days (3 vs. 6 %). Crime and safety unchanged or more prevalent over time. Similar: Threatened or injured with a weapon (7%) Offered, sold, or given an illegal drug (22 %); ( %) Higher Avoiding one or more places in school during the school year (5 % in 2019) (4 % in 2009).

Extent of bullying

From CDC Report: About 1 in 5 high school students reported being bullied on school property, and more than 1 in 12 high school students reported being cyberbullied in the last year (~2016) One national report found that 28% of children aged 12 to 18 said they had been bullied at school during the school year 81% reported being pushed, shoved, tripped or spit on Another national report found that 17% of children grades 6 to 10 had been bullied Cyberbullying: almost 9% of youth in national study reported being the victim during the school year

Who is victimized both students and staff

Gender: males at greater risk of victimization than girls Age: violent victimization seems most common among younger school children than older children Students in 9th grade had higher rates of fighting (2014) Students aged 12 to 14 had the highest victimization rates (for property and violence) Race/ethnicity: More than half of victimizations at school were white students However, 2011 data showed no differences in risk (aka: rates of victimization) for whites, blacks, Hispanic or Asian students. Geography: Urban or suburban areas face greater risk of school victimization than rural students Income: children who live in households where the income level is less than $15,000 per year experience the highest rates of violent victimization, though the rates of victimization are similar across household income, Meaning that everyone, regardless of household income, is at the same risk level Staff and Administrator Victimization: Fairly unlikely to be victimized Risk is not constant for all teachers Special education teachers are more likely to be violently victimized than other teachers A larger %age of elementary teachers were physically attacked when compared to secondary teachers Public school teachers are at a greater risk than those in a private school Teachers are more likely to be victims of theft than violence

School - General Definition

General Definition: a victimization that happens on school property or on the way to or from school; may include school activities not on school group (i.e., field trip, sporting event, etc...)

Victims of Hate Crimes-- FBI's definition

HATE CRIMES • Defined: (FBI's definition) A hate crime is a traditional offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias. For the purposes of collecting statistics, the FBI has defined a hate crime as a "criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender's bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity." • Hate itself is not a crime (and according to Supreme Court, neither is hate speech - 1st Amendment)

Define harassment, When is it considered to be a crime

Harassment: unwelcome conduct that is based on race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age, disability or genetic information. Considered a crime when: The conduct becomes a condition of continued employment, The conduct is severe or pervasive enough to create a work environment that a reasonable person would consider intimidating, hostile, or abusive. Anti-discrimination laws also prohibit harassment against individuals in retaliation for filing a discrimination charge, testifying, or participating in any way in an investigation, proceeding, or lawsuit under these laws; or opposing employment practices that they reasonably believe discriminate against individuals, in violation of these laws.

Hate speech - protected by?

Hate itself is not a crime (and according to Supreme Court, neither is hate speech - 1st Amendment)

Psychosocial effects of bullying

Higher levels of unhappiness and lower self-worth During adolescence linked to anxiety and depression (and even later in life) Higher rates of headaches, not sleeping well, bed wettings and tummy aches Less likely to like school, more absenteeism Higher levels of school avoidance

Extent and Type of Victimization:

Historically, mentally ill were only seen as violent offenders rather than victims by justice officials • Research has shown that persons with mental illnesses are more likely to be victims of violence than perpetrators Those with mental illnesses are 2.5 times more likely to be violently victimized • NCVS comparison study (Chicago Illinois) ‐ looking at Severe Mental Illness • More than 1/4th experienced either a completed or attempted violent crime (was 11.8 times higher than the prevalence rate in the NCVS) • Almost 28% had experienced a property crime (about 4 times higher than the NCVS) • Gender Differences (Comparing Males and Females)• Females: more likely to experience • Completed violent victimizations, • Rape/sexual assault • Personal theft • Motor vehicle theft• Males: more likely to experienced robbery• Race/Ethnicity: generally similar and high across categories

Victimization of Elderly- History of mandatory reporting laws (and present policies in most states) for the Elderly

If elder maltreatment is suspected, some people are required to report it to Adult Protective Services in their jurisdiction • However, it's likely that elder maltreatment is underreported • May not report if offender is a loved one • The person being abused might dependent on their abuser's care (there might not be anyone else who can take care of them - especially those who are financially strapped) • Fear of retaliation • Fear being put into an institution (could be retaliation or b/c of reporting the abuse) • Might be unaware (especially in financial or medical cases) • Embarrassed, ashamed • Poor witnesses, might not remember everything

Additional Risk Factors for Victimization While Incarcerated ---Importation versus Deprivation perspectives

Importation versus Deprivation perspectives • Importation: Inmates have characteristics that place them at risk of becoming victimized. • Previous victimization history, stature, or personality • Deprivation perspective: Prison is depriving and thus produces victimization • Example: level of dangerousness of a specific facility (measured by security level) may play a role in whether an inmate is at risk

Institutional Efforts/policies:

Institutional Efforts/policies: vary across institutions • Classification systems: try to match inmates to facilities where they will be less likely to be victimized • Reduce prisoner interaction • Conjugal Visits • Not effective strategy for sexual victimization that occurs in order to exert power and control • Not effective to reduce sexual victimization by staff

What is the Clery Act? What are some criticisms of the act?

Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act By October 1 yearly, schools must publish an annual campus security report Includes: crime stats and a security policy that includes information about sexual assault policies, the authority of campus security officers, and where students should go to report a crime - Must also include information about the three most recent calendar years and must be made available to current students and employees - Crimes included: homicide, sex offenses, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor vehicular theft, and arson -If an arrest is made or a disciplinary referral: liquor law violations, drug law violations, and illegal weapons possession, Must disclose incidents in a timely fashion via crime logs and warnings about ongoing threats -Requires certain rights for both accusers and victims Limitations to Clery Act: -Only certain crimes are included -Only on-campus or properties adjacent to the campus - Not all schools are complying - Doesn't address the dark figure of crime on campuses ----Accuracy - some colleges have been accused of underreporting

1964 (famously referred to as?)

June 1964 —the start of "Freedom Summer," • a massive three-month initiative to register southern blacks to vote and a direct response to the Klan's own campaign of fear and intimidation. • The Klan in Mississippi was after a 24-year-old New Yorker named Michael Schwerner (active in organizing local boycotts of biased businesses and helping with voter registration) • He along with friends, James Chaney and Andrew Goodman went missing in Philadelphia, Mississippi • FBI was sent to investigate WHY?

Institutional (life) Factors

Length of sentence: Beginning of sentence more at risk for property victimization • Type of crime: • Sex crime more at risk for violent and/or sexual assault/rape • Violent offenders are especially at risk for physical assault • Security level: maximum‐security facilities are less likely to experience victimization • Proportion of non‐white inmates: as the proportion of non‐white inmates increases the risk of victimization (both property and personal) increase Social Distance: the perceived or desired degree of remoteness between a member of one social group and the members of another, as evidenced in the level of intimacy tolerated between them. (do they have a group of friends in prison?) • The more social distance increased physical and theft victimization risk, whereas having more friends at the facility decreased personal crime victimization • Dissatisfaction with staff: facilities where inmates had higher rates of dissatisfaction with staff had higher rates of physical victimization that other facilities • Perception of officer fairness: facilities with lower levels of officer fairness had higher rates of victimization

How do Routine Activities and Lifestyles theories apply

Lifestyle/Routine Activities Students who spend more time away from home in the evening are at a greater risk Spending many nights on campus during the week has been found to increase theft victimization Women who spend more time where groups of men hang out are at a greater risk (especially for sexual victimization) Examples: fraternity houses, athlete's parties Being a member of a fraternity or sorority has been linked to an increased risk of property victimization Principle of homogamy Suitable Targets: Having valuable things, Walking alone, Intoxication Guardianship- Students who live in apartment complexes where a lot of people move from year to year are at a greater risk (less social cohesion) than students who live on campus or at home -Attending crime prevention or crime awareness seminars has been found to reduce risk - Some research has found that increases in physical guardianship (i.e., purchasing a weapon) has been linked to increased victimization - Don't know if purchase was because of greater threat so victims were trying to protect self or if just having a weapon increased risk - Are people who are more likely to carry a weapon more likely to instigate fights (victim provocation)?

Violent effects of bullying

Linked to violent behavior by victims A report (by the secret service) found that 71% of school shooters who friends, families and neighbors were interviewed had been the targets of a bully Suicide Effects of cyberbullying in particular: Increased risk in delinquency, self-harm and suicidal ideation

Victimization of the Incarcerated--Extent (what is the extent and how do we know this? How accurate is this?)

Measurement & Extent • Official Prison Records (Victim Reported to Staff) • Likely that a lot goes unreported • Fearful of retaliation • Attacker might be staff • Inmates may assume nothing would be done anyhow • Academic Studies: (not nationally representative samples) • Victimization is more prevalent than in the general population • One study found 34% of their sample experienced physical assaults within the previous 6 months • Ohio Study found that half of their sample experienced victimization during the previous 6 months • Homicide • Jails: found in larger jails, the most violent offenders are usually the victims and it usually happens within 7 days of arriving • Prisons: rates are greatest for males and for whites

How do NCVS Stats compare to the UCR?

NCVS hate crime stats are higher, UCR less likely to report? Something like intimidation is less reported Victimization Survey - NCVS •Includes hate crime incidents and victimizations reported and not reported to police •Based on victim perceptions and crime scene evidence; not necessarily recorded as hate-motivated by investigators •Captures hate crimes against persons 12 or older •Does not include businesses or organizations, institutionalized populations, or persons in military barracks Police Data - UCR •Based on law enforcement agency reports and classification •Includes hate crime offenses, incidents, and offenders reported to police •Includes homicide, arson, vandalism •Captures offenses against all persons, regardless of age •Captures hate crimes against organizations, businesses, institutions, schools, and religious facilities

Risk factors for victimization

Needing a caretaker • Severity and type of disability • Example: Some persons don't understand social cues and may actually provoke victimization • More likely to live in poverty and thus bad neighborhood/bad retirement facility • Dependency‐stress model: the more dependent someone is, the more stress it can create which could result in abuse

Responses to Victims with Mental Illness

Nothing? - laws, policies, programs from the formal system for Victims • Mental Health Courts: focused mentally ill offenders • https://www.psycom.net/police‐mental‐health‐training - more so for potential offenders

Policing and Hate Crimes- How do they determine if a hate crime occurred?

POLICING AND HATE CRIMES • Determining if a hate crime occurred • Language used by offender(s) • Derogatory/stereotypical terms • Hate symbols: • Swastikas • Rebel flags • Timing of incident • Previous history between group / person targeted and the offender • Location of the offense (church or bar where only certain people go) • Absence of other obvious motives

What are some Prevention strategies for workplace victimization?

Prevention Strategies: Environmental design: the goal is to make the environment less attractive to targets by increasing security Better lighting, security cameras, bullet-proof barriers, post signs letting potential robbers knows that little cash is kept on site, police/security guards Organizational and Administrative Controls: administrator/organizational implemented strategies/policies to reduce workplace victimization- provide trainings on maintaining safe work environment; ban working alone; recording verbal abuse incidents; having policies that define what different types of workplace victimization are; training on how to use security equipment; access to psychological counseling; access to services following an incident Behavior Strategies: actions workers can take to reduce their risk of victimization at work Trainings: in nonviolent responses when conflict occurs, when to or how to anticipate and respond to potential violence, how to resist robbery

Special Cases: Sexual Victimization of the Incarcerated Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003

Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003• Requires the BJS to annually analyze the incidence and effects of prison rape in at least 10% of all state, county and federal prisons and a representative sample of municipal jails • Reports incidences by institution

Who is at risk for property crimes?

Property Crimes: Males more than females are victims of property crimes Younger students (aged 17 to 20) are at a greater risk ---Employed students are at a greater risk than those were are unemployed or who work part-time

Different types of sexual harassment and general stats -Findings from the EEOC - how did their results change & why

Quid pro quo: employment-related outcomes (raises and promotions) are based on person's compliance for sexual favors Hostile work environment: when sex-related conduct creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. Psychological definition of sexual harassment: when a person feels as though he or she was harassed, when sex-related behavior at work is seen as offensive, exceeding a person's resources or threatening a person's well-being Women are more likely to be victims of sexual harassment than men especially in fields where more masculine personalities and when they are working in fields that are traditionally more masculine (policing, the military) Sexual harassment has been found to be the highest in occupations where there is an overall high level of tolerance for sexual harassment and when there is a small proportion of women in a workgroup. Initial Research (EEOC Task Force): anywhere from 25% to 85% of women report having experienced sexual harassment in the workplace. But then they dug deeper....Employees from the probability sample (random selection), when asked if they had experienced "sexual harassment," without that term being defined in the survey, approximately one in four women (25%) reported experiencing "sexual harassment" in the workplace. BUT with a convenience sample (people either volunteered or were recommended) without defining sexual harassment, the %age went up to 50% of the women reporting they had been sexually harassment. When the researchers listed specific types of sexual harassment: The %age of reported harassment rose to approximately 60% of women (probability sample) The %age of reported sexual harassment by the convenience sample rose to 75%.

Who is at risk: race and sex- college students

Race: Hispanic students have similar violent victimization rates to Hispanic non-students (which is different for all other racial/ethnic groups who have lower rates of victimization than non-college students) Sex: Males experience higher rates of violent victimization than females (males are twice as likely to be victims of violent crime than females) except for rape and sexual assault. Female college students have an average annual rape/sexual assault rate of 6 per 1,000 versus males at 1.4 per 1,000 college students The average annual rate of violent victimization for males is 80.2 versus 42.7 for females (per 1,000 college students)

Characteristics of bullying victims

Race: whites more likely to be bullied Females are more likely to be bullied Youth with learning disabilities, ADHD, physical disabilities, obese children, and those who stutter are more at risk for bullying Gay youth are more likely to be targeted and more likely to happen on a daily basis Most at risk are slight in build, average or poor students and are generally passive socially Some research has looked at a specific subset of youth who tend to be both bullied and do the bullying (both victims and offenders): Seem to have worse psychosocial and behavior functioning problems compared to kids who are either a bully or get bullied.

Responses to Victimization in Prison- Inmate Response

Responses to Victimization in Prison • Inmate Response • Request protective custody • Usually the same experience as solitary confinement • Avoidance • Protective tactics • Getting in with a 'gang' • Working out • Acting tough

Responses to Victims with Disabilities (when reporting is less likely, reactions by police and prosecutors

Responses to Victims with Disabilities • No federal legislation for mandatory reporting or victim assistance • Not all disability advocates support mandatory reporting • Disabled person may want independence • Perceive mandatory reporting as excessive "protectionism," • Others worry about crimes against "vulnerable adults"• States - Varies • https://www.mass.gov/service‐details/who‐are‐mandated‐reporters• Pa:

Data Sources: what they are and what they collect

School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (SCS/NCVS) Created as a supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Collects information about victimization, crime, and safety at school. National survey of approximately 9,500 students ages 12 through 18 in U.S. public and private elementary, middle, and high schools. School Survey on Crime and Safety Filled out by school principals or someone knowledgeable about discipline Began in 1999 Data on elementary, middle, and high school (Frequency and types of crimes occurring at school, Disciplinary actions allowed and used in schools, Policies and practices designed to prevent or reduce crime in schools, and Characteristics of school climate related to safety). Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) Filled out by teachers in all grade levels, except preschool - not just on crime, only from years 1987-2011 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (CDC): https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/schoolviolence/fastfact.html Began in 1993 Conducted biennially Grades 9-12 (only high school students) Both public and private schools Purpose: track issues that contribute to leading causes of death, disability, and social problems among youth and adults in the United States. FYI: there are many other studies.....i.e. Crossing the Line: Sexual Harassment at School

School Victimization prevention efforts

Security- Law enforcement officers Metal detectors Security cameras Locking exits and entrances Hallway supervision Extent: (Survey from 2009-2010) 43% of public schools had security guards, law enforcement, or School Resource Officers Over 60% of public schools used security cameras 5% used random metal detectors 14% of students reported having to wear picture id. 95% of students indicated that visitors were required to sign in Federal Law: Gun-Free Schools Act Each state receives federal funds if they suspend for at least 1 year any student who brings a firearm to school State Laws - vary Most have laws to address bullying, harassment, and hazing at school Zero-tolerance policies- Specific punishments for fighting and violence along with bringing weapons to school School Changes- The most effective are proactive and involve parents, students and the community Example: peer mediation- Train a group of students in interest-based negotiation skills, communication skills and problem-solving strategies Have been found to be able to change the school climate over time - Bullying Prevention Programs

Stats from slides 31-34 (general interpretations - not specific stats)

Since 1994, homicides occurring in the workplace have declined In 2015, homicide accounted for 9% of all fatal workplace injuries Fire-arm related workplace homicides accounted for about 85% of all workplace homicides Fire arm related workplace homicides have decreased since 1995 from 762 to 354 in 2015 in 2015- 61 women and 356 men were victims of homicide in the workplace. Of these women, 43% were killed by a relative or domestic partner, 20% of the women were killed by a person committing a robbery 18% of women were killed by a coworker or work associate, compared to 15% of men. 47% of people victimized in workplace reported to the police, 87% were not injured, compared to 71% of people victimized outside the workplace -Law enforcement jobs have highest victimization rate, mental health field has next highest. Think about: the top field of employment for violence victimization is working in law enforcement and the mental health field. Think about that in terms of how dangerous that situation was in Philly with Walter Wallace, Jr. White victims report 78% of known workplace violent victimization. Black workers experience 9% of violent victimization in the workplace. Hispanic/ Latino workers experience 8% of violent workplace victimization. Between 2005 and 2009, 39% of men and 53% of women who were victimized in the workplace were victimized by someone they knew.

FBI & hate crimes - history

The FBI investigated hate crimes as far back as World War I • Increased investigations following the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 • Before, the protection of civil rights was a local function • The murders of civil rights workers set off the visible and sustained federal effort to protect and foster civil rights for African Americans. • Also increased support for the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Hate Crime Legislation- The Hate Crime Statistics Act

The Hate Crime Statistics Act, (passed in 1990 and modified in 2009 by the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act) • Requires the Attorney General to collect data on crimes committed because of the victim's race, religion, disability (added in 1994), sexual orientation (added 2009), or ethnicity. • Since 1992, the Department of Justice (via the FBI) has published an annual report on hate crime statistics The Importance here is that it led to the UCR data collection efforts. The other PowerPoint for this week is the NCVS's data collection of hate crimes. You should note the differences in numbers between these two data collections.

Extent via The National Inmate Survey:

The National Inmate Survey: • Self‐report surveys conducted via an audio computer‐assisted self‐interview touch screen with instructions via headphones • 4.4% of inmates in prison and 3.1% of jail inmates experienced sexual victimization by another inmate or staff • Slightly more inmates in both prisons and jails reported experiencing sexual victimization by staff than by another inmate

The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 & victims of gender-motivated hate crimes

The Violence Against Women Act of 1994: gender-motivated hate crimes and discrimination - victims have right to seek compensatory and punitive damages, injunctive and declaratory relief, and such other relief as a court may deem appropriate

Who is Victimized (gender, race/ethnicity, education and income) -Who are the likely offenders

Victim Characteristics & Risk Factors • Gender: • Males more likely to be physically victimized • When females are physically victimized, they are more likely to be victimized by another inmate than males • Males are more likely to be victimized by staff • Race/ethnicity • Younger white inmates more likely to be physically victimized by other inmates than by staff • Being non‐white associated with an increased risk of physical assault by staff • One study found that Mexican American inmates are more likely to be victims of both personal and property crimes compared to black and white inmates • Education and income: • Higher‐income, more‐educated inmates are more at risk for theft victimization • Lower‐income are more at risk for physical victimization

Who is sexually victimized (know stats (more or less than) for juveniles and adults

Who is sexually victimized • Females attacked by another inmate: 4.7% in prisons and 3.1% in jails • More likely to be victimized by another inmate than males • Males attacked by staff: 3% in prisons and 2.1% in jails by staff • Males more likely to be victimized by staff • Females attacked by staff: 2.1% in prison and 1.5% in jails • Whites more likely to be attacked by other inmates • Blacks more likely to be attacked by staff • More educated report higher levels of attacks than less educated (both by staff and inmates) • Inmates aged 20 to 24 are more at risk of being victimized by staff Juveniles: research by the National Survey of Youth in Custody• 12% experienced at least one incident in past 12 months or since admission • More likely to be victimized by staff • Sexual victimization was often achieved without force, threat or coercion • Almost 95% of youth who were victimized reported it was by a female staff • Males were more likely than females to report victimization by staff • Females were more likely to report having unwanted sexual activity with other inmates (9% versus 2%) Inmates with prior histories of sexual abuse • Sexual orientation• Non‐heterosexual orientation more at risk • Body size/type: small in stature, having a small build are more at risk • Having mental disorder puts someone at greater risk • Women with mental disorders are 3 times more likely than males with mental disorders to be sexually victimized

Mental Illness:

Wolf et al 2009 Study (all male subjects): • Inmates with non‐serious mental illness and prior victimization occurring before age 18 were highly vulnerable to both physical assault and property theft victimization • Those with serious mental disorder (schizophrenia and bipolar) were not found to have elevated rates of victimization by inmates or staff. • Above is contrary to research from the 1990s However: • The department of corrections operating the 12 prisons from this study was under a court‐monitored settlement to deliver mental health treatment to inmates with mental health problems.

Workplace Victimization- General Definition

Workplace victimization: when a person is working or on duty and is victimized The first discussions on workplace violence was in 1892 (that's right 1892). However, data collection didn't begin until 1970s and 1980s. (note this is specific to violence -other forms of workplace crimes were being addressed (i.e., child labor, putting employees in dangerous situations, working conditions that could lead to poor health, etc...)

Effects on Victims - Pay attention to the prosecution of the case following Obama's Shepard Byrd Hate Crime Prevention Act (what loopholes were closed?)

pain, shame, fear -expanded federal hate crimes bill, signed into law by President Obama closed a loophole, allowing prosecutors to convict all ten participants in a racially motivated murder in Jackson, Mississippi in 2011. --previously for the government to get involved the victim would have had to been doing something that included federal protections like voting or going to school