com 101 exam 2

Nonessential Relative Clauses

a relative clause that is not essential to the definiteness of the meaning of the word it modifies, e.g., "My father, who is retired, does volunteer work." Nonessential clauses, phrases, and words ARE set off with commas.

Essential Relative Clauses

a relative clause that limits a general, ambiguous noun. The essential clause tells the reader which one of many the writer means, e.g., "Freddie hopes to return to the city where he met a woman with haunting green eyes." Essential clauses ARE NOT set off with commas.

Compound-complex sentence

a sentence with two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Complex Sentence

contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Sentence fragments

incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.

Subject Complement

the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb. It provides information about the subject of the sentence.

Colon

A colon can introduce something, especially a list of items. A colon can separate two clauses in a sentence when the second clause is being used to explain or illustrate the first clause. A colon can introduce a statement or a quotation. A colon can be used to follow the greeting in a formal or business letter. In the U.S., a colon is used to separate minutes from hours (and seconds from minutes) in showing time of day and measured length of time.

Commas

A comma can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there are two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, especially when the clauses are not very short. A comma can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there is a series of independent clauses, the last two of which are joined by a coordinating conjunction. A comma is used to precede or set off, and therefore indicate, a nonessential dependent or subordinate clause (a clause that could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main clause). A comma can follow an introductory phrase. A comma can set off words used in direct address. A comma can separate two or more coordinate adjectives (adjectives that could otherwise be joined with "and") that modify one noun. Note that cumulative adjectives (in which an adjective modifies another adjective) are not separated by a comma. A comma can separate three or more items in a series or list. A comma is used to separate and set off the elements in an address or other geographical designation. A comma is used to set off direct quotations. A comma is used to set off titles after a person's name. In general, commas are used to set off word groups when the "natural order" of a sentence is interrupted (as by an appositive) or rearranged (as when a prepositional phrase or subordinate clause begins a sentence).

Phrase

A group of grammatically connected words within a sentence, e.g., "One council member left in a huff"; "She got much satisfaction from planting daffodil bulbs." Unlike clauses, phrases do not have both a subject and a verb. Phrases can be short or long. Phrases have names based on the type of word that begins or governs the word group.

Question Mark

A question mark is used to mark the end of a sentence that asks a direct question (generally, a question that expects an answer). A rhetorical question may not need a question mark.

Semicolon

A semicolon can separate two independent clauses, particularly when these clauses are of equal importance. A semicolon can be used as a comma is used to separate such elements as clauses or items in a series or list, particularly when one or more of the elements already includes a comma. The path took us through the deep, dark woods; across a small meadow; into a cold, wet cave; and up a hillside overlooking the lake.

Prepositional Phrase

A word group that contains a proposition and its object PREPOSITION + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE Or PREPOSITION + MODIFIER(S) + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE On the rotting tree limb On = Preposition The rotting tree limb = Noun Phrase From eating too often From = Preposition Eating = Gerund Too = Modifier Often = Modifier Prepositional phrases function in sentences as adjectives or adverbs. As adjectives, they answer the question "Which one?" The bus stop at the end of the street seldom saw riders. Which bus stop? The one at the end of the street! As adverbs, they answer the questions "How?" "When?" or "Where?" As such, they are sometimes considered adverb phrases. Allan opened the locked door with his credit card. How did he open the door? With his credit card! Jill decided to go home after the movie. When did she go home? After the movie! Under the bridge, the troll slept fitfully. Where did the troll sleep? Under the bridge!

Infinitive Phrase

A word group that contains the infinitive form of a verb followed by its object(s) and/or and modifiers INFINITIVE + OBJECT(S) AND/OR MODIFIERS To write the lengthy essay To write = Infinitive Lengthy = Modifier Essay = Object Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. To avoid a lecture from his parents was Michael's motive for thriftiness. The best thing to happen to me was getting a new car for my birthday. She washed the dishes to keep her roommates from complaining.

Verb Phrase

A word group that contains the main verb of a sentence along with any helping (auxiliary) verbs AUXILIARY (HELPING) VERB(S) + MAIN VERB Alice will have walked to town by then. Will have walked = Verb Phrase Paul should have been reading those chapters in Moby Dick. Should have been reading = Verb Phrase Do not confuse "verb phrase" and "phrasal verb."

Participial Phrase

A word group that contains the past or present participle of a verb followed by its object(s) and/or and modifiers PARTICIPLE (PRESENT OR PAST) + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS The bored security guard twiddling his thumbs stared down the hallway. Twiddling his thumbs modifies the noun "guard." I enjoy sleeping in a bed covered with blankets. Covered with blankets modifies the noun "bed." Participial phrases always function as adjectives.

Noun Phrase

A word group that functions in a sentence as a noun (as subject, object, or subject complement). Amy bought a house with no roof. A house with no roof = Direct Object OPTIONAL MODIFIER(S) + NOUN + OPTIONAL MODIFIER(S) The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo The = Modifier Girl = Noun With the Dragon Tatoo = Modifiers A house with no roof A = Modifier House = Noun With no roof = Modifiers

Apostrophes

An apostrophe is used to show where a letter or letters are missing in a contraction. It is used to show possession. The possessive of a singular noun or an irregular plural noun is created by adding an apostrophe and an "s." the horse's mouth the men's department The possessive of a regular plural noun is created by just an apostrophe. the pilots' uniforms The possessive of a proper noun ending in "s" is sometimes created by an apostrophe and an "s" and sometimes by just an apostrophe. The choice is made upon considerations of convenience and sound. Moses' [not Moses's] Ellis's [not Ellis'] Apostrophes are NOT used to form plurals (except A's, I's, U's)

Ellipses

Indicate the omission of words Are placed where the words are omitted Do not replace periods Do not indicate pauses or breaks in thought

Quotation Marks

They are used to set off direct quotations (exact renderings of someone's spoken or written words). They can be used to set off words or phrases that have specific technical usage, or to set off meaning of words, or to indicate words that are being used in a special way in a sentence. Quotation marks should NEVER be used to emphasize a word or words in a sentence! Quotation marks enclose commas and periods. She called the performance "lackluster," so she won't be recommending it to her friends. He said without enthusiasm, "I'm pleased to be here." Quotation marks are enclosed by colons and semicolons. She called the performance "lackluster"; she won't be recommending it to her friends. The following are all "brand new items": the bed, the sofa, and the kitchen table. Quotation marks either enclose or are enclosed by question marks and exclamation points, depending upon whether the question mark or exclamation point is a part of the direct quotation. Do you have a copy of the article called "Introduction to Reporting"? Alice asked me, "Do you hear what I hear?"

Hyphens

They can join two or more words to form compounds, especially when so doing makes the meaning more clear to the reader. They can replace the word "to" when a span or range of data is given. They can indicate a word break at the end of a line.

Titles of Published Work

Titles of books, newspapers, movies, albums and plays are written in italics, bold-faced type (less commonly) or are underlined (when italics, etc., are unavailable). Moby Dick Death of a Salesman The Whys of Grammar Titles of chapters, articles, short stories, individual songs and poems are enclosed in quotation marks. "Verbs: The Heart of the Sentence" Some publications (e.g., The New York Times) use quotation marks instead of italics as a matter of tradition and/or visual appeal.

Coordinating Conjunction

a conjunction placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank, e.g., and, but, or.

Subordinating Conjunction

a conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause, e.g., although, because.

Correlative Conjunction

a coordinating conjunction that pairs up with other words to connect elements in a sentence. They help indicate the relationship between elements they connect in a sentence.

Relative Clause

a form of dependent clause starting with the relative pronouns who, that, which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes them.

Subordinate or Dependent Clause

a group of words that begins with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb. This combination of words will not form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the thought.

Main or Independent Clause

a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

Adjective Phrase

a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence. The adjective phrase can be placed before, or after, the noun or pronoun in the sentence. The final exams were unbelievably difficult. This pie is very delicious and extremely expensive. That complex has quite small but cheap apartments. Note in the examples above that adjective phrases are often used as subject complements.

Appositive

a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.

Conjunctive Adverb

a part of speech that is used to connect one clause to another. It also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships. Like other adverbs, conjunctive adverbs may be moved around in the sentence or clause in which they appear.

Absolute Phrase

a type of participle-based phrase that describes an entire clause. NOUN + PARTICIPLE + OPTIONAL OBJECT(S) AND/OR MODIFIERS Our hearts pounding with excitement, we watched the race. Hearts = Noun Pounding = Participle With excitement = Modifier Angela sat on the chair, her back aching from the seat's poor design. The car's gearbox lay on the garage floor, its transmission oil dripping away. Her eyes slowly closing, Phyllis began to feel the full impact of the medication. Her eyes closed against the bright sunlight, Annie suffered from her migraine in silence.

Preposition

a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause, as in "the man on the platform," "she arrived after dinner," "what did you do it for?"

Gerund Phrase

a word group that looks exactly like a participial phrase but functions as a noun, not an adjective. GERUND + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS Twiddling his thumbs kept the bored security guard from falling asleep. Twiddling his thumbs is a noun that is the subject of the sentence. A good strategy for avoiding dirty dishes is eating every meal off paper towels. Eating every meal off paper towels is a noun that is the subject complement of the linking verb "is."

Brackets

allow the insertion of editorial material inside quotations. They can be used for clarification if the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear. They may be used to provide a translation of foreign words or phrases that might not be understood. In most contexts, it is acceptable to silently change the first letter of quoted material from uppercase to lowercase, or vice versa. In certain contexts, such changes must be indicated with brackets. Brackets may be used to indicate errors. The Latin term sic, meaning "so" or "thus," is used to indicate an error or confirm an unusual usage in the original material. Without the sic, a reader might wonder if the error was made by the writer offering the quotation. Note that sic should be italicized, but the brackets containing it should not. If you use italics to emphasize a portion of the quotation, indicate the change in brackets. If the original material contains language you deem inappropriate for your audience, brackets can be used to remove it. In the rare event that parentheses are required within parentheses, use brackets instead. This is one of the few uses of brackets outside of quotations. If the material being quoted already contains brackets, this should be noted.

Compound Sentence

two independent clauses or sentences. The independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as "and," "for" and "but") or a semicolon.

Complex or Phrasal Preposition

two or more words functioning as a preposition. according to apart from because of by means of contrary to given that in addition to in front of in reference to in regard to instead of in spite of on account of on top of out of prior to pursuant to rather than with regard to with the exception of

Adverb Phrase

two or more words that act as an adverb. It can modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell "how", "where", "why", or "when." In the forest many creatures snarl and growl. I will never do that, not in a million years. Dad spoke softly to calm her fears. Note in the examples above that adverb phrases are often merely prepositional phrases described by their function. "with great dismay", "by the light of the moon", "since she was getting married", "in an hour"

Dashes

used most commonly to replace the usage of parentheses within sentences. If the information being set off is in the middle of the sentence, a pair of dashes is used. On our way to school, we walk past the Turner Farm—the oldest dairy farm in town—and watch the cows being fed. If the information being set off is at the end of the sentence, just one dash is used. The stores were filled with holiday shoppers—even more so than last year. Dashes are also used to indicate a break in thought in the middle of a sentence. We were about to leave when—you're not going to believe what happened next!

Parentheses

used to enclose information that gives extra detail or explanation to the regular text. They can separate a word or words in a sentence from the rest of the sentence. They can enclose a separate complete sentence.