Combo for Principles of Public Speaking

Physical elements of speech presentation

Pitch - the relative highness or lowness of a speaker's voice. Volume - refers to the loudness or intensity of a speaker's voice. Rate - speed at which a person talks Quality - tone or sound of a speaker's voice

Audience analysis

is the process of acquiring information about an audience in order to adapt a speech. • Conventional wisdom • Direct observation • Questionnaires • Demographic audience analysis • Situational audience analysis

Audience identification

is the process of forming a bond with listeners by pointing out common beliefs, experiences, and goals.

Residual message

is the term used to describe what a speaker hopes listeners will remember from a speech.

second function of a speech conclusion

is to summarize the main points and reinforce the thesis or central idea. Some speakers restate the main points, while others summarize the main ideas of the speech into a single statement. Quotations, dramatic statements, and references to information presented in the introduction are appropriate ways to reinforce main ideas.

Effective word choice

keep in mind both word's denotation, or meaning, and connotation, or feelings and emotions that the word suggests.

More organizational patterns

less commonly used. Statement of reasons - most appropriate for persuasive, three reasons are presented with the strongest last and the second strongest first Structure-function - illustrate structural or functional qualities of something Pro-and-con - good for informative speeches where the speaker needs to explain benefits and drawbacks of a product or method. persuasive speeches that discuss the value of one plan or idea over another might also use this pattern

entertaining speech

to amuse the audience with the speaker's humor and cleverness.

Personal reference

An illustration of how the speech topic is relevant to audience members

Story

An interesting story related to the main point of the speech

Rhetorical question

A question relevant to the topic that listeners answer mentally rather than vocally

Startling statement

A shocking statement that relates to the speech topic

Effective Conclusions: three primary functions

Alert the audience that the speech is ending Summarize the speech Clarify what listeners should think or do in response to the speech

Quotation

An attention-getting or thought provoking quotation

Types of listening

Appreciative listening - listening for pleasure, such as to music or a comic's jokes Emphatic listening - listening to give emotional support to the speaker, such as when friends listen to each other's problems Comprehensive listening - listening to understand a message, such as during a class lecture Critical listening - listening to evaluate a message and deciding to accept or reject the information, such as when a jury member listens to participants in a trial

four primary types of arguments used in persuasive speeches

Argue from example -Draw a conclusion from one or more instances or examples "I like the paintings of Monet, Renoir, and Cassatt. I like Impressionist art. " Argue from analogy -Illustrate similarities between two things or events David likes Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms. "I know Kate likes Bach and Beethoven, so she will probably like Brahms." Argue from causation -Draw a conclusion that an event that occurs first is responsible for a later event "Home sales will increase because interest rates have fallen." Argue from sign -Use an observable symptom or indicator as proof of a claim "The Republican candidate will be elected. She has more campaign workers and yard signs in the community."

Aristotle's 3 kinds of persuasive appeals

Aristotle referred to three kinds of persuasive appeals, or intrinsic proofs, used in public speaking. Logos - The appeal to reason or logic Ethos - The persuasive appeal of a speaker's moral character and knowledge Pathos - The appeal to emotion

Conducting Interviews: tips

During an interview, it is important to remain flexible and attentive. Follow-up questions help gain additional information from primary questions, which are prepared in advance. Open questions are broad questions designed to discover the interviewee's values and perspectives. In contrast, closed questions seek brief answers. Being appropriately dressed, arriving on time, and maintaining the purpose of the interview show respect for the interviewee's time. Taking accurate notes or recording the interview ensures that the information gathered will not be lost.

Sources for research

Even in the age of the Internet, the library remains the primary place to seek information for a speech using a number of different library sources—both paper and electronic: • Books • Periodical databases • Newspapers • Encyclopedias • Government publications • Quotation books • Biographical aids • Atlases and gazetteers

Introduction

Gain the attention and interest of the audience Preview the topic of the speech Establish speaker credibility and a connection with listeners

Conducting Interviews: 3 steps for success

In order for an interview to be successful, a few steps need to occur. 1. Determine the purpose of the interview. 2. Write out questions that are intelligent and meaningful. 3. Choose an individual to interview and arrange an appointment.

direct observation

Inferences about economic status and interests can be made based on clothing and appearance, although stereotyping should be carefully avoided. Questionnaires distributed via e-mail prior to a speech can help a speaker determine the attitudes and knowledge base of audience members regarding a particular topic—a method often used for classroom speeches.

Major Types of Supporting Materials

Narratives - Stories told to illustrate an abstract concept and to illustrate a point Examples - Specific instances used to illustrate a larger group of people, ideas, or conditions Testimonies - Opinions of experts or eye-witness accounts that support a speaker's claim Statistics - Numerical data that clarify a speaker's point Quotations - Explanations or opinions used verbatim in a speech

Effective Listening: five steps

Receiving - hearing transmitted sounds and selecting the ones to attend or ignore Understanding - assigning meaning to what was said with regard to the thought and the emotion Remembering - retaining and recalling information that has been heard Evaluating - judging and criticizing the usefulness and truthfulness of a message Responding - answering and giving verbal and non-verbal feedback

time and occasion of a speech

Speakers often find listeners attentive in the morning and tired late in the afternoon, which is a consideration when determining the length of a speech. The tone and content of a pep-rally speech is very different from that of a presentation to stockholders, and speakers should consider the occasion in advance.

Methods of speech delivery

Speaking impromptu - speech involves little to no specific or immediate preparation Speaking from a manuscript - entire speech is written out and read Speaking from memory - entire speech is written out and memorized Speaking extemporaneously - speech is prepared and presented from a basic set of notes or an outline

Types of Introductions

Startling statement Rhetorical question Story Personal reference Quotation Suspense

Organizing your speech

The body of the speech needs organization before an introduction or conclusion is written. As mentioned earlier, the thesis statement serves as the starting point for developing main points. Main points are the major points made by a speaker in the body of a speech. Most speeches include two to five main points—more points may make a speech too confusing for listeners. Main points should be relevant and interesting to the audience and worded in a parallel format. Parallel statements help listeners understand and follow a speech more easily than points constructed in different grammatical styles. Main points should also be distinct, which means there should be no overlap among them.

The purpose of audience analysis

The purpose of [Blank] is audience adaptation, which means modifying a message to make it appropriate for a specific audience. Audience adaptation occurs when preparing the speech and when presenting the speech.

Four types of connectives

Transitions Signposts Internal previews Internal summaries

Suspense

Wording that leaves the audience uncertain about the topic and raises listener curiosity

Topoi

a method based on ancient rhetoric techniques, involves asking and answering questions to generate topic ideas.

tree diagram

a method of limiting a speech topic by repeatedly dividing a topic into smaller parts until arriving at a manageable topic.

Intrinsic proofs

also known as artistic proofs, are based on the speaker's character, the emotional nature of the issue, and the logic of the argument to persuade listeners.

Ethics

area of philosophy that addresses issues of morality, fairness, and justice

Signposts

brief statements that indicate to listeners where speakers are in a speech. "The second reason to protect your skin with sunscreen is to prevent the development of melanoma." "So, why do teenagers begin smoking when they are aware of the health risks?" "Foremost, you need to remember that..." "Make sure that you keep this in mind..." "This is a critical point..."

persuasive speech

change the attitudes, behaviors, feelings, and beliefs of listeners.

Temporal

chronological order; time pattern most often used with informational speeches

Metaphor

compare two dissimilar things without the use of like or as "The air in the crowded stadium was thick with anticipation while everyone waited for the concert to begin."

situational audience analysis

considers the characteristics of a particular audience, such as size, physical setting, occasion, and time. The size of an audience affects speech delivery; a small audience can be addressed informally, while a large audience requires more structure. Moreover, a large audience prevents a speaker from assessing how listeners are responding to a speech because of the distance between the speaker and each audience member.

Problem-solution

conveys the existence of a problem and provides a solution first main point focuses on the existence of the problem second main point offers a solution to the problem

The two most useful ways to learn about an audience prior to a speech

demographic audience analysis and a situational audience analysis

Persuasive speeches: time to introduce thesis statement

depends on the audience. If an audience analysis has determined that listeners are neutral or positive towards the speech topic, then clearly stating the thesis early in the presentation is appropriate. If the audience of a persuasive speech is most likely hostile to the speaker's position, then arguments and evidence should be provided before gradually presenting the thesis.

Simile

direct comparisons between two unlike things using like or as "As the rainstorm approached, the clouds swirled in the sky like cotton candy being twisted onto a stick."

Spatial

directional pattern; top to bottom, left to right, inside to outside, etc appropriate for informational speeches

age of audience members

has a significant impact on many aspects of a speech. For example, an older audience would most likely be more interested in a speech about estate planning than dating issues. In addition to guiding the speech topic, age also affects the information presented in the speech. An older audience would most likely understand historical references to World War II or the Great Depression, while a younger audience may require additional background information. In addition, age affects attitudes. Older people have had a longer time to develop opinions about various topics, and their beliefs are steadfast. In contrast, opinions held by young people change with time and experience.

common fallacies in public speeches

hasty generalization, false cause, invalid analogy, and ad hominem

informative speech

increases audience awareness and knowledge about a specific subject. [Blank] do not attempt to persuade listeners to respond or act upon newly acquired knowledge.

third function of a speech conclusion

involves clarifying what audience members should think or do after the speech. The response that a speaker seeks from listeners is the anticipated response. Anticipated responses are not limited to persuasive speeches but apply to informative speeches as well. With informative speeches, the anticipated response is what an audience should remember, and with persuasive speeches, it is what listeners should think or do.

patchwork plagiarism

involves stealing from multiple sources rather than a single source. A speaker who employs patchwork plagiarism copies word for word from two or three sources and then combines the information into a single speech.

Invalid analogies

occur when a speaker compares two events or things that are not alike.

Hasty generalizations

occur when a speaker jumps to a conclusion without sufficient evidence.

False-cause fallacies

occur when a speaker makes the invalid assumption that one event causes another event, when in fact the events may have been coincidental.

Incremental plagiarism

occurs most often in conjunction with quotations and paraphrases. Direct quotations incorporated into a speech must be attributed to the original speaker; otherwise, the information has been plagiarized. Similarly, paraphrasing or summarizing the unique ideas of another person is considered plagiarism unless the original source is cited during the speech.

Global plagiarism

occurs when an entire speech is stolen from one source, and a speaker presents the work as original.

Causal order

organizes main points to cause-effect relationship either the cause or effect can be presented first used in both persuasive and informative speeches

Emotional appeals

pathos; evoke strong feelings from listeners, such as anger, sadness, happiness, fear, or sympathy.

Audience knowledge of a subject

plays a major role in the language and terminology used in a speech. For example, a physician addressing a medical convention would not need to explain medical terms, but a physician addressing a group of high school students would need to explain concepts in a more basic manner.

Ad hominen

refers to the fallacy of attacking or praising the character or integrity of the person making the argument rather than dealing with the issue in question.

Audience attitude

refers to the mindset of listeners regarding a topic, and a speaker who is aware of an [Blank] can adapt a speech to address possible concerns and objections.

Internal summary

reviews the points a speaker has just made.

Active listening skills

sitting up straight remaining quiet silently paraphrasing taking notes organizing ideas developing questions assessing the speaker's organization noticing the speaker's nonverbal behaviors

Extrinsic proofs

support claims with objective evidence, such as laws and confessions.

Internal previews

tells the audience what to expect next. they are more detailed than transitions and signposts "In discussing the effects of World War II on Japan, we'll first look at the economic consequences of the war and then at the cultural impact."

thesis statement

the central idea or theme of the speech. The thesis of an informative speech summarizes what a speaker wants an audience to learn. The thesis statement of an informative speech should be neutral, and the thesis statement of a persuasive speech should express a clear opinion.

Conventional wisdom

the popular opinion about issues and trends, provides speakers with a general idea about societal attitudes and interests and is particularly useful during the process of selecting a speech topic.

specific purpose statement

the speaker's goal. The specific purpose statement should focus on one clear idea and be stated in a brief infinitive phrase. A properly phrased specific purpose statement includes three key elements: • General purpose • Intended audience • Exact goal

credibility-centered ethics

use sound reasoning, examine all available evidence, credit sources, and avoid immoral emotional appeals. the effectiveness of a speech is diminished by the loss of a speaker's credibility with an audience.

Topical

useful when a speech is easily subdivided main points are parts of a whole works well with informational and persuasive speeches; commonly used

Motivated

useful when speaker wants listeners to respond in a positive way often employed in political speeches and advertisements Divides a speech into five steps: Step 1: Gain attention from listeners. Step 2: Establish a need or a problem. Step 3: Satisfy the need by offering a solution. Step 4: Visualize the need of being satisfied in the future. Step 5: Ask for action from the audience to ensure the need is satisfied.

name-calling

using language in a speech that degrades people based on sexual orientation, religion, or ethnicity.

Transitions

words or phrases that indicate when a speaker is moving from one point to another. Transitions are most commonly included from introduction to body, body to conclusion, and between main points in a speech "Now that we have looked at what nanotechnology is, let's see how it is used."

Plagiarism

writer or a speaker presents the ideas or words of another person as their own in one of three ways: • Global plagiarism • Patchwork plagiarism • Incremental plagiarism

speech criticism guidelines

• Point out the positive more than the negative • Provide specific comments rather than general ones • Be objective instead of biased • Give constructive comments • Structure comments as I-messages • Consider ethical responsibilities

elements of a speech to evaluate

• Subject and purpose • Audience, occasion, and context • Research • Thesis and main points • Supporting materials • Organization • Style and language • Introduction, conclusion, and connectives • Delivery

Three general purposes for making a speech

• To inform • To persuade • To entertain

six types of organizational patterns used most often in public speaking

• Topical • Temporal • Spatial • Problem-solution • Causal • Motivated

Topic selection criteria

• Topics should be interesting to the speaker; otherwise, a lack of enthusiasm will be apparent to listeners. • Topics should be interesting and useful to the audience, which can be determined through an audience analysis. • Topics should be ethically appropriate and maintain a goal of improving society. • Topics should be appropriate for the specific occasion, which means that the speech should meet audience expectations, be relevant, and be narrow in scope. In general, topics that are interesting and appropriate for the speaker, the audience, and the occasion make the most effective speeches.