COG WEEK 12 - COGNITION AND EMOTION

What is interpretive bias? quizlet

In relation to a phobia, the tendency to interpret or judge ambiguous stimuli and situations in a threatening manner.

Non-conscious emotional processing: - How do Appraisal processes work? e.g. are automatic/nonautomatic, conscious/unconscious - What is the prediction? - What can we predict about appraisals and emotional states in regards to our psychological states? - What did Charttrand et al do and find in their study? words and mood - What happened in Ohmann and Soares study? How did they get these results? - Can blind individuals recognise emotion? What study demonstrated this?

- Appraisal processes can be automatic and below level of conscious awareness (Smith and Kirby, 2001) - Prediction - we can experience emotional states in response to stimuli we were not aware that we had been exposed to - Evidence - Chartrand et al., (2006) presented positive, negative or neutral words below level of consciousness - Participants exposed to negative words reported more negative mood state - Öhmann and Soares (1994) presented individuals with spider or snake phobias pictures of spiders, snakes or neutral pictures below level of consciousness - Objects associated with phobia produced more negative emotion for those individuals with specific phobia than others (i.e. snake pictures for individuals with snake phobia) - Cortically blind individuals are better than chance at recognizing emotion (despite not knowing they have been exposed to the stimuli) - Affective blindsight caused by TMS disruption also finds this ability to process emotion despite the lack of conscious awareness

- How can our emotions influence our cognition? Give some examples. - What are the 7 types of cognition that can be affected by emotion? PAMLJDR - How do researchers manipulate mood and or emotion? Also name the 4 most common techniques that can most likely can measure/manipulate emotion - What happened to drivers who listen to happy music and what were the consequences for other drivers?

- Blanchette and Richards (2010) discuss the types of cognition that can be affected by emotion, including: - Perception - Attention - Memory - Learning - Judgement - Decision making - Reasoning Lot's of interesting literature suggests that emotion can have considerable influence on cognition For example our driving behaviours: - Happy music distracted drivers and reduced ability to stay in lane relative to neutral music (Pêcher et al., 2009) - Drivers 'trapped' behind a slow-moving vehicle experienced anger and subsequently engaged in poor decision making, i.e. dangerous overtaking and approaching hazards recklessly (Stephens & Grouger, 2011) Measuring or manipulating emotion Aside from making people angry in cars (or simulators) how do researchers manipulate mood and or emotion? - According to Lench et al., (2011) there are several common techniques: - Presenting emotional films - Autobiographical recall - Staged real-life situations - Emotional music

- What is Emotional Regulation - Reappraisal as a strategy? - What can re-evaluating emotional information do for us long term and why? - What are the two re-appraisal strategies? - When is re-appraisals likely to occur and why? What does this help us reduce? - What evidence, specifically, has demonstrated that there are two re-appraisal strategies? and what are these strategies?

- Reappraisal - emotional regulation strategy where the emotional information is re-evaluated prior to changing it's meaning - Re-evaluating emotional information can produce long—lasting benefits - Re-appraisal s more likely to occur when the emotional information is likely to be encountered many times in order to reduce the subsequent emotional impact - Brain imaging studies demonstrate two re-appraisal strategies: - Reinterpretation - Distancing

- What is Emotional Regulation - Distraction? - What does distraction help with in regards to emotional regulation? How does WM and cognitive load relate to this sort of strategy? - What evidence is there to support this? - What happens to our emotions when we have higher cognitive task demands in our WM than not? - What did Van Dillen and Kool's study show? explain these results - How is their evidence supported in regards to Brain activation areas, what areas are activated or were found to be more so than others?

- Emotional regulation strategy where the individual disengages attention from emotional processing and focuses on neutral information - Distraction helps emotional regulation because working memory (which has limited capacity) is devoted to processing neutral stimuli and so does not have capacity left to process emotional information - Evidence: - Van Dillen and Koole (2007) presented negative, positive or neutral photographs followed by arithmetic task (high - Low WM demands) - If task had high WM demands = mood was less negative following negative images than if the task had low WM demands - Supported by brain imaging study (Van Dillen et al., 2009) who also found when task demands were high greater activation in prefrontal cortex (involved in WM) and less activity in amygdala (involved in fear and other negative emotions)

In Ohman's study. emotionally charged items have been said to be?

- Emotionally-charged items: - Are processed more quickly - Are searched for more efficiently and located more quickly - Capture and hold attention (even when not task relevant)

Emotion - Memory - The Amygdala - What role does the amygdala play in our brains and why is it so important? - What is Urbach Wiethe disease? and how does it affect the amygdala and what does this mean for our emotional learning and processing? - What about memory for emotional information? - Give examples of well reported cases with damage to the amygdala - PATIENT sm and bm

- Evidence of the crucial role the amygdala plays in emotional learning and memory comes from patients with Urbach-Wiethe disease - condition where the amygdala area deteriorates due to calcification Well-reported case of patient SM Normal IQ, memory, language skills and perception Severe impairment in processing threat and recognizing fear in others Held at gun-point with no hint of panic, handles snakes and spiders even although she reports not to like them, demonstrates no fear response to scary movie clips - What about memory for emotional information? - Patient BP told story in which an upsetting event occurs in the middle - typically participants recall little information preceding the emotive middle part and good recall of the middle part - patient BP showed the opposite recall pattern.

Anxiety and Cognitive Biases - How does anxiety influence our cognitive biases? - For what known anxiety disorders increases our attentional bias under certain conditions/stimuli and why? - What kind of experiences do these disorders give off? and why are they said to occur? How do these experiences affect our bodies physiologically? - What is interpretive bias? - Is it possible to reduce these attentional biases and anxiety ? if so how? What context is this typical to be used in? - What is cognitive bias modification? and what does it do and how is it used? what are the advantages and disadvantages of this technique? What does this help reduce? - What can these tools do? How can they help?

- For individuals with anxiety (and often comorbid diagnosis of depression) this attentional bias is heightened especially for threatening stimuli - For individuals with anxiety disorders such as: - Social phobia - Panic disorder - Generalized anxiety disorder - Many of the negative experience seem to occur not as a result of heightened physiological responses rather as a result of a misinterpretation of bodily sensations - Interpretive Bias - the tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli and situations in a threatening fashion - For example individuals with panic disorders may be more likely to attribute the experience of having an elevated heart rate with a harm-related interpretation rather than with another reason (too much coffee for example) see In the Real World 11.1 in textbook - Attentional training can reduce these biases and anxiety to some extent but are typically used within a broader therapeutic context - Interpretive Bias - Cognitive bias modification can be used as part of a treatment program where for example individuals with social phobia are given video feedback on their performance in a public speech - reducing their interpretive bias

- What does the emotional regulation process model assume? - What are the five different types of strategies to using emotionally regulating strategies? - What misconception did Bushman find in anger whether we decide to get it out of our system or not, and what it does to us? SSACR

- Gross and Thompson (2007) put forward a process model that categorises emotion-regulation strategies - It is based on the assumption that we can use emotional-regulation strategies at various points in time with 5 different strategies... - Situation selection, Situation modification, Attention deployment, Cognitive change, Response modulation If we take the example of an individual with social anxiety... 1. Situation Selection - Pre-situation - the individual can regulate their emotional state by avoiding potentially stressful social situations (not going to that party) 2. Situation Modification - In the social situation - the individual can modify something about the social situation itself (taking a friend to the party) 3. Attention Deployment - In the social situation - the individual can focus on pleasant distracting thoughts (deploy attention elsewhere to reduce focus on anxiety) 4. Cognitive change - In the social situation - the individual can use cognitive reappraisal to reinterpret the situation as less threating (thinking about how others people here are all friends of your friend and are nice people not here to judge you) 5. Response modulation - Expressing feelings or even hiding or disguising them (telling someone you are anxious or alternatively smiling through it (fake it 'till you make it!') **Note that there is a common misconception that it is useful to express feelings of anger and "get them out of your system - however, this actually INCREASES rather than decreases angry feelings (Bushman, 2002) (slide 26 & 27)

Emotion - Judgement and Decision Making - Sadness 2.0 - How can emotion affect our judgement and decision making? What does this say about optimal bias? - How do adults prefer their results? now or late? why do you think this is? - What did Lerner et al 2016 do and what were his findings about individuals who experience sadness vs those who do not? Explain the results to why these conclusions may have come about...

- Sad individuals (and/or individuals experiencing depression) seem to also make less optimal financial decisions - Most adults prefer immediate rewards to a reward that will be given later even if it would be larger - Lerner et al., (2016) studied whether this would be true for individuals experiencing sadness - Participants offered money now or more in the future Neutral-state participants were willing to accept $19 now instead of $100 in future - Sad-state participants were willing to accept $4 now instead of $100 in future - Again it may be due to sad individuals desire to enhance themselves or their experience even if this has a future economic cost

Emotion - Judgement and Decision Making - Sadness - Why do individuals experiencing sadness perceive the environment as unrewarding? What might this lead them to do? explain? - Sad individuals tend to be more pessimistic, what does this sad compared to non sad individuals? - What can the effects of mood manipulation do on jobs? - What does sadness affect in cognition, what can this lead too? - What did Cryder observe in his experiment when it came to sad individuals? Why did we see the results we saw? What is this thought to lead too? and what does this increase?

- Individuals experiencing sadness tend to perceive the environment as unrewarding so as a result might actually take risks in order to receive some reward - Sad individuals tend to be more pessimistic and in fact have a smaller optimism bias than non-sad individuals but tend to make riskier decisions - Effects of mood manipulation (anxiety, sadness or neutral) on percentages of people choosing the high-risk job option. Based on data in Raghunathan and Pham (1999). - The sadness that affects the cognition behind judgement and decision making also seems to affect judgement of worth - Cryder et al., (2008) found that sad individuals would pay almost four times as much as individuals in a neutral mood for a sporty, insulated drinks bottle - They argued that this is likely due to sad individuals having a diminished sense of self - This increases the motivation to acquire possessions to enhance the self Model: Sad event + Self-focus Devaluation of self Desire to enhance self Increased value of possessions that one might acquire (slide 40 and 41)

Who are the theorists of emotion?

- James-Lange Theory - Cannon-Bard Theory - Schachter-Singer Two factor Theory

Emotional regulation - How can we, if we can, inhibit and transform our initial emotional responses appropriately? - What is the two stage approach to our emotional reactions used for? explain the two stages?

- Many times in real life it would be unwise to express one's initial emotional reaction - we must inhibit and transform the initial response appropriately - Instead we have to engage a two-stage approach to our emotional reactions - The first stage is the spontaneous responsive emotional experience - emotional generation - The second stage is the use of deliberate, effortful processes to change the emotional reaction - emotional regulation

- What is Emotion regulation - situation specific strategy? - What kind of evidence is there for the effectiveness of emotional regulation strategies overall? Why is this? explain - What effect size did this result come to be? and was the result significant explain? - What did Webb and his colleagues argue? - What is there to say about the relationship between emotional regulation and healthy functioning?

- Mixed evidence on the effectiveness of emotional regulation strategies (Webb et al., 2012) - Meta-analysis- compared 306 experimental studies of different strategies based on the process model - Moderate effect - cognitive change strategies (including reappraisal) - Non-significant effect - attentional deployment strategies (including distraction) - Webb and colleagues argue that what matters is the specific strategy and that the categories in the process model are too broad - Additionally, not only does the specific strategy matter - so too does the situation - For example the amount of control one has over the situation - Whilst emotional regulation is good for healthy functioning - there is no one size fits all

Emotion - Memory - What s mood congruity? - What two components lead to better recall and why? What evidence is there to demonstrate this? - What did Holland and Kensinger find in regards to mood congruity? What mood was found to provide stronger evidence for mood congruity? Why was this, explain - What is mood state dependent memory? Give an example of studies - What happened in Kenealy study, what results were found and why? - What happened when participants were asked to freely recall compared to when they were cued?

- Mood Congruity - Learning and retrieval of information is generally better when the mood state is congruent with the to-be-remembered material - Positive mood + happy faces = better recall (Hills et al., 2011) Retrieval of happy autobiographical memories is facilitated by happy (music induced) music and vise-versa for sad (Miranda & Kihlstrom, 2005) - Holland and Kensinger (2010) reviewed the literature and found stronger evidence of mood congruity when people were in a positive mood than negative mood. - This may be in part due to emotional regulation or it may be due to the encoding specificity principle (Tulving, 1979) in that the rememberer literally has to reactivate the experience to an extent - for negative mood this congruency overlap may not be sufficient ' - Mood-state-dependent memory - Memory performance is better when the individual's mood state at learning is the same as the mood state at retrieval - Kenealy (1997) used music (happy/sad) to manipulate mood and then had participants learn a route on a map with recall tested the next day - If participants were asked to freely recall - performance was best when encoding mood and recall mood matched - If participants were cued - the cues seemed to override the effect of mood (slide36)

Moral dilemmas - Emotion vs cognition - moral dilemmas create a conflict between our emotional response and our cognition? - What is a well known study to demonstrate this conflict? What happens in this study and explain the findings? - What would happen if we medically induced low anxiety levels? What would this affect and how? explain - What is the two stage approach to solving problems like that of the trolley and footbridge problem? - What did Kahane et al argue?

- Moral dilemmas typically create situations where there is conflict between emotional response and cognition - Well-known and researched problems to examine this are the trolly problem and footbridge problem - Typically 90% of participants divert the trolly but only 10% push someone off the bridge (Hauser, 2006) - If we medically induce low anxiety levels in individuals making personal moral judgements the number of utilitarian judgements increase! - the doctrine that actions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority. the doctrine that an action is right in so far as it promotes happiness, and that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the guiding principle of conduct' - Whilst it was originally argued that there is a two-stage approach to solving problems like these - first emotional processing and then cognitive - Kahane et at.,(2012) argue that actually it is a difference between whether or not the decision is intuitive or counterintuitive

- What is the Appraisal Approach and what does it state? - What is the AA typical processing approach? SAEA - How do we know which emotion we are experiencing at a give time? and what factors are involved here (GCW - T) - What can the emotion we are experiencing cause and why? What does this depend on? Give examples - According to the appraisal theories, can appraisal cause emotional states or can states cause the appraisals? - Why do we use appraisals, do we need to? What does it do for our emotional experience? - What did Bennett and Lowe find in their study, explain the results? - What may impact the type and amount of appraisal styles we use? Give an example..

- Situation --> Appraisal --> Emotion --> Action Situation: Life event Appraisal: Good vs Bad (Benefit vs Harm) Emotion: Liking vs Disliking Action: Approach vs Withdrawal - How do we know which emotion we are experiencing at a give time? - The appraisal approach states that we evaluate the situation relevant to our goals, concerns and well-being, typically involving top-down processing - Determining the emotion we are experiencing can cause emotional states - The emotion we experience may depend on our evaluation - I fail the exam: - if I blame the teacher, I experience anger - If I blame my lack of study, I experience guilt - According to appraisal theories, appraisals can cause emotional states rather than emotional states causing appraisals - Findings suggest that we do indeed use appraisal and that it contributes to our ability to determine or interpret our emotional experience. - Bennett and Lowe (2008) asked hospital nurses to identify a recent stressful work-related incident - The emotions expressed were predicted fairly well by the nurses' appraisals of the situations e.g. if they perceived the situation as having been out of their control, they stated having experienced anger - However, the same was not true for sadness - may be due to the term sadness being generally used to describe negative emotional experiences - Individual differences may impact the type and amount of appraisal style used - for example, individuals high in neuroticism tend to use more negative appraisal styles (Tong, 2010)

Learning Objectives

- To understand the different approaches to emotion (categorical and dimensional) and how we can consider the structure of emotions (valance and arousal) - Know the difference between emotion, mood, personality and affect - Understand how cognition influences emotion (appraisal approach, non-conscious emotional processing) - Describe emotional regulation and the process model (Gross and Thompson, 2007) - Understand how distraction and reappraisal assist in emotional regulation - Describe how mood impacts memory (mood congruency and mood-state-dependent- memory) and the role of the amygdala (Urbach-Wiethe disease) - How do anxiety and sadness impair judgement and decision making - For individuals with anxiety disorders - define attentional bias and interpretive bias, explain how these may be experienced by the individual

- How do Cognitive Processes affect the Brain? What is the relationship? - What are the two possible interactions between emotion and cognition - What processes have been known to influence emotional experiences? - What evidence is there to support in emotional processing in brain imaging? - What part of the brain is known for emotion processing and what happens if it gets damaged? - What does emotional experiences depend on?

- Two possible interactions between emotion and cognition - Effects of cognitions on emotions - Effects of emotions on cognitions - Both top-down and bottom up processes influence emotional experiences (Scherer et al., 2001) - Evidence that the amygdala is important - Brain imaging (Ochsner et al., 2009) - Patient DR - damage to amygdala and impaired emotional processing - Emotional experience depends on the activation of in interactive network of brain areas (Pessoa, 2008; Viviani, 2013)

Anxiety and Cognitive Biases - What are the two types of cognitive biases? How do they affect us? - Who is said to demonstrate these biases? what about non anxious people? - Are emotionally-charged items processed more quickly? - How was this tested and by who? What were the results? - What was the difference between the stimuli? - What was our response quicker to? - What is emotionally charged stimuli? Does it usually increase or decrease our reaction time in our visual search? - Emotionally charged items are.....?

- Two types of cognitive biases are of particular interest to researchers in this area - Attentional bias - the selective allocation of attention to threat-related stimuli when they are presented at the same time as neutral ones - Interpretive bias - the tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli and situations in a threatening fashion - Even non-anxious individuals demonstrate attentional biases, as demonstrated by Ohman and colleagues ... Ohman and colleagues established that people respond quickly to threatening images Task: press button as soon as detect onset (simple RT) - Elephant (Mid-range reaction times to detect onset) - Snake (Very fast reaction times to detect onset) - Naturally Non-threatening (biologically-neutral) items - flowers - cats - chairs ... - Naturally-threatening (biologically-relevant) items - Snakes - Spiders - Guns, snarling dogs, .... - Results: If the target was a snake, Emotionally-charged items are searched for more efficiently and found more quickly than neutral items. - chart shows that snake has faster reaction time than neutral stimuli e..g chair Whereas if the target was the elephant, Emotionally-charged items hold attention and interfere with visual search (when they are not the target). e.g. so in this case although the elephant was the target, the spider was placed in the middle target position which may have lead to the holding of attention and interfering with the visual search for the targeted stimuli - Emotionally-charged items: - Are processed more quickly - Are searched for more efficiently and located more quickly - Capture and hold attention (even when not task relevant) (slide 48)

Previously on 2006PSY...

- What do we mean by judgement and decision making - What is the availability heuristic and how can it impact our judgement - Base-rate information - what is it and are we any good at using it? - What is the representativeness heuristic - We often fall prey to the conjunction fallacy (remember Linda?) what is it and why is it a fallacy? - Sometimes we have to make do with the information we have and base our judgement on what we DO know - this is referred to as the recognition heuristic. How does that heuristic work? - When we make decisions we often weigh up the losses and gains - We tend not to like making losses and can actually be considered loss averse - what might that do to our decision making - Other issues can affect our decision making such as: - Framing effect - Sunk-cost effect - What is deductive reasoning - how does it work - What is a syllogism? How can belief bias be problematic for this type of reasoning? - We may make mental models that represent possible states of affairs in the world, generally these represent the truth and ignore what is false (principle of truth)

Emotion - Judgement and Decision Making - Anxiety 2.0 - Why is anxiety associated with risk aversion What does/can this lead too? - Why may anxious individuals be more pessimistic and about what? How do they minimize uncertainty? - Why is anxiety associated with impaired decision making? What happens to our WM under these conditions:

- Why is anxiety associated with risk aversion? - Anxious individuals may be more pessimistic about the likelihood of negative future events and may try to minimize uncertainty by making "safe" decisions (Frijda, 1986) - Why is anxiety associated with impaired decision making? - WM may have a role to play - Evidence suggests decision making tasks often use working memory (especially the central executive component) and there is accumulating evidence that anxiety impairs the efficiency with which the central executive is used when completing complex tasks (Eysenck et al., 2007)

What is the realtionship between amygdala and emotion (quizler dont ened to know)

- involved with attention and fear - helps interpret facial expression - part of intrinsic memory system for emotional memory assesses stimulating events and forms emotional memories, responsible for instantaneous response to an emotional event. Responsible for emotional learning

- What did Schachter & Singer (1962) do in their study and what results did they find? - Explain their results and give reasoning - Why did one group have an effect and the other didn't? - Did the confederate play an influential role, if s what kind, explain?

1. Subject told study concerns effect of new vitamin 2. Given an injection: a. Epinephrine (epi) or Placebo (saline) b. Told that shot is arousing (informed) or not told (uninformed 3. Told to wait in room, fill out survey 4. Also in room is confederate (poses as another subject) a. Confederate is either very happy or very angry 5. Question: What emotion will the subject feel? or in writing: Cognitive Labelling Theory Participants told they would be given vitamin supplement. Instead, participants were injected with adrenaline and then exposed to confederate in waiting room who was either playful or angry. Participants interpreted same physiological arousal to happiness or anger depending on confederate. Subject's state Confederate's Behavior Happy Angry Neutral Epi, uninformed Happy Angry Afraid Epi, informed Neutral Neutral Neutral Placebo, uninformed Neutral Neutral Neutral Placebo, informed Neutral Neutral Neutral (refer to slide 10)

Emotion - Attention - According to Easterbrook (1959) high negative affect decreases our breadth of attentions. This means we may miss cues. Explain what this means and why it is important? - In what cases would the above be important to consider for and why? - What has research from Easterbrook (1959) and Frederickson & Branigan (2005) argued? What does each say about the affect type that broadens our breadth of our attention? - What does Harmon-Jones et al argue in regards to the previous authors conclusions? What does this say about our attentional focus? What is this dependent on? - What is motivational intensity and how is it used/demonstrated?

According to Easterbrook (1959) high negative affect decreases our breadth of attentions. This means we may miss cues. - emotion can capture attention and make it hard to focus on other things - Important to consider for things like witness testimonies given that they are likely experienced heightened anxiety at the time and therefore may have had less attentional resources to adequately encode the details of the situation - Conversely, Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) argue that positive affect widens the breadth of our attention - Harmon-Jones et al., (2011) however argued that these two approaches miss the notion of motivational intensity - that a stimulus can increase our emotional affect but may be of low motivational intensity. - According to this argument, attentional focus depends on how motivated we are to acquire something or avoid something rather than whether it simply makes us happy or sad. (Check again maybe re write opposuite)

Emotion, Mood, Personality and Affect - Are moods and emotions different? If so how? - When do emotions and moods occur? - Why does a mood and emotion occur? What are they tied too? - Are there personality differences? What is the difference between trait and state anxiety? - What did Watson and Tellegen find in distinguishing positive and negative affect? - What did Russel & Crowe argue with Watson and Tellgen theory/findings? - What are the overall concussions made?

Are mood and emotion different? - Emotions - short lasting and intense - typically occur following a stimuli the person is aware of (internal or external) Mood - Less intense but longer lasting - Often not tied to one specific present event Personality differences - Trait anxiety - stable personality feature - State anxiety - provoked by specific event Affect - Term used to refer to the experience of emotions - Sometimes also used to describe mood and personality differences - Watson and Tellegen (1985) distinguished between positive and negative affect - According to them people could score high on positive affect and high on negative affect - Russell and Carroll (1999) argued that these were opposite dimensions - In reality, it is probably somewhere in-between

Dutton & Aron (1974) Creaky Bridge Experiment - What happened during this experiment? - What where the reasons for the results of this experiment? Why and how did these results come about? What contributed? - What were results interpreted by?

Dutton & Aron (1974), University of British Columbia Capilano Suspension Bridge - 5 feet (1.5 m) wide - Unsupported - Sways and wobbles over 320 ft (100 m) of jagged boulder and river rapids! - Upstream, a steady, low, broad bridge - Male subjects - In the middle of each bridge, they meet an attractive young woman (confederate), who asks them to fill out a questionnaire. She casually mentions that if the subject has questions about the study, he can call her at home (hands him a debriefing sheet with telephone number). - Results: - High, swaying (dangerous) bridge more calls - Low, steady (safe) bridge few calls - Why? - A dangerous bridge produces high arousal (increased natural adrenaline), interpreted as attraction. - Physiology has been interpreted as emotion

Emotion - Judgement and Decision Making - Anxiety - What is optimism bias? - Do individuals with anxiety have more or less optimism bias than other people, if so why? - What did Lench and Levine find in thier study? - What types of decisions are highly anxious indivduals thought to take compared to those who are non anxious? (3)

Emotion - Judgement and Decision Making - Anxiety - What is optimism bias? - Do individuals with anxiety have more or less optimism bias than other people, if so why? - What did Lench and Levine find in thier study? - What types of decisions are highly anxious individuals thought to take compared to those who are non anxious? - Anxiety driven individuals have the tendency to perceive others as...? - Most individuals have an optimism bias - the tendency to overestimate our likelihood of experiencing good events in our lives and underestimate our chances of experiencing negative ones - Individuals with anxiety have less optimism bias than other people - Participants in an induced fearful mood were more pessimistic about the likelihood of negative events happening to them than those in a happy or neutral mood (Lench & Levine, 2005) The tendency to perceive others as more vulnerable to future negative events is reduced in individuals high in trait anxiety (Harris et al., 2008) - Individuals with anxiety also tend to make less risky decisions than non-anxious individuals (Raghuathan & Pham, 1999; Lorian & Grisham, 2011; Gambetti & Giusberti, 2012)

Schachter & Singer's Two Factor Theory of Emotion - What does emotion equal? - How cam emotion occur and when can it only occur? - What are the 4 criteria for emotion occurring?

Emotion = arousal + cognition Emotion only occurs if: a. Body is aroused b. A reason for arousal is located c. The labeling of arousal determines emotion d. Arousal w/o cognition leads to no emotion

- What are the Theories of Emotion? - What does each one say and go by? - How would someone respond based on the order of each theorists? - What are the similarities and differences amongst these theories, explain?

Stimulus response report Common sense Bear ---> SE ---> PA = My heart is pounding because i feel afraid *- Schachter & Singer's Two-factor theory: The Psychological Arousal theory which hypothesises that our emotions are a result of cognitive appraisal. E.g. I appraise the situation as dangerous and label my trembling as fear (bear-trembling-cognitive appraisal-fear). Bear ----> Body response (arousal) -----> Interpretation ----> FEAR (subjective experience) ----> "My pounding heart means I'm afraid because I interpret the situation s dangerous" *- James-Lange: The Psychological Arousal theory which hypothesises that we feel emotion because of psychological arousal. E.g. I feel afraid because I tremble (bear-trembling-fear) Bear ----> Body response (arousal) -----> FEAR (subjective experience) -------> "I feel afraid because my heart is pounding" *- Cannon-Bard The Psychological Arousal theory which hypothesises that brain activity is responsible for arousal E.g. we simultaneously tremble and feel afraid (bear-brain activity-trembling+fear) Bear -----> FEAR (Subjective experience) ----> "The bear makes me Bear -----> Body response (arousal) -----> feel afraid and my heart pounds"

What is optimism bias? quizlet (dont really need to know)

The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us a bias whereby people believe that, compared with other people, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future

- What is the Structure of Emotion? - What is the dimension approach? - What does the dimension approach include, its two components are? - What is the categorical approach? - What are the differences and similarities between the dimensional and categorical approach?

Two schools of thought concerning the structure of emotions (Fox, 2008) - Dimensional approach - Emotions can fall on a continuum of two basic dimensions - Valance = affective component going from negative - positive - Arousal = level of bodily excitation going from inactive - excited - Categorical approach - small number of discreet emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, etc)

What is attentional bias? quizlet

a situation in which people pay extra attention to some stimuli or some features The tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts.

Schachter & Singer (1962) quizlet

cognitive judgments are a critical part of emotional experience, emotion Involves the interpretation of a physiological response and the stimulus/situation Came up with TFT of emotion, suggesting that cognition and physiological arousal and emotional interpretation/labelling of arousal all interact Strength of arousal determines intensity, interpretation determines which emotion is expressed CRITICISM: only measured pulse of participants, low eco validity, didn't link specific types of cognitions to specific emotional states

Emotion Regulation Strategies - quizlet

o Situation selection → taking actions that will make it more (or less likely) that you will end up in a situation giving rise to desirable (or undesirable) emotions → move to a different checkout counter o Situation modification → directly modifying a situation so as to alter its emotional impact • Assessment-focused strategies o Attentional Deployment → distraction or concentration towards or away from a situation o Cognitive reappraisal → cognitive change, changing the way someone evaluates the situation in order to change the emotional impact • Response focused strategies o Behavioral suppression → inhibiting ongoing emotion expressions → suppress anger expressions

Schachter and Singer's Model of Emotions (slide 8)

social/ environment information Emotion producing + Emotion event Physiological Response

Risk Aversion Principle - quizlet - dont need to know

take the action that produces the least harm or the least potential cost Principle that one should take the action that produces the least harm or incurs the least cost.

two-factor theory of emotion - quizlet

the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it

mood congruent - quizlet

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood the theory that memories are more easily retrieved when there is a match between the emotional state at the time the original memory was formed and when it is retrieved Memories are easier to retrieve when the emotions that someone had when the memory was made match the emotions they are having when trying to retrieve the memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood it is easier to retrieve memories that match our current mood

What is Cognitive bias modification? quizlet

training typically designed to reduce attentional bias and/or interpretive bias Computerised intervention that focuses on eliminating biases in the way people process information Using exercises (e.g., computer games) to change problematic thinking habits.