CMST 3300 - Persuasion Midterm Exam Study Guide

What are the criteria for responsible persuasion?

- Both parties have equal opportunity to persuade & equal access to media - Persuadees reveal agendas in advance - Persuaders warn negative side effects

Name and explain other early definitions of persuasion

- Cicero 1. Invention- discovery of evidence & arguments 2. Organization- disposition of the evidence & arguments 3. Style- elocution (artistically) how to present 4. Memory- both knowledge and retention 5. Delivery- pronunciation (skillfully-voice, the most effective tool a speaker owns) - Quintillan- persuasion is a good man speaking well - Brembeck and Howell- conscious attempt to modify thought and action by manipulating the motives of men toward predetermined ends - Fotheringham- that body of effects in receivers caused by a persuader's message; emphasis on outcomes - Burke- artful use of the resources of ambiguity usually revealed in an artistic format; speakers can create a bond with listeners - Larson- process of co-creating a state of identification between a source and a receiver that results from the use of verbal and/or visual symbols

Explain the Elaboration Likelihood Model

- Info processing - Central processing route- receivers consciously/ directly forces on the persuasive comm. while mentally elaborating on issues & actively seek more info/facts - Peripheral processing route- info processed instantly without focus/research of logic decision

Name and explain the elements of Rank's Model of Persuasion; identify the strategies and tactics of this model

- Intensify vs downplay - Strategies: 1. Intensify own good 2. Intensify others' bad 3. Downplay own bad 4. Downplay others' good - Tactics: Intensify + Repetition- slogans, jingles + Association- linking a positive/ negative valued idea to one's persuasive advice + Composition- graphic layout, design, typeface Downplay + Omission- half-truths, slanted or biased evidence + Diversion- shifting attention to bogus issues + Confusion- making things overly complex; using jargon, faulty logic, and so on

Explain the SMCR model of persuasion

- Source- encoder of message - Message- convey source's meaning - Channel- carries message - Receiver- decodes message

What are the tools for analyzing the thematic dimension?

-metaphorical style= persuaders set mood for persuades by repeatedly using certain sounds/figures of speech/ images -sensory language= language used to refer to sight/ sound/smell/taste/ touch -god (unchallenged word or phrase/visual persuasion)/ devil terms= terms/ labels link w/ other terms or labels to shape a msg or persuasive argument - charismatic term- terms of considerable potency whose referents its virtually impossible to discover -pragmatic style- used to change minds instead of reinforcing existing beliefs (want to convince neutral/opposition listeners) -unifying style- much more idealistic/emotional/w/ fewer objective claims & data than pragmatic persuader

What are tools for analyzing metaphors?

-metaphors imply exact similarity, not an approximate one, and result similes always have words "like" or "as" in them - figurative - not idiomatic/untranslatable -metaphors can be visual

What are the tools for analyzing the sematic dimension? ----the semantic dimension of co-created interactive meaning carries the bulk of persuasion in most messages----

-strategic uses of ambiguity- persuaders try to be unclear, vague, & general to allow broadest possible degree of common ground, identification, and co-creation of meaning (visual and verbal) -Burke's Dramatism- (5 elements of dramatism ultimately affect one another & each emerges from common unified core- the drama itself) 1) maintains the basic metaphor used by humans to explain various situations is narrative story or drama 2) scene- includes physical location, situation, time in history or time in life, social place, occasion, and other elements 3) act- refers to any motivated or purposeful action occurs w/in the scene 4) agent- person/group who take action in scene, and balance/imbalance between them & the acts they perform & the scenes they perform them affects persuasive meanings 5) agency- tool, method, or means used by persuaders to accomplish ends 6) purpose- reason an agent acts in given scene using a particular agency

Explain what is meant by metaphors, archetypes and their meanings.

1) Metaphors- memorable (especially more times repeated), - 2 parts: (tenor)=topic, and (vehicle)=gives meaning/image of topic -Can be used to persuade(advertising & political) -Metaphors can "indirect claims" & be visually conveyed -Receivers need to analyze metaphors to discover persuader's meaning & intentions -The use of powerful metaphors creates thematic meaning or texture 2) Archetypal Metaphors- refer to common substances or events like light&dark/ birth&death/rite of passage/frequently associated with the sacred or profane (cross-cultural/ not time bound/ easy to relate to/widely applicable)

Identify and explain 3 dimensions of language.

1) Semantic dimension- meanings for a word - Explains various shades of meaning given to language - Word choice provides clues about sources underlying intentions 2) Functional dimension- the jobs that words can do, ex. naming - Words can motivate action/identify causes & effects/ lay or deflect blame - Also have powerful potential to shift our focus 3) Thematic dimension- feel & texture of words like "swoosh" or metaphors like "the whole nine yards" probably processed in peripheral channel of ELM - Assonance- repetition of vowels/ vowel sounds - Alliteration- relies on repetition of consonants

What are the tools for analyzing the functional dimension? ----carries important verbal and nonverbal meanings----

1) Weaver's Grammatical Categories- the type of sentence preferred by an individual offers clues as to that person's worldview (the way the person uses information and comes to conclusions) Simple sentences- express a single complete thought or point and must contain one subject or noun and one action word or verb and an object/ persuaders who prefer simple sentences don't see the world as a very complex place Compound sentences- consist of two or more simple sentences joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "but"/ compound sentences set things either in balance or in opposition (persuaders who use these see the world in terms of opposites or similarities) Complex sentences- contain two or more distinct components (persuaders who use complex sentences often express basic principles and relationships, with the independent clauses more than the dependent ones) Nouns- the name of a person, place or thing (persuaders noun can reveal clues to his or her perceptions of things) Adjectives- function to add to the noun, to make it special (examining a persuaders adjective use can reveal his or her uncertainty and what they see in opposition to what) Adverbs- words of judgment (helps us to agree with what the persuader thinks we believe) 2) Syntax of Word Order- the pattern or structure of the word order in sentences or phrases/ word order can either alert of divert the reader/listener -some persuaders place emotional or surprising words at the beginning of a sentence to reduce the impact of what follows -sometimes the speaker diverts attention from the evidence by hiding the claim at the end of the sentence

What must we do to tune our ears for language cues?

1) role-play of persuader= can alert you to original persuader's true purposes & favored tactics 2) restate persuasive message in various ways= try to determine how alternatives change intent & effects of the message 3) attend language features in discourse= don't allow yourself to passively buy into any persuasive advice without a thorough inspection of tactics being used (get into the habit of looking at each message's style)

What did Maslow contribute to the discussion on persuasion?

1. Physiological needs: food, clothing, and shelter. 2. Security & Safety: free from physical danger and secure in feeling physiological needs can be met. 3. Social needs: to be loved, accepted, and belong. 4. Ego needs: be heard, appreciated & wanted. 5. Self-actualization: achieve one's fullest potential

What do we mean when we say persuasion is "ubiquitous?" How is it ubiquitous?

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Explain the semiotic approach to language use

According to semiotic theory, all texts convey meaning through signs or signifiers. • Signifieds are the things (events, rules, etc.) to which the signifiers refer. • These signifiers interact with one another in meaningful and sophisticated, but not obvious, relationships, or sign systems, which make up the language or code of the text.

What are some problems associated with symbols?

Because can be misused & interpreted in different ways, there is often disconnect between the sender & receiver of a msg. Be left open for interpretation, so therefore the intended message is not always what gets across.

What does it mean to say we are "symbol making, symbol using, symbol misusing creatures?"

Burke said, it means we have the ability to create, use & misuse symbols ability- whether words, pictures, music, or art- lies at heart of persuasion As result, receivers must carefully analyze verbal, auditory & visual symbols used or misused by many persuaders around us (including those using SNM to reach us). be defensive listeners

What are the narrative theories?

Caution receivers against being too wiling to accept persuasion because it is in a story

How did Aristotle define persuasion?

Consists of artistic proof (choice of evidence, organization of persuasion, style of delivery, and language choices) [ethos, pathos, logos] and inartistic proof (things not controlled by the speaker- occasion, time allotted, etc.)

Explain Burke's approach to language use

Defines persuasion use of language as symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings by nature respond to symbols. • Burke, identification develops through linguistic sharing of what he called sub-stances ◦ sub- beneath, stances-refers to grounding or places.

Explain the general semantics approach to language use.

Language appeals made by most persuaders, advocates and propagandists are only maps or inner perceptions of places, persons, or things, not true territories/realities. • all carry thousands of maps/connotative metaphors in our heads that represent nonexistent, incorrect, or false territories. • A signal response: when we react to words as true representation of territories we imagine. ◦ a emotionally triggered reaction to symbolic acts (including language use), these responses play out usually in peripheral channel of ELM as if the act were actually being committed.

ELM

Requires both motivation and the ability to process information while evaluating judgment. o Central Route- slower, deliberate and high effort when it comes to information processing. o Peripheral Route- less cognitive effort, and surveying less information than the central route

Message Bias

o Biased information processing- decision makers favor certain position & interpret world in light of that position. o Message Sidedness- introduce negative argument people consider first

Message Effects

o Primacy-Recency Effect- Information heard first & last stay with a person more than other info said o Inoculation- informing audience about warnings/damage

Source Effects

o Speaker credibility may decline in listener's mind if message becomes to far separated from speaker. o Sleeper Effect- decaying effect between message & speakers credibility o Affinity scams- exploit trust or friendship between groups,

HSM- has two routes

o Systematic processing route- comprehensive treatment of judgment-related information o The other one is a fast, low process that relies on the activation of judgmental rules of heuristics.

Explain Langer's approach to language use

recognizes power of language symbols, believes the ability to create powerful symbols distinguishes humans from non-humans. All human communication and hence persuasion relies on concepts & conceptions.

symbols

something that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention. Can be many things, not just words: pictures, art works, music, advertising logos, and team emblems.

Reasoned skepticism

§ Exercise capacity to actively search for meaning, to analyze & synthesize, judge soundness & worth of persuasive message. § Must also combat automatic assumption most public communication is untrustworthy.

Define ethics as it relates to persuasion

§ One person/group of people, attempts to influence other people by altering beliefs, attitudes, values, and actions. § Requires us to make conscious choices among ends sought & rhetorical means used to achieve ends. § Involves potential judge - any/all of the receivers/persuader/an independent observer

Appropriate feedback

§ honest & accurate reflection of your true comprehension, beliefs, feelings, or judgment.

What is the platinum rule?

· "Do unto others as they themselves would have done unto them"

Identify and explain the elements of Burke's dramatistic approach.

· 1. Act of description of what takes place · 2. Scene providing background/context of act · 3. Agent or person who performs act · 4. Agency or means or instruments of accomplishing act, and · 5. The purpose

Identify and explain the chain of steps or stages in this approach

· A memory of one thing leads to another memory and & will influence how you are persuaded & reaction to new messages.

Explain Aristotle's approach to persuasion.

· Adapt persuasion method to context/purpose · Types of proof to use: ethos (appeals to credibility), pathos (appeals to feelings), logos (appeals to logic) and place of argument

Explain anchor effects.

· Anchor- internal reference point which we compare other persons/issues/products. · Social Judgment Theory- how we form anchor points. · An anchor is a range of positions acceptable or unacceptable to persuadee's. Known as latitude of acceptance & latitude of rejection

What questions did Bovee suggest we ask to probe the degree of ethicality of ends vs. means?

· Are means unethical or morally evil? · Is end truly good? · Will ethically bad means achieve a good end? · Is the same good achievable ethically? · Is the good end better than bad effects of means? · Will means withstand public scrutiny?

Identify and explain the concepts upon which narratives succeed or fail

· Coherence refers to the way the story hangs together and thus has meaning or impact, degree which story is consistent · Fidelity relates to whether it rings true with the hearer's experience

Explain Gronberg's rhetorical functions of persuasion

· Defining · Legitimizing · In-gathering · Pressuring · Compromising · Satisfying

1. Why talk about ethics in a study of persuasion?

· Ethics: study of general nature of morals & specific moral choices to be made by a person. · Ethics involves comm. choices so by examining & becoming more aware of our own values, we become more responsible for consequences of our actions & more response-able to actions of others

What are the ethical responsibilities of persuaders? Of persuadees?

· Fulfilling duties & obligations · Accountable to others · Adhering to agreed standards · Thoughtful & deliberate judgment · Ethical adaptation to audience: · No absolute rules are possible, but we can search for an appropriate point between two undesirable extremes (Aristotle's Golden Mean)

What are the life-stages of social movements?

· Genesis · Social unrest · Enthusiastic mobilization · Maintenance · Termination

Name and explain the ethical perspectives discussed in your text?

· Human Nature Perspective: Probe the essence of human nature by asking what makes us fundamentally human. Identify unique characteristics of human nature that distinguish us from lower forms of life (Examples: Capacity to reason, to create and use symbols, to achieve mutual appreciative understanding, and to make value judgments) · Political Perspective: The Implicit or explicit values and procedures accepted as crucial to the health and growth of a particular political system. Once the essential values for a political system have been identified we can use them to evaluate the ethics of persuasive means and ends within that system. · Situational Perspective: Necessary to focus regularly and primarily on the elements of the specific persuasive situation at hand. · Legal Perspective: Legality and ethicality are considered synonymous. This approach makes ethical decisions simple: we need only measure communication techniques against current laws and regulations to determine whether a technique is ethical. · Dialogical Perspective: The attitudes participants in a communication situation have towards each other are an index of the ethical level of that communication. Communication as dialogue is characterized by such attitudes as honesty, , trust, humility, etc.

Discuss the ends vs. the means debate in persuasion.

· In persuasion, does end justify means? · If goal or end is widely acknowledged as worthwhile, does it justify use of ethically questionable techniques? · Do ends ever justify means? · Are any extenuating circumstances?

Automatic activation of attitudes- by Fazio

· Mind holds massive amount of memories/information, · Some info is easy to access while other info is difficult to access. · Memories trigger one another; theses triggers create pathways to other info. · Strengths connections/pathways vary. · Memories affect people's behavior without deliberate intentions to act that way

Explain moral exclusion.

· Moral Exclusion: when individuals/groups perceived as outside boundary which moral values, rules, & considerations of fairness apply. Those morally excluded are perceived as nonentities, expendable, or undeserving.

How do norms-based models differ from expectancy-values models?

· Norms-based models- behavioral changes have similarities to expectancy-values models, but only focus on normative source in persuasive argument.

Explain concept of fear and drive reduction.

· People try to eliminate fearful situations · People are attracted to comforting, rewarding situations

Explain Scott's epistemic approach

· Scott objects to truth being presented as objective package, as if it were a possession/ commodity. · Suggests truth is never certain

What are social movements, critical theories and radical movements?

· Social movement: a label of critical mass of people coming together addressing problems · Critical theory: focuses on inequitable situations & injustices · Radical movements: question if intimidation, harassment, force & violence are justifiable has no easy answer.

Explain Fisher's narrative approach

· The narrative paradigm as combination of argumentative & aesthetic themes, challenging notion persuasive comm must be argumentative in form & evaluated by standards of formal logic & narrative paradigm subsumes rather than denies rational world paradigm

What are the alternatives to dual process models?

· The unimodel (does not require two routes), automatic activation of attitudes, mere exposure, TRA and TPB.

Explain the expectancy-values models.

· Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)- found low or no relationship between attitudes & behavioral change (ex people who know smoking is bad continue to smoke anyway) Has to do w/ behavioral intentions & normative influence (aka performing action based on what others think) · Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)- people feel very little control over behaviors

What are the persuasive functions of social movements as described by Stewart?

· Transforming perceptions of reality · Altering self-perceptions of protestors · Legitimizing social movement · Prescribing courses of action · Mobilizing for action · Sustaining social movement

Explain Quintilian's approach to persuasion?

· character of person rather than est. truth on content.

Define self-efficacy.

· individual capable of a successful performance. Known as effectiveness.

How is racist and sexist language unethical?

· terms intentionally demean & put down others by embodying unfair negative value judgments of their traits, capacities & accomplishments. By reinforcing stereotypes, coveys inaccurate depictions of people, fails to take a serious account of them.

What is the relationship between metaphors and meaning?

• We draw meaning from the metaphors that symbols present. • Metaphors are the most powerful and persuasive of all figures of speech and the most likely to require truly artistic language creativity. • A good and persuasive metaphor is one in which the vehicle can be readily and repeatedly be "mapped" back to the tenor, and preferably on several dimensions. ◦ Tenor: subject of metaphor ◦ Vehicle: means of embodiment or transmission of meaning • Metaphors can be visual as well as verbal. • They are either centrally or peripherally processed in the elaboration likelihood model (ELM). • When we examine various metaphors and other symbols used in persuasion, we accomplish several things: ◦ We discover the persuader's pattern of use or misuse of symbols. ◦ We discover the persuader's stylistic preferences, what they reveal about his or her motives, and how they can intensify or downplay. ◦Knowing these things, we can anticipate the kinds of messages likely to come from this persuader in the future and be prepared for them

Langer introduces three terms to be used when discussing meaning

◦ Signification ◦ Denotation ◦ Connotation

In a semiotic approach we read the message from several perspectives:

◦ The word/symbols that are or are not spoken ◦ The context in or form which they are spoken ◦ The actions that are or are not taken/are or are not approved of ◦ The other signifiers in the message (visuals, colors, costumes, tone of voice, music, background settings, furnishings, and many other layers upon layers of meaning that might be there