COG Psy Final

Training creativity: insight problems: ___ ___ ____ is the technique used for improving creativity for solving insight problems. Functional fixedness is the major obstacle to overcome

General parts technique ( first notice infrequently noticed or new feature of the problem, and build a solution based on that obscure feature)

the __ _____ model of creativity includes immersion (the acquisition of skills and knowledge), incubation (unconscious thinking and reasoning), illumination (Aha moments), and production (run experiment)

Helmholtz-wallas model of creativity (stages are often intermixed)

when present the nine dot problem L- R+, sham, or R+ L-, who was able to solve the problem?

L-R+ was able to solve at 40%. the sham was 0% able. This shows that the simulation of the right ATL enables the solution of an inherently difficult problem

the three factors for an inductive argument are:

Q#R - quality of the evidence; number of observations; representativeness of the observations (how well do the observations represent all the members of a particular category?)

deductive reasoning involves the ___ of premises and the _____.

acceptance of two premises that leads to the conclusion (the way that the argument is structured is critical--the formal structure of the argument)

for syllogisms, the _____ is using all some or none. The ___ is if then

categorical; conditional

representations that are like realistic pictures of an object, so that parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object are ____ representations

depictive representations

the ___ principle states that to test a rule, you must look for situations that falsify the rule.

falsification

___ ___ refers to the tendency to be rigid in thinking about an object's function. This is shown in the ___ problem and the ___ task

functional fixedness; candle problem; two string task (what makes the problem so difficult is to think of the box as a box that holds matches, its normal function. But when remove the matches from the box, easier to see an alternative use for the box. remove the functional fixedness)

_____ are the rules of thumb or shortcuts that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem

heuristics

______ is process of drawing conclusions

reasoning

Divergent thinking is defined as:

thinking of novel uses for an object (also can test creativity in the remote association task)

under the generic parts technique: reviewed insight solutions, real inventions: innovative solutions involve 2 steps: what are they?

1) noticing infrequently noticed or new (obscure) feature of the problem 2) building solution based on that obscure feature SEE OBSCURE FEATURE--BUILD SOLUTION - decompose object into component parts - describe each part in terms of material and shape, not function - ask for each description: can this be decomposed further - if the description implies a use, dig deeper

give an example of a study that showed the effects of the availability heuristic: students asked to recall instances:

Availability heuristic: the ease with which examples come to mind is an index of frequency or likelihood. -- how easy it is for something to come to mind influences our estimate of its likelihood or frequency. students were asked to recall past instances in which they had been assertive. One group was asked to give 6 examples and the other 12. the group with 6 thought it was easier to recall them, so they rated themselves as more assertive than those who had to give 12 instances

how do we use inductive reasoning in real life?

assume that what has happened to us in the past can be applied to the present/future.

two heuristics are ___ and ___. define

availability heuristic and representativeness: availability is that events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than those that are less easily remembered. (remember more words beginning with the letter r than those with r as the third letter, so we say the former is more prevalent in the English language). (can lead to making illusory correlations and stereotypes, or when an imaginary correlation seems to exist between two events. Stereotype is an oversimplified generalization about a group of people that often focuses on the negative.) representativeness is related to the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event RESEMBLES the other event. (availability is how OFTEN event occurs).

in the English language, are there more words that start with the letter R or have r in the middle? this is an example of the ____. define this:

availability heuristic: you pay attention to what information is the easiest to recall from memory (this can lead to stereotypes)

while the ___ heuristic refers to how often we expect events to occur, _____ heuristic is related to the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event resembles another event

availability; representativeness heuristic

____ ___ is the relative proportion of different classes in a population. Like the -- of farmers or librarians

base rate

__ ____ : is the tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable

belief bias

according to the ___ ___ hypothesis, concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto

conceptual peg hypothesis

fisher questioned Mendel's statistical results in 1911 (as a student) again in 1936, saying that the results were too good to be true. Called the presentation of data ___ ____ (based on his theory about how traits are passed on over time). specifically, he said that ____

confirmation bias; specifically, he said that there were too many results quite close to expectation (he did the application of CHI square 1900 and p values)

___ ___: refers to the fact that people are more responsive to evidence that confirms their beliefs and do not seek out disconfirming data. YOU JUST pay attention to the instances that confirm your preconceived belief (this also leads to ____ )

confirmation bias; stereotyping (this Is also called myside bias when it refers to just thoughts and opinions)

the ___ ___ states that the probability of two events A and B together cannot be higher than the single event alone

conjunction rule (saying that Linda is a bankroller includes the possibility that she is a feminist and a bankteller; people tend to violate this rule because of the representativeness heuristic: based on descriptions, people like to add in details that are not necessarily more probably to be true)

some aspects of ___ include novelty (divergent thinking), functional fixedness, and the role of "Aha" moment, or spontaneous appearance of solution (insight) not after gradual steps towards a goal

creativity

___ is process of making choice between alternatives

decisions

___ reasoning is determining whether a conclusion logically follows from premises.

deductive reasoning

when descriptions are given, people refer to or deny base rate information when making a choice/decision?

defer to descriptions, ignore base rates

___ thinking is novelty, or thinking outside of the box to form new solutions. It is an aspect of creativity

divergent thinking (also a way to get out of functional fixedness)

what impedes creativity? how is the idea of spreading activation implicated in the idea?

dominant associations: spreading activation is like when you have a dominant association, it can infiltrate other modes of thought. even without conscious detection, might be overlapping activations that emanate from individual words, and summed activation will cross some threshold to be available to consciousness. Right hemisphere can be like spreading activation going on underneath consciousness, but the left can be dampening the process, exercising this control over thought process. might inhibit the right hemisphere kind of creative processing (results in functional fixedness)

what is a policy implication for the trolley problem study with moral reasoning?

drone strikes can be controlled remotely to decrease emotional activation--maybe more acceptable when you are removed. Remote combat techniques. - applicability to less consequential decisions than those that are death-related. So is it more morally acceptable to fire one person to save the jobs of 5 others. To harvest retinal cells from 1 person to give sight to 5 others? ?

Allan Paivio thought of the __ __ idea, or that people think in terms of a verbal code (propositional) and in terms of visual (imagery). this was based on the finding that memory for words that evoke mental images is better than those that do not ___ _____.

dual code; dual representation

what does the Eddy and Glass modality specific interference study show: used auditory and visual processing

either reading (visual) or listening (auditory) imagery is supposed to use the same perceptual mechanisms as visual processing: so under Baddeley's working memory model, will be competing for the visual-spatial sketchpad. Interference. high and low imagery sentences. True or false. no difference in latency when hearing the higher or lower imagery sentences. No interference there was increased time overall to respond to the sentences when they were read, and even longer when higher in imagery. This shows evidence for modality specific interference and there is an interaction.

the spatial experience of mental images, as proposed by Pylyshyn, is ___: something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism

epiphenomenon

t/f: for deductive reasoning, the validity of an argument is dependent on the truth or falsity of the premise it contains

f (the validity of an argument is INDEPENDENT of the truth or falsity of the premises it contains)

the Kermer study is an example of __ _____ (type of error). explain how people predict they will feel/money

forecasting error: they rate how they feel on a happiness scale now how they feel, and then predict how they would feel when they win money versus lose money. Their predicted happiness is pretty on par with how they actually will feel, but there is a forecasting error with how they predict they will feel after a loss. People underestimate their ability to cope, to rationalize and to account for the positive in the midst of negativity.

creativity: the ___ ____ technique refers to improving creativity for solving problems by looking at individual parts of an object and removing them of their functional fixedness. Example is the candle problem, two string problem

generic parts technique (also removing top down inhibition of creativity: this is shown neurologically in knocking out the anterior temporal lobe-- decrease latent inhibition so can be more creative) - noticing infrequently noticed or new obscure feature of the problem - building solution based on that obscure finding - decompose object into component parts 1 1) describe each part without reference to function 2) ask for each description, can it be decomposed further?? 3) decrease the salience of use of these functions. Decrease functional fixedness. in the study participants were able to better list alternative uses for the things than the control group.

what is the main takeaway from the SM Kosslyn experiment that tries to show a difference between propositional (verbal) associated words and Imagery?

had high association words like cat- whiskers and low ones like cat - head. Had participants say whether true or false, like a cat has whiskers or a cat has a head. When asked explicitly to IMAGINE the words, then the participants took longer with the associations cat-claw than the association cat - head. when no imagery, took longer to respond to cat-head than cat-claw because there is an easy verbal and frequently used association there. this is supposed to show that there is a difference between auditory and imagery processing

how can spreading activation be used to explain creativity

have one idea that spreads to other ideas through spreading activation. there might be overlapping activations that emanate from individual words. Maybe there is spreading activation beneath you're consciousness. Maybe the left hemisphere inhibits this creative process and tries to exercise more control over your creative thought processes.

name a possible explanation of the origin of the importance of availability heuristics?

how easy it is to think of examples--if it is easy then it must have been important or common. Useful perhaps because we avoid what scares us the most. But subjective frequencies are often not accurate. More afraid of dying while traveling by air than by car even though this is statistically inaccurate.

kosslyn et al. used TMS to the visual area of the brain during a perception and imagery task. The response time was ??? What does this show about brain activity in visual area of brain? what special area did they find?

if there is a slower response time for the perception and imagery task after applying TMS stimulation to the visual area of the brain, then this implies that the *area of the brain is used for both imagery and perception*. So the brain activity in visual area of the brain plays a CAUSAL ROLE for both perception and imagery. the TMS STUDY: listen to 3 words and respond as soon as hear the 3rd word. Through this they found in the occipital lobe area 17: they did sham TMS and real TMS targeting area 17. there was overlap between imagery and perception when they did the TMS to area 17, impairment in imagery -- longer response time so respond to the third word. Same as when seeing it there is no interaction here: the same thing is going on for perception and visual imagery.

___ ___ occur when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is a much weaker than it is assumed to be. occur when we expect two things to be related, so we fool ourselves into thinking that they are related when they are not.

illusory correlation (type of availability heuristic)

the ___ ___ procedure (kosslyn) was when he told subject to memorize the map and then in their mind go from one landmark to the other. record how long it took them to complete this task.

image scanning procedure (the recording of how long it took was mental chronometry)

Pylyshn said that imagery representation is an epiphenomenon: what does this mean?

imagery accompanies real mechanism but is not actually a part of it. Proposed that imagery is propositional and can pre represented as abstract symbols. This is a more parsimonious explanation: imagery is not distinct. He refuted what Kossyln was proposing by saying there was Demand characteristics in his studies also known as tacit knowledge

they found ___ ___ in the brain, or ones that seemed to fire when looking at a dot and also when told to form a mental image of it. Why is this important?

imagery neurons; shows that there is a similar possible psychological mechanism for both perceiving an object and imagining it

Ganis et al. study said that imagery and perception are NOT the same, although similar: what is their evidence

imagery tasks and perceptual tasks, and subtracted out the difference using fMRI: when look at the posterior regions(back), and when look at the anterior regions (frontal lobes), there is a slight difference in the areas of activation for either imagery or perception.. Perception and imagery both takes demands in the brain: there is greater activation for perception in the back of the brain (posterior) than for imagery in the back of the brain. in the anterior region (in the front) there seems to be basically the same level of activation for imagery and perception

anchoring is the tendency to be influenced by logically irrelevant numbers. What other concept have we learned that is analogous to this effect?

in conversations, we rely on information that the other person has provided, or basic assumptions that the person understands/infers. discourse: expectation for cooperative conversation. Also this is used in cross examination of witness and getting false testimonies.

cloud cover ____ (increase/decrease) nerd candidate's potential to be accepted by university. this is an example of __ ___ in decision making

increase (study is an example of the weather rating as a sort of prime. nerd index higher for students admitted on cloudier days: CONTEXT: INFLUENCE decision making); priming effects in decision making

___ _____ is drawing conclusions from evidence/assumptions/observations

inductive reasoning

the difference between inductive inference and deductive inference is:

inductive reasoning -- think statistics. specific cases --> inductive --> general conclusion. General rules or principles --> deductive (deduce) --> specific cases. deductive reasoning: have information from general population and take to specific people. inductive: have specific cases (in a sample in statistics) and apply this to a general population.

reduced __ ____ is linked with creativity. reduced -- is associated with being more open to stimuli that would ordinarily be ignored, and openness to experience

latent inhibition (latent inhibition is the capacity to screen out stimuli that are considered irrelevant)

alternate test to creativity, other than the remote association test, is listing ______: This shows that creative people are ___ thinkers

listing alternatives for an object -- as many as possible for something like a brick, for example; this shows that creative people are *divergent* thinkers—thinking of novel uses for an object

give an example of mental scanning by Kosslyn: is this an example of perception and mental imagery being used by the same mechanisms or evidence against it?

memorized an image of the boat. look for another part on the boat and then press the true button when found this object or false when they couldn't find it. Used mental chronometry to determine how long it took to complete this task. if imagery is spatial, then it should take them longer to find objects that are farther from initial points on the boat. this is what happened --> takes LONGER TO SCAN THINGS OF GREATER DISTANCES.

____ is an example of someone who made inductive reasoning about pea plants. Informal analysis. Why is this inductive reasoning>

mendel (inductive reasoning is taking specifics -- inductive reasoning -- generalized population)

___ ___ refers to determining the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks. Name an example of this

mental chronometry; when rotating an object mentally, and determining if a rotated object and the original are the same, the greater difference in rotation corresponds to how long it will take to complete the task

evidence that imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms is shown through the idea of ___ ___ in which subjects create mental images and them --- them in their minds-- like looking across an island from one place to another

mental scanning

the ___ __ _____ is a method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout.

method of loci

what did fMRI studies show for brain area regions of activation for areas association with emotion and those associated with working memory? moral personal (similar to pushing workman) moral impersonal (keeping money found in lost wallet) non moral (whether to travel by bus or train due to time constraints)

moral personal: emotion areas moral impersonal: Little emotional activation, more working memory activation non moral: mostly working memory activation, some emotional.

in the moral reasoning example/ trolley problem, given different options: directly shoving the man onto the platform or activating a switch to open the trap door, and just not doing anything if see man fall.

most people find it morally unacceptable to push 1 workman onto the track to save 5; morally unacceptable to push switch; morally OK to fail to stop off balance work man

Ganis (using fMRI) found that there is complete overlap of activation by perception and imagery in the ____ portion fo the brain. There are differences in activation in the ____ portion of the brain.(There is a greater activation for perceptioN). This is the one where they were shown an image of a tree before (previously studied). then in the experiment, either told to imagine a tree or hear tree and see the image of the tree. Asked if it is wider than it is tall.

overlap in the front of the brain; differences toward the back of the brain. evaluating the evidence; it appears that imagery may be different from propositional thought.

the ____ _____ involves imagery as in the method of loci, but instead of visualizing items in different locations, you associate them with concrete words.

pegword technique (you pair each thing that you want to remember with a pegword, the pegged word)

give a simple example of the difference between imagery and perception

perception: see the drawing of a rabbit/duck, and shift between the perception of the two (bottom up processing). but when imagine the picture, it is hard to flip back and forth between the two animals (top down processing). This shows that there is some difference between imagery and perception

a ___ ____ is a representation in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation, or a statement like "The cat is under a table". a ____ ___ would involve a spatial layout showing the cat and the table that could be represented in the picture (these two are components of the imagery debate)

propositional representation; spatial representation

explain the old young stereotype threat results: working memory

reading span performance; either threat or no threat condition. threat: both old and young participants to be tested. reduced threat: both old and young, but normally no difference in perforce. Threat lower performance. No difference for younger. Interaction between threat and age condition.

the __ ____ test tests creativity by having people find new connections between ideas. off, top, tail ache sweet, burn (add a word)

remote association test

under the ___ heuristic, people also assume that small samples are representative

representativeness

the ___ states that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resemble those we usually associate with class B.

representativeness heuristic (a is soft spoken; is he a librarian B or a farmer c? most people say he is a librarian)

how is loss aversion influenced by the framing effect?

risk aversion is the tendency to avoid risks. if people think that there will be a greater impact of a loss than gain of the same size. The framing effect: when gain is accented, more likely to be risk averse. When loss is accented, more likely to be risky.

___ is an oversimplified generalization about a group of people or class that is focused on the negative. may pay particular attention to behaviors associated with that --- , and this attention creates an illusory correlation that reinforces the ---. How is this related to the availability heuristic?

stereotype; related to the availability heuristic because selective attention to the stereotypical behaviors make them more available: only pay attention to the evidence you want to see, and this makes it more available as reinforcing evidence for the stereotype

how was direct current stimulation used to cause insight? explain the study

stimulate the left and right anterior temporal lobe: sham stimulation too, blinds subjects from stimulation conditions since produces similar tingling sensations. - can you move the stick to make the statement correct? given one problem- same solution procedure for multiple problems. then test is: do they do easier solution. L- R+ or L+ R- Sham. those who were R+ stimulated were better at solving the type 2 insight problem. for the type 3 insight problem, the R+ were also markedly better. Conclusion: Brain stimulation in the RIGHT TEMPORAL LOBE enables the solution to the new problem and the original problem.

within deductive reasoning: there is a ____ which consists of two statements called ___ and the third statement is a _____. a ___ ____ is what describes relation between two categories using all, no, or some.

syllogism (includes two statements called premises and the third statement is the conclusion); categorical syllogism (is describe relation between categories ) (in deductive reasoning, the logic is TIED TO THE STRUCTURE OF THE ARGUMENT)

t/f: In this world of deductive reasoning, the validity of the argument is tied to structure of the argument.

t

t/f: Students with lower latent inhibition have greater numbers of creative achievements, enhanced with IQ

t

t/f: you can have things that are true or false independent of whether the argument is valid

t

Pylyshyn (propositional representation) refuted Kosslyn's results (spatial representation) by arguing the ___ __ explanation: subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgments. knew that it naturally would take a little longer to scan in real life

tacit knowledge explanation (prof calls it expectancy effect)

when we asked the class if the tallest redwood tree was more than 85 feet tall, and then asked the other side if the tallest was more than 10000 feet tall, the responses were affected based on this information. What is this effect Called??

the anchoring effect (he tendency to be influenced by logically irrelevant numbers)

in creative thinking, which hemisphere is regarded as inhibiting you? The right or left?

the left inhibits the right's creative processes: right like underlying spreading activation while the left is like the dampening processes or control over thoughts --> functional fixedness (test creativity with the remote association test)

risk aversion is: ___

the tendency to avoid risks

explain the credit card experiment with the anchoring effect

there was a correlation between the minimum payment and required payment. So respondents were given the option of paying only a little first, like 5 or not given the suggestion at all. When not given the suggestion, were more likely to pay in full. But when were prompted, given a suggested low amount to pay (I,e. you have to pay at least this) that they could carry a balance, they were more likely to carry a balance.

what were the results of the study that aimed to increase creativity by employing the general parts technique?

those who participated in the training of general parts technique, or decomposing aspects of the object to non function related descriptions, were able to perform well on 8 functional fixedness problems. those who were in the control group were only able to do with 49% success. (as compared to the 83% success)

the ___ of the argument is concerned with what is the case. The ____ of the argument is concerned with whether the conclusions follow the premise

truth; validity

damage to the parietal lobe causes a condition called ___ ___ in which the patient ignores one half of the visual field.

unilateral neglect

while food imagery can increase craving, nonfood imagery can decrease craving. Subjects in the auditory imagery group created images based on auditory cues, and those in the imagery group created images based on visual cues. Food cravings were reduced more for the ___ (auditory/visual) group

visual (using baddeley's working memory model, the phonological loop was used for the auditory imagery and the visuospatial sketchpad was used for the visual imagery group. because the craving was visual, it competed with the visual images that were non related to food. the capacity for the craving in the visuospatial sketchpad was reduced because of the interference caused by the nonfood imagery)

scenario with 600 people killed by illness: the way it is framed affects what solution will choose. if say that will save 200, then are ____. if say that c adopted 400 will die. if do medication c, 1/3 probability no one will die, 2/3 probability that 600 will die. They choose the ____ option.

when accent who save, they are risk aversive. when accent that 400 people will die (negative, accent loss,) then they choose the riskier decision,.

the two sides of the imagery debate are what?

whether imagery is spatial or propositional (based on language)