Cognitive Psych 1st Exam (Lecture 3 Appraisal Theory)

Sequentially Ordered Appraisal Objectives (Continued)

"Do I have any control over what is happening?" "How well can I cope with or adjust to these consequences?" -- Control check: evaluation of the extent to which an event can be influenced by natural agents (i.e., people or animals). -- Power check: assessment of power to exert control or to recruit others to help. -- Adjustment check: evaluation of how well one can adjust to the consequences of the event, if not within one's power to change the outcome.

Changes in PTSD Reexperiencing Symptoms Between Successive Within-Day Samplings as a Function of Approach Versus Avoidant Coping

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001, two-tailed.

Manipulation of Motivational State Appraisal

- Appetitive Motivation: "This study asks whether people who are tasting pleasant food have a larger pupil size than people who are not tasting anything. Therefore, in this study, you will be assigned to participate in one of two groups. If you are in the Pleasant Taste group, you will taste food that is extremely pleasant and delicious to you. If you are in the No Taste group, you will not be tasting anything." - Aversive Motivation: "This study asks whether people who are tasting unpleasant food have a larger pupil size than people who are not tasting anything. If you are in the Unpleasant Taste group, you will taste food that is extremely unpleasant and disgusting to you. If you are in the No Taste group, you will not be tasting anything."

Lazarus's Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Perspective on the Structure of Emotions

- Appraisal as a set of cognitive actions or decisions. - Primary appraisal: Goal relevance Goal congruence or incongruence Type of ego-involvement: self and social esteem; moral values; ego-ideals; meanings and ideas; other persons and their well-being; life goals. - Secondary appraisal Coping potential Accountability Future expectations

Research on the Structure of Emotions: Specifying Appraisal Determinants

- Appraisal theorists differ in the number and type of appraisal dimensions viewed as necessary in distinguishing emotions. - Important area of research attempting to determine how many dimensions are needed and which dimensions are most important. - Research paradigms to investigate appraisal configurations underlying different emotions: 1) participants recall a personal incident in which they experienced a particular emotion and instructed to rate this experience on a set of appraisal dimensions. 2) participants presented with vignettes in which various appraisal dimensions have been manipulated and are asked to identify which emotion they are likely to experience. 3) experimental studies which involve manipulating participants' appraisals and measure the emotions they subsequently experience.

Results

- Dependent Measures: 11-point ratings on extent to which each of joy, hope, relief, anger, fear, and sadness were experienced right now at this moment. Findings: - Joy ratings were significantly higher in the Obtain Pleasant than in the Avoid Unpleasant conditions. However, joy ratings did not differ in the obtain Pleasant Certain condition from that found in the Obtain Pleasant Uncertain condition. -Relief ratings were significantly higher in the Avoid Unpleasant Certain condition relative to the other conditions. -Hope ratings were significantly higher in the Obtain Pleasant Uncertain condition than in the Obtain Pleasant Certain, Avoid Unpleasant Certain, and Control conditions. However, hope ratings were also higher in the Obtain Pleasant Uncertain condition than in the Avoid Unpleasant Uncertain condition.

Method

- Each participant was instructed to recall either two specified negative emotions (from among fear, sadness, distress, frustration, disgust, dislike toward someone, anger, contempt, regret, guilt, and shame) or two specified non-negative emotions (from among hope, joy, relief, affection toward someone, pride, and surprise). They were asked to describe them in their own words, and answer a series of questions assessing their appraisals for each of the two emotions. -Each of the two recalled emotions were evaluated on a comprehensive set the appraisal items considered by Roseman and other appraisal theorists as important dimensions in distinguishing a broad range of discrete emotions.

Sample Items From the Ways of Coping Questionnaire

- Emotion-focused: Refused to think about it too much (distancing). Rediscovered what is important in life (positive reappraisal). Hoped a miracle would happen (escape-avoidance) - Problem-focused: Tried to get the person responsible to change his or her mind (confrontive). Talked to someone to find out more about the situation (seeking social support). I made a plan of action and followed it.

Empirical Evidence: Sequential Processing of Appraisal Checks (see Scherer, 2009)

- Experimental Studies addressing effects of exposure to emotionally-relevant stimuli on facial muscles and heart rate. In support of the sequential hypothesis, these studies showed the earliest effects for novelty, followed by intrinsic pleasantness, followed by goal conduciveness - Electroencephalographic brain recordings of event-related potentials as indicators of specific appraisal checks in the appraisal sequence for novelty, intrinsic pleasantness, and goal relevance successively.

Lagged Analysis

- Lagged analysis provides a means for assessing causal relationships among repeated-measures variables. - Time 2 reexperiencing = b0 + b1[Time 1 reexperiencing] + b2[Time 1 emotional approach coping] + b3[Time 1 dissocation] + error

Appraisal Decisions Eliciting Anger (primary appraisal components)

- Primary appraisal components 1. If there is goal relevance, then any emotion is possible, including anger. If not, no emotion. 2. If there is goal incongruence, then only negative emotions are possible, including anger. 3. If the type of ego-involvement engaged is to preserve or enhance the self- or social-esteem aspect of one's ego-identity, then the emotion possibilities include anger, anxiety, and pride.

Appraisals Cause Experienced Emotions: Experimental Evidence (Roseman & Evdokas, 2004)

- Purpose: To show that experimentally manipulated appraisals involving motivational state (i.e., relating an event to appetitive vs. aversive motivation) and outcome probability (i.e., certain vs. uncertain) played a causal role in distinguishing joy, relief, or hope. - Background: Prior correlational appraisal studies leave doubt about the directionality of causality between cognitions and emotional response. Experimental manipulation of appraisals provides a means for addressing directionality of causality.

Appraisal Decisions Eliciting Anger (secondary appraisal components)

- Secondary appraisal components 1. If there is blame, which derives from the knowledge that someone else is accountable for the harmful actions, and they could have been controlled, then anger occurs. 2. If coping potential favors attack as viable, then anger is facilitated. 3. If future expectancy is positive about the environmental response to attack, then anger is facilitated.

Impact of Approach Versus Avoidant Coping on Changes in PTSD Symptoms

- an active orientation toward focusing on and acknowledging feelings that arise when reminded of the trauma may serve to reduce trauma symptoms. - defensive shutting down of emotion linked to the trauma through the use of dissociation may lead to intensification of trauma symptoms.

Manipulation of Outcome Probability Appraisal

-Participants in all four experimental conditions were told that they would receive two random numbers from 1 to 9. If the two numbers added up to more than 7 then they would be placed in the more desirable of the two possible conditions. If the two numbers added up to less than 7, they would be put into the less desirable of the two possible conditions. -Participants were then given the first random number. Certain outcome condition: received the number 8. Uncertain outcome condition: received the number 5.

Overview of Procedure

-Randomly assignment to one of four experimental conditions (Obtain Pleasant Certain, Avoid Unpleasant Certain, Obtain Pleasant Uncertain, Avoid Unpleasant Uncertain) experimental conditions or to a control condition. -Purported aim of study: Framed as a study of reactions to different taste experiences. Told that study was addressing effect of taste on pupil size. -Told that they would be in one of two groups in the study that differed in terms of desirability of outcome. -Received motivational state appraisal manipulation. -Received outcome probability appraisal manipulation. -Completed emotion rating dependent measures.

Scherer's Justification for a Sequence Assumption

1) Economy of processing: In terms of economy of processing, threshold in terms of relevance criteria of novelty and intrinsic pleasantness would receive further attention. 2) Logical rationale: Some appraisal evaluations are dependent on the outcome of others. Therefore, some appraisal evaluations should occur prior to others in the appraisal sequence. For example, assessment of the implications of the stimulus event needs to be evaluated prior to determining the individual's coping potential since the latter is also made with respect to a specific demand.

Predictions

1) Greater use of emotional approach coping at an earlier point in the day is predictive of a reduction in trauma symptoms from this earlier point to a later point in the day. 2) Greater use of dissociation at an earlier point in the day is predictive of an increase in trauma symptoms from this earlier point to a later point in the day.

Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) (MacCann & Roberts, 2008)

1. A pleasant experience ceases unexpectedly and there is not much that can be done about it. The person involved is most likely to feel? (a) Ashamed (b) Distressed (c) Angry (d) Sad (e) Frustrated 2. Xavier completes a difficult task on time and under budget. Xavier is most likely to feel? (a) Surprise (b) Pride (c) Relief (d) Hope (e) Joy 3. An irritating neighbor of Eve's moves to another state. Eve is most likely to feel? (a) Regret (b) Hope (c) Relief (d) Sadness (e) Joy 4. There is great weather on the day Jill is going on an out-door picnic. Jill is most likely to feel? (a) Pride (b) Joy (c) Relief (d) Guilt (e) Hope 5. Regret is most likely to occur when? (a) Events are unexpected (b) You have caused something you didn't want to happen and cannot change it (c) Circumstances have caused something you didn't want to happen (d) You have caused something you didn't want to happen and are trying to change it (e) Events are getting beyond your control Total STEU Score with Personality, Alexithymia, and Psychology Grade Five Factor Model - Agreeableness 16* Toronto Alexithymia Scale - Externally Oriented Thinking -.38** Psychology Grade.42**

Results: Appraisal dimensions distinguishing emotions

1. Unexpectedness: unexpected vs. expected. 2. Situational state: motive-inconsistent vs. motive consistent. 3. Motivational state: aversive vs. appetitive. 4. Probability: uncertain vs. certain. 5. Agency: circumstances vs. other person vs. self. 6. Control potential: low vs. high. 7. Problem type: instrumental vs. intrinsic.

Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory

1.My life has been destroyed by the trauma. 2.I have no future. 3.I have permanently changed for the worse. 4.I am inadequate. 5.I feel like I don't know myself anymore.

Sequentially Ordered Appraisal Objectives (Continued)

2. Implication assessment: Determining whether individual's goals and well-being. " Goal/Need Conduciveness and causal attribution SECs are involved here. -- Goal/Need conduciveness: evaluation of whether situation is conducive to goal attainment -- Causal attribution check: to determine the agent who is responsible for the event. -- Outcome probability check: assessment of likelihood or certainty with which certain consequences are expected. -- Discrepancy from expectation check: evaluation of whether the event is consistent or discrepant with expectations. -- Urgency check: assessment of the extent to which high-priority goals/needs are endangered by the event and require immediate action.

Sequentially Ordered Appraisal Objectives (Continued)

4)What is the significance of this event with respect to my self-concept and to social norms and values?" -- External standards check: evaluation of whether social norms have been violated. -- Internal standards check: evaluation of whether self-ideal or internalized moral code has been violated.

Rating of Appraisal Determinants of Recalled Emotions: Comparing Different Appraisal Theories (Roseman, Antoniou, & Jose, 1996)

Aim: to undertake a comprehensive investigation of the appraisal dimensions identified in the appraisal literature that are assumed to underlying (identify and distinguish) a broad set of discrete emotions. Recall of emotion incident method: Participants were asked to recall emotional experiences and to rate the extent to which different appraisals caused the given emotion.

Core Relational Themes

Anger: A demeaning offense against me and mine. Anxiety: Facing uncertain, existential threat. Fright: Facing an immediate, concrete, and overwhelming physical danger. Guilt Having transgressed a moral imperative. Shame Having failed to live up to an ego-ideal. Sadness Having experienced an irrevocable loss. Envy Wanting what someone else has. Jealousy Resenting a third party for loss or threat to another's affection Disgust Taking in or being too close to an indigestible object or idea (metaphorically speaking). Happiness Making reasonable progress toward the realization of a goal. Pride Enhancement of one's ego-identity by taking credit for a valued object or achievement either our own or that or someone or group with whom we identify. Relief A distressing goal-incongruent condition that has changed for the better or gone away. Hope Fearing the worst but yearning for better. Love Desiring or participating in affection, usually but not necessarily reciprocated. Compassion Being moved by another's suffering and wanting to help.

Antecedents of Appraising

Environmental: situational demands, constraints, and opportunities. Formal variables: novelty, predictability, clarity of meaning, time: imminence, timing, and duration. Personality: variables that directly affect whether appraisal of threat versus challenge such as self-efficacy and disposition optimism.

Definition of Coping

Coping is defined as "constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands Two major functions of coping: 1) Problem-focused function: a person obtains information on which to act and mobilizes actions for the purpose of changing the reality of the troubled person-environment relationship. 2) Emotion-focused function: is aimed at regulating emotions tied to the stress situation - for example, by avoiding thinking about the threat or reappraising it without changing the situational or personality-based realities of stress.

Measures

Emotional Approach Coping -I dealt with my feelings by realizing that they are valid and important -I dealt with my feelings by acknowledging them Dissociation -My body felt strange or unreal -I felt like I was outside myself, watching myself do things -I felt like I was in a movie - like nothing that was happening was real

Coping Items in Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain Study

Emotional-Focused 1) Seeking spiritual comfort 2) Seeking emotional support 3) Expressing emotions 4) Redefining the pain experience Problem-Focused 1) Relaxation 2) Pain reduction attempts including medication 3) Distraction

SECs Organized in Terms of Four Sequentially Ordered Appraisal Objectives

Four appraisal objectives: Relevance detection: "How relevant is this event for me?" -Novelty check: expectancy or familiarity evaluation. - Intrinsic pleasantness check: evaluation of intrinsic pleasantness or unpleasantness of the stimulus event, - Goal relevance: to determine the relevance of the stimulus event to one's goals or needs.

Main Contents of Secondary Appraisal in Stressful Situations

Harm/loss: refers to damage that has already occurred. Threat: refers to the possibility of such damage in the future. Challenge: refers to confidence in overcoming obstacles by effectively mobilizing coping resources.

Rationale for Electronic Diary Data Gathering Methods

Immediacy: reduces retrospective bias (e.g., reduces possible mood state effects on recall). Multiple assessments over time: provides a means for examining dynamic relationships among variables within the individual and differences in such patterns between persons. Data gathering within natural reporting context: assesses the individual in the context of their daily life (ecologically valid).

Primary and Secondary Appraisal

Lazarus identified 2 basic kinds of appraisal: why how Primary appraisal: what is happening in one's encounter is relevant to values, goal commitments, beliefs about self and world, and situational intentions, and if so, in what way. Secondary appraisal: focuses on what can be done about a troubled person-environment relationship - that is, the coping options, the social and intrapsychic constraints, expectations outcomes

Contrasting Trajectories for Two Participants

Noteworthy differences in the relationship between session number and PTSD symptoms in these two participants. These differences can be modeled via the regression equation: PTSD = P0 + P1*(SAMPLING) + E. The two participants have notable differences in their estimated slope coefficient (208 has a negative slope while 234 has a positive slope), despite being similar in their intercept coefficient.

Electronic Diary Assessments:Every 4 hours for 7 days

PTSD Dissociation Negative PT cognitions Positive PT cognitions Negative Affect Positive Affect Emotional Approach Coping: Processing Emotions Emotional Approach Coping: Expressing Emotions Social interaction Perceived social support Feeling free to talk Trauma-related activities (sleep, fun, exercise)

Method

Participants: 75 adults coping with chronic pain stemming from rheumatoid arthritis. Procedure: A daily process-oriented design involving completing measures at the end of each day over the course of a month that included a measure of pain intensity associated with rheumatoid arthritis and a coping strategies measure.

The Process of Appraisal

Process models attempt to specify the microgenetic process of appraisal and the reaction patterning produced by it. Whereas theory and research on the structure of emotions simply focuses on appraisal decision outcomes, process models attempt to explicate the processes or mechanisms that underlie appraisal decisions and their integration in the formation of emotion. Two important topics addressed by process perspectives include: Is there a fixed sequence of evaluation checks or is the appraisal process underlying emotion best thought of as involving evaluations occurring in parallel as opposed to serial steps? To what extent are appraisal decisions made preattentively?

Vignette Method

Stage 2 All Versions. After section the TA refused your request to re-grade your paper, and said that you received the grade you did because the research was shoddy, and the paper was poorly written. In fact, he (she) said that the paper was one of the worst he (she) ever read, and that you should feel lucky to be getting a C-. Other-blame. You can't believe that the TA is doing this to you. You know that the paper is nowhere near as bad as the TA says, and believe that he (she) had no right to persecute you like this. Self-blame. Thinking back, you realize that you've been obnoxious and are at least partially to blame for this situation. You've given this person a very hard time. You've constantly argued with him (her), and because of you he's (she's) never been able to cover all the material he (she) planned to during section. Thinking about it, you realize that you've behaved badly, and really can't blame this person all that much for being hostile. Threat. You don't know how you're going to get by in this course. The TA obviously can't stand you and isn't going to give you the benefit of the doubt, putting you in danger of serious academic trouble. You don't know whether there's anything you can do to straighten out things so that your work will be evaluated objectively and you'll receive the grade you deserve in this course. Loss/Helplessness. You realize there's nothing you can do to please this person. You put out your very best effort and it was tom to shreds. This incident has ruined the whole course for you. Even though you had been enjoying the class, and had found the material and professor to be very interesting, you're certain that there's no way you'll be able to do well or enjoy the class as long as you have this TA. This is a great personal loss.

Study of Recent Trauma Survivors (Carlson, Field, Rusek, & Spain)

Studied injured patients admitted to Stanford University HospitalTrauma Service (Level I) and family members. Patients moderately to severely injured. Family members had fear of serious injury or death.

Dynamic Unfolding of Problem- and Emotion-Focused Coping With Chronic Pain in Rheumatoid Arthritis (Tennen et al., 2000)

Tennen: Fallback hypothesis: coping strategies designed to help the individual accommodate threatening or challenging circumstances (emotion-focused) typically follow efforts to influence the source of threat (problem-focused).

Scherer's Component Process Model of Emotion Differentiation

This model attempts to explain the differentiation of emotional states as the results of a sequence of specified stimulus evaluation checks (SECs), or appraisals. Sequence hypothesis: involves 2 assumptions: 1) appraisal occurs in a sequential, serial fashion; 2) there is a definite, invariant order in which the different SECs are processed.

Predictions

a function of change in pain from yesterday to today -- such that the greater the increase in today's pain over yesterday's pain, the stronger the degree to which the use of problem-focused coping yesterday will be followed by the use of emotion-focused coping today.

Extension of Lazarus's Stress Perspective to a Broader Theory of Emotion

advances identifying discrete emotions. Inspiring an interest underlying differences in appraisal. - A comprehensive understanding of negative emotional states in stress require going beyond an exclusion focus on harm, threat, and challenge toward identification of specific negative emotions -- such as anger, anxiety, guilt, shame, and jealousy appraising. - Extension of approach to include positive emotions. Involved distinguishing these emotions from negative emotions and distinguishing among them by expanding the set of underlying appraisal dimensions.

Impact of Approach Versus Avoidant Coping on Changes in PTSD Symptoms

an active orientation toward focusing on and acknowledging feelings that arise when reminded of the trauma may serve to reduce trauma symptoms. defensive shutting down of emotion linked to the trauma through the use of dissociation may lead to intensification of trauma symptoms.

Definition of Appraisal

appraisal theory is the claim that emotions are elicited and differentiated on the basis of a person's subjective evaluation Scherer

Background: Richard Lazarus' Appraisal Approach to Psychological Stress

situation is subjectively evaluated or "appraised" as thwarting or potentially thwarting to some motive state