Cog Psych Modules 8-13

According to Grice, the way we understand the intended meaning of an utterance is

by recognizing that the utterance violates a conversational maxim and then making a conversational implicature

when using a means-ends analysis, as in the tower of hanoi problem, the typical purpose of subgoals is to

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state

in a lexical decision task, you would be fastest to confirm that __________ is a pair of words

bread-wheat

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

in swinney's experiment just described, hearing the ambiguous word "bug" primed

both "ant" and "spy" at the early point and only "ant" later point

Creativity implies that a solution is

both novel and useful

how many morphemes are there in the world "drycleaner"

3

In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's hierarchical semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?

A sparrow is an animal.

Connectionist models differ from the hierarchical semantic network model in that

A, B, and C

Which of the following affects speech perception?

All of the above

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Which of the following terms is most closely associated with the hierarchical semantic network?

Cognitive economy

According to the feature comparison model, when comparing two concepts, the first stage is to:

Compare all their features (defining and characteristic) to establish the overall degree of overlap

According to Chomsky's Transformational Grammar the sentences "The dog chased the cat" and "The cat was chased by the dog" have the same:

Deep structure

"Syndrome Z" is a very serious disease that is nearly always fatal and strikes one person in 1,000,000. Common symptoms are blurry vision, shaky hands, a rash, and a craving for broccoli. A certain Dr. Payne examines a patient who has blurry vision, shaky hands, and a craving for broccoli, and immediately diagnoses that the patient has Syndrome Z. What is probably going on here?

Dr. Payne's diagnosis is probably wrong; he is disregarding the base rate.

Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?

It generates a single correct answer.

The phenomenon that two people come to use the same terms when they repeatedly discuss the same object is called:

Lexical Entrainment

The inhabitants of a village have been exposed to a lethal virus. Fortunately, the virus is contained within the village and will not spread any further. The mayor of the village is considering two programs to combat the virus. If Program I is adopted, half of the people in the village will die and half will live. If Program II is adopted, there is a 50% chance that everyone will die and a 50% chance that everyone will live. Based on Tversky & Kahneman's research on framing, which program is the mayor most likely to choose?

Program II, because people tend to be risk-seeking in the face of a potential loss.

During a "tip-of-the-tongue" (TOT) state:

Speakers have partial access to words: they have access to the meaning, but not enough phonological information

What is claimed by the classical view of categories?

That a category can be summarized by its necessary and sufficient features

Which is NOT true for highly typical members of a categories?

They are affected less by priming

Warren and colleagues found that when they replaced a speech sound with the sound of coughing or noise, listeners perceived it according to the sentence context (e.g., hearing "heel" in "It was found that the *eel was on the shoe"). These findings suggest:

Top-down effects of context on speech perception

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness

Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

Which is NOT a formal method for problem-solving:

Using analogy

When a professor in an in-person class points to a diagram projected on the screen, what kind of common ground does the professor establish with the students in that moment?

Visual / physical co-presence

Which of the following is NOT one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing (connectionist) model?

Working units

If you keep trying the same strategy again and again in problem solving, even when that strategy isn't efficient or successful, you may be experiencing

a mental set effect.

in the abstract version of wason task we've been considering the most common error-choosing to check the backside of the E and 4 cards is

a modus tollens error

incubation involves getting ideas after taking a time-out from working on a problem. why does incubation work?

all of the above

The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as

analogical transfer.

Consider the Wason task with this rule: Whenever Cookie Monster eats cookies, he drinks milk. Four situations are represented by four cards below. Each has a statement about what Cookie Monster is eating on one side and a statement about what he is drinking on the other. 1. Cookie Monster is eating cookies. 2. Cookie Monster is drinking milk. 3. Cookie Monster is eating popcorn. 4. Cookie Monster is drinking ginger beer. The task is to turn over the fewest number of cards possible, to see if the rule is being violated.Participants who turn over cards 1 and 2:

are incorrect, possibly because of a matching bias.

words that have more than one meaning

are lexically ambiguous

according to the feature comparison model, judgements about less typical category members (ex. chicken in relation to bird)

are slower because they require going through the second stage of comparing the defining features of the two concepts

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the

availability heuristic

In the study by Tanenhaus and colleagues (1995), participants heard the sentence "Put the apple on the towel in the box", either in a visual context with one apple on a towel and an empty towel, or in a visual context with two apples: one on a towel and one on a napkin. The researchers found that:

b. When the visual context had only one apple, participants were more likely to alternate their gaze fixations between the apple and the empty towel (indicating confusion about the interpretation of "on the towel"). and d. The findings suggest that listeners can eliminate syntactic ambiguity in the right visual context.

In a connectionist network, learning takes place through a process of ___________ in which an error signal from the property units is transmitted back through the network.

back propagation

why is it faster to answer the question "can a bird fly" than "can a bird sing"?

because flying is directly linked to bird and singing is stored more distantly with a subordinate category like canary

why does the hierarchical semantic network offer "cognitive economy"?

because shared properties are stored only once, at higher level nodes

Consider the following logic: 1. All living things need water. 2. Dogs need water. 3. Conclusion: Therefore, dogs are living things. Why are people fairly likely to judge the conclusion of this syllogism to be valid?

because the conclusion is *true*.

Which of the choices best represents cognitive economy in the following sentence? The property _______is stored at the _______node.

can fly; bird

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the ___________ approach to categorization.

classical / definitional

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

connection weights

learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

connection weights

One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.

connectionist

The process of back propagation is most closely associated with

connectionist networks

What is NOT a way to improve problem solving:

continuing to use same strategy, even if it isn't efficient or successful

functional fixedness refers to tendency for people to think in terms of

conventional functions of objects

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.

one beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

damage to the system does not completely distrupt it's operation

reasoning from general principles to specific cases refers to

deductive reasoning

the two different version of the speech sound /t/ in the words "tennis" and "butter" are

different allophones of /t/

which is not one key area of inquiry in the field of psycholinguistics?

documenting the grammar of different languages

what is NOT a problem for the classical view of categories

establishing necessary and sufficient features for geometric shapes

the availability heuristic states that

events that come to mind more easily are judged as being more probable

the "gambler's fallacy" is due to

failing to treat each throw of the dice as independent of previous throws

according to prospect theory, when a situation is framed in terms of gains, people tend toward a risk-taking strategy

false

according to the probabilistic view of categories, each member of a category must share all the features of all other category members

false

all models of conceptual organization are semantic network models

false

more participants solved duncker's candle problem when the material for solving the problem were presented in boxes

false

syllogisms that are valid are always true

false

Even though attributes of a category (e.g., "chair) are frequently shared by other members of the category (e.g. having four legs), there is no single attribute that is common to all instances. Still, people can recognize a variety of examples because each instance has one or more attributes in common with one or more other instances. This illustrates the principle of _________

family resemblance.

In a referential communication task, pairs repeatedly referring to the same objects (e.g., tangram shapes) exhibit all of the following patterns EXCEPT:

fewer definite expressions over time

Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. They predicted that participants' ratings would be more accurate in predicting how close they were to the solution:

for non-insight problems (algebra) than the insight problems (e.g., triangle and chain problems)

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share.

sentences that are syntactically ambiguous

have more than one possible underlying syntactic structure

What is one danger of applying the difference reduction method of problem solving?

hill climbing

what is one danger of applying the difference reduction method of problem solving?

hill climbing

when listeners hear synthesized sounds with varying voice onset times (VOT) (ex. between /ga/ and /ka/) and have to identify each as belonging to either phonemic category

identification changes abruptly at some point of the continuum of VOT

which of these versions of the wason tasks would probably be the most difficult to reason about?

if a card has a vowel on one side, it should have an even number on the other side

according to the feature comparison model, when comparing two concepts all their features (defining and characteristic) of the concepts are compared first. then,

if there is moderate overlap in those features and a decision cannot be made, their defining features are compared

In Gick and Holyoak's (1980, 1983) studies of problem-solving, people were more likely to transfer an earlier solution (presented in an analogous problem: "the fortress story"), to solving a new problem (the "radiation problem"):

if they had read an analogous problem and they were prompted to think about it

in gick and holyoak's (1980, 1983) studies of problem-solving, people were more likely to transfer an earlier solution to solving the "radiation problem":

if they had read an analogous problem and they were prompted to think about it

the view that we use all available information (syntactic, lexical, discourse, visual) in our initial parsing of a sentence describes the _________ model of parsing

interactive/contrain-based

the fact that people are play at casinos even they know that the casino always wins in the long run...

is against expected utility theory

what is not true about the hierarchical semantic network model?

it explains typicality effects

which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem?

it has one correct answer

what is not true about the distance between nodes in a semantic network?

it is larger when concepts are semantically related

what is NOT a typical characteristic of face to face conversation?

it results in a tangible record that speakers can later access

____________ refers to our abstract knowledge of language, which permits us to make judgements about what is acceptable or not in our language

language competence

"The horse raced past the barn fell." The reason we have trouble understanding garden path sentences like this one is that

language is interpreted word by word, as we hear it.

the pact that participants alternated their gaze fixations between the apple and the empty towel in the context with one apple but not in the context with two apples suggests that

listeners can eliminate syntactic ambiguity in the right visual context

in a referential communication task, pairs repeatedly referring to the same objects (ex. tangram shapes) exhibit of all the following patterns except

longer references over time

in deductive reasoning, reasoning forward from the premises to the conclusion is called

modus ponens

The smallest unit of meaning in a given language is called:

morpheme

You are visiting MIT, which has a very large engineering department and a very small art department. You see a bearded professor in a coat with paint splotches on it, and decide he must be a faculty member in the art department. What judgment error have you made?

neglecting the base rate

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

novel object.

in the public health crisis dilemma we've just seen, people are more risk-seeking when the problem is phrased as a loss because

of loss aversion: people have more intense reactions to losses than corresponding gains, so they try to avoid losses

A descriptive decision theory is

one that describes the way people typically make decisions.

utility refers to

outcomes that help achieve our goals and are in our best interests

duing a tip-of-the-tongue state, speakers typically have ____________ to words

partial access to information about words

which is not true?

people should only use base rate information when making judgements about whether someone is a member of a specific class of the population

reasoning about causality, about threat, and about seeking permission are typically done using

pragmatic reasoning schemas

Reasoning about causality, about threat, and about seeking permission are typically done using

pragmatic reasoning schemas.

When we say "Can you open the door?" instead of "Open the door!", we are using rules of politeness. These rules are part of which aspect of linguistic knowledge?

pragmatics

which of the following types of linguistic knowledge is likely to involve social skills and considering the perspective of other speakers?

pragmatics

Spreading activation

primes associated concepts.

In Swinney's (1979) experiment, people heard a sentence like "The waiter poured the port into the glass." (Note: "port" is both a kind of wine and a place to dock ships.) They made a lexical decision at one of two test points: either immediately after hearing "port," or a bit later. For the lexical decision, they had to indicate whether a word shown (e.g., "wine", "ship", "pog") was a real word or not. Overall, the results showed:

priming for both "wine" and "ship" at the early point but only for "wine" at the later point

what is NOT true about the hierarchal semantic network model?

properties are stored as a separate level of nodes in the model

warmth judgements on nearness to a solution ______ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ______ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem

rise suddenly just; rise gradually

Alan Newell and Herbert Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem-solving is a process that involves

search

alan newell and herbert simon approached problem-solving is a process that involves

search

the water-jug problem demonstrates that developing a mental set may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

which strategy does not result in failure on the wason task?

seeking evidence that falsify the rule

In a lexical decision task, responding yes to "nurse" after seeing "doctor" is faster than responding yes to "nurse" after seeing "butter." This is an example of

semantic priming

parsing, the mental grouping of words into sentences, is most relevant to

sentence comprehension

the most prototypical members of a category

share many attributes with one another

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.

considering the fortress and the radiation problems together in the gick and holyoak study, the fortress problem represents the __________ problem

source

a normative theory of reasoning is one that

specifies what people should do, if they were behaving logically

Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.

strong

crow is at the ________ level of category membership, while bird is at the _____ level

subordinate, basic

"Haddock" is at the __________ level of category membership, while "fish" is at the __________ level.

subordinate; basic

Jumping from ___________ categories results in the largest gain in information.

superordinate level to basic level

in chomskey's transformational grammar, a sentence uttered by a speaker corresponds to its __________ and the underlying meaning of a sentence corresponds to its ___________

surface structure - deep structure

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in their speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming.

Autonomous models of parsing claim that

syntax is processed before semantics and pragmatics

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

Consider following scenario. During a road trip, your car runs out of gas in front of a convenience store. You ask the store clerk: You: Excuse me, how far is the nearest gas station? Store Clerk: It's about a mile and a half that way. (points East) You walk in that direction and find the gas station, but it's empty and dilapidated. It has been obviously abandoned for years! Which maxim did the store clerk violate? (Choose the BEST answer.)

the Maxim of Quantity

which is NOT a top-down factor influencing speech perception

the acoustic properties of speech sounds

knowing which level of category membership provides the greatest gain information?

the basic level

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

the box is empty.

Collins and Quillian's hierarchical semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by

the distance that must be traveled through the network.

which view of categories accounts best for ad hoc categories? (things you'd take from your home during a fire)

the exemplar view

Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT

the falsification principle.

which of these factors makes information easier to retrieve and use in applying the availability heuristic?

the frequency of and familiarity with the information

The availability heuristic in decision making comes from the fact that we tend to rely on information that is easy to retrieve from memory. Which of these factors makes information easier to retrieve and use in applying this heuristic?

the frequency of and familiarity with the information.

The vertical dimension of the hierarchical organization of categories captures their __________ whereas the horizontal dimension captures __________ .

the level of abstraction across category levels; typicality within a given category level

which of grice's maxims states that our contributions to the conversation must be truthful?

the maxim of quality

In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether

the presented stimuli are words.

Which view of categories determines category membership based on a weighted sum of features?

the probabilistic view

Collins and Quillian's hierarchical semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ___________ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."

the same as

insight refers to

the sudden realization of a problem's solution

the vertical dimension of the hierarchical organization of categories captures their level of abstraction, whereas the horizontal dimension captures

the typicality of a case in a category

In studies on categorical perception, listeners hear synthesized sounds with varying voice onset times (VOT) (e.g., between /ga/ and /ka/) and have to identify each as belonging to either phonemic category (e.g., as a /ga/ or a /ka/). Results show that:

there is a boundary along the continuum of VOT associated with an abrupt change how the sounds are classified

people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma because

they are more frequently exposed to stories about tornados than about asthma in the media

which is NOT true for highly typical members of a categories?

they are produced late when listing members of that category

people commit conjunction fallacy when

they judge that probability of two events co-occurring is higher than the probability of one of the events occurring alone

according to grice, the way we understand the intended meaning of an utterance is by recognizing when it violates a conversational maxim and drawing a conversational implicature to make sense of that violation

true

analogical transfer is the ability to transfer experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem

true

if we encounter a new thing and we learn its category, we can make inferences about it

true

in connectionist models, concepts are represented in terms of distributed activity across many units in the network

true

noam chomsky noted that children generate many sentences...innate biological program

true

people typically think that it's more likely to get the sequence, "1, 4, 6, 3, 5, 4" than "3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3" when a rolling..........of the random

true

the classical view of categories claims that a category can be summarized by its necessary and sufficient features

true

the segmentation problem refers to the fact that speech is continuous, often without pauses, making it difficult to separate words and sounds

true

two advantages of the feature comparison model relative to the hierarchical semantic network model are that (a) it account well for typicality effects and (b) it accounts for category size effects and reversals

true

which co-presence heuristic refers to information in the shared perceptual environment?

visual co-prescence

The "late closure" strategy of parsing proposes that:

we prefer to attach incoming words to the current clause (phrase)

the "minimal attachment" strategy or parsing proposes that

we prefer to the syntactic construction the fewest possible nodes possible

writing the resume you'd need for your dream job to identify the steps you need to get there, best exemplifies which formal method?

working backward

you enroll a seminar w/ 20 students where 10 are students whom you've gotten to know this semester in this class & 10 are strangers. right after the first class meeting...

you are likely to overestimate the number of students you know in the seminar