Combo with "biology 101" and 12 others

Réussis tes devoirs et examens dès maintenant avec Quizwiz!

seed coat

what surrounds a seed for protection

they attack stuff foreign to our body ex: foreign blood

what to antibodies do for the body

DNA replication happens in interphase because it saves time

Dna replication happens in ____ because...

What makes up the cell wall of a fungi; basically a polysaccharide, similar to cellulose that's been reinforced with nitrogen or amino groups

Chitin

Is Marfan's Syndrome dominant or recessive

Dominant

has a rough appearance due to the presence of numerous small ribosomes embedded in its surface, this E.R. produces and transports protein

Rough E.R.

a 5 carbon molecule, 3RuBP's create the first part of the calvin cycle and 3CO.2 are added to this

RuBP

a special class of consumers that decompose organisms EX. certain fungi and bacteria

decomposer

the endoderm is the indented area of the gastrula as its cells become the lining of the digestive tract

endoderm

protein/amino acids and nucleic acids aka RNA and DNA→nitrogenous waste such as urea, uric acid, or ammonia

excretion in the nitrogen cycle

made by plans for structural support, commonly called fiber, it is used by humans to poop because humans cannot break it apart into glucose so they poop it out cows can consume cellulose because they have bacteria in their stomach that produce enzymes to break apart the cellulose

function of cellulose

from bacteria

from what forge in sours did our genes get introduced int he genome

plants evolved from multicellular green algae ancestors

from whom did plants evolve from

ribosomes

function as the sites of protein synthesis

centrioles

function in cell division

carbohydrates are used primarily to store and release energy

function of a carbohydrate

to speed up chemical reactions in the body

function of an enzyme

*the pair of each psi of sister chromatics with the chromosome that is homologous to it *tetrad because it consist of 4 chromatids

homologous pair or tetrad

1)the lancet 2)tunicates aka sea squirt: their laval chord has all characteristics this links us to invertebrates

invertebrate chordates

*fi the signal is strong enough to meat the action potential it causes ion channels in the denendrite to open

ion channels

types of bond formed when one atom transfers electrons to another creating positive and negative ions that attract to each other (-)

ionic bonds

dominant

is marfan's syndrome dominant or recessive?

recessive

is sickle cell anemia dominant or recessive?

*a solution that contains and equal concentration of solute and of water *an isotonic solution has no diffusion of water will occur * the cell is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with the solution resulting in no net movement of water *no concentration gradient

isotonic solution

*the strand being replicated by DNA polymerase in the direction of the unzipping *it is replicated continuously

leading strand

1)producers 2)primary consumers 3)secondary consumers 4)tertiary consumers 5)fourth level consumers

order of trophic levels

chloroplasts

organelle with carotenes and xanthophylls

containing carbon atoms

organic

all living things are made of 1 cell or many cells

organization

*the specific name given to the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane * diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

osmosis

*a system of cells that transports food made in mature leaves through photosynthesis to the roots and parts of the shoot system that don't photosynthesize such as developing fruits *transports sugars from photosynthetic tissues throughout the plant

phloem

*phosphate *deoxyribose sugar/ 5-carbon sugar *nitrogenous base (cytosine, adenine, thymine, guanine)

phoebus levene discovered the 3 parts of a nucleotide. list them

O2 which was released into the air

products made through light reaction

lysosomes

small and sac like; they degrade worn out structures and debris

*glycolysis turns one glucose ion 2 pyruvic acids and 2 ATPs *fermentation turns the 2 pyruvic acids into 2 lactic acid molecules

steps in lactic acid fermentation

apart from 2e- these are also liberated from water: O atom (which will be released from he cell as O.2) and 2H+ which will remain inside the thylakoid

what is created when water splits to replace electrons

it brings a specific amino acid over that corresponds to a sequence of nucleotides

tRNA functions in translation in which way

northern forest of conifers, trees are twisted by the wind and stunned. winters are very long and cold. animal like includes caribou, wolves, moose, bear, rabbits,a dn lynx

taiga

*movement toward or away from a stimulus *a directed movement positive or negative a stimulus

taxis

the branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying organisms

taxonomy

hydrogen bonds: they unite the nitrogen base pairs from opposite sides on the dna helices

what is #6

base pair - the complementary nitrogen bases: A+T or G+C for DNA

what is #7

tRNA

what is #7

*the double helices that are anti parallel to each other *5->3 or 3->5

what is #8

anti-codon

what is #8

Dna is a polymer made out of monomers called nucleotides

what is DNA made out of

*it is and energy carrier *NADP+ plus 2e- plus H+ ---> NADPH *it is in photosynthesis

what is NADPH and what is its equation

*genes are instruction manuals for our bodies, they are instructions for building all the proteins that make our bodies function *genes are made of DNA *genes give instructions on how to make and operate all parts of our bodies

what is a gene

a graphic representation of a family tree that shows the inheritance patterns

what is a pedigree

gene

what is a short section of dna that codes for a protein

*it is the process of eating and breathing *it is a process in which a cell breaks down glucose molecules using the energy in their chemical bonds to make tap

what is aerobic respiration

blood type

what is an example of multiple alleles

mitosis

what is another word for the division of nuclear material

*occurs in the cytoplasm *it is anaerobic so it does not use oxygen *breaking down of glucose *first step in aerobic respiration

what is glycolysis?

*it is a process that occurs during anaphase 1 and 2 but mainly anaphase 1 *it is when a person is creating a sperm/ egg *the haploid set of chromosomes selected will be some random miscellaneous combination chosen from their two sets *it is random to which side the sisters are pulled to

what is independent separation of the chromosomes

contact inhibition

what is it called when cells stop dividing when they run out of space

type O blood

what is known as the universal donor

the cell membrane or plasma membrane

what is our line of defense/ protective barrier

2NADH and 2 CO.2

what is produced in BOP apart from Acetyl CoA

2 ATP and 2 NADH

what is produced in glycolysis

tetrads

what is pulled apart in anaphase 1

*it is called the double helix *it means it looks like a twisted ladder

what is the DNA shape called

provide a large surface area for gas exchange

alveoli

a very toxic substance that must be very dilute

ammonia

cushions embryo in fluid in an amniotic egg

amnion

they wander between sponge walls and they function in the disjoin of food and in the distribution of nutrients

amoebocytes

kingdom animal is composed of multicellular heterotrophs, that are mostly motilel

2 characteristics of animals

enzyme concentration, ph, temperature, salinity, substrate amount

5 variables that affect enzymes

codominance

AB blood is an example of

all nonliving things in an environment

Abiotic factors

*One of the major algae divisions; largest of agae species; contains largest species of algae: Giant Kelp; form underwater forest-like havitats in cold water; ex. Giant Kelp *it is used as a thickener used in foods such as gummy worms and it is also used in cosmetics, beauty treatments, and bandages

Brown Algae

it is the code for building all the proteins needed by a cell

DNA

A rare inherited neurological disorder affecting up to 8 people per 100,000

Huntington's Disease

Kingdom Protista

Kingdom that slime molds belong to

A connective tissue disorder characterized by unusually long limbs and spidery fingers

Marfan's Syndrome

glycolysis/ aerobic respiration (2 of them are made)

NADH is in______

phenylketonuria (PKU)

PKU

This also deprives the downstream tissues of oxygen (anemia)

Sickle-Cell Anemia

a co-dominant disease

Sickle-Cell Anemia

light independent reactions or the darck reactions

The calvin cycle aka

Tay-Sach's Disease

The disease occurs when harmful quantities of fatty acid derivative called a ganglioside accumulate in the nerve cells in the brain. Infants with this disease appear to develop normally for the first six months of life. Then, as nerve cells become distended with gangliosides, a relentless deterioration of mental and physical abilities occurs. The child becomes blind, deaf, and unable to swallow. Muscles begin to atrophy and paralysis sets in. Death usually occurs between the ages of 2-5.

xylem

The tube-shaped, nonliving portion of the vascular system in plants that carries water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.

*it comes from all of the food molecules we ingest every day * the process of cellular respiration harnesses energy from food and stores it as ATP

WHere does the energy to rebuild atp molecules come from?

not, without

diploid

a cell with 2 sets of chromosomes

animal cells

a cleavage furrow is only in

an operon

a cluster of genes and control sequences

a scientific investigation in which both the control group and experimental groups are kept under similar conditions except for the treatment given to the experimental groups so that the effect or influence of that treatment can be identified or determined

a controlled experiment

Marfan's Syndrome

a dominant disorder with long limbs and weak blood vessels

two DNA molecules each composed of 2 strands

a double stranded DNA molecule has untwisted and separated in preparation for replication. How many DNA molecules composed of how many strands will result?

pedigree

a genetic family tree

DNA fingerprinting

a method of identifying an individual based on their DNA sequence using electrophoresis and proves; most commonly used to present crime scene evidence, determine paternity, and help diagnose genetic disorders

gene therapy

a method of treating genetic disorders by inserting a functional copy of the missing or non functional gene into target cells

heterozygous

a person's alleles for a trait are different

karyotype

a picture of one's chromosomes

karyotype

a picture of one's chromosomes paired homologously

vector

a plasmid a gene gun and a virus are all examples

guard cell

a specialized epidermal plant cell that forms the boundaries of the stomata

A transitional fossil is any fossil which gives us information about a transition from one species to another. (Or, about a transition from one group of species to another group of species.) A transition simply means that, down through time, there was some sort of change. The change must be big enough so that each non-transitional fossil can be easily be sorted into either a "before the transition" pile, or a "after the transition" pile. A transitional fossil is one that falls between the two piles.

a transitional fossil

looses 1 carbon atom in BOP for a total of 2 carbon atoms

after being created in glycolysis each pyrucic acid

blood sugar increases so the beta cells of the pancreas release insulin to help the liver polymerize some of the glycogen molecules to store them and to maintain homeostasis

after eating

water splits to replace missing electrons (photolysis)

after electrons are stripped from chlorophyll and transferred to the first electron transport chain protein (ETC)

4C molecule is formed again to start the cycle again

after energy is stored as several products in the krebs cycle

blood sugar decreases so the alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon to help the liver break apart glycogen molecules

after fasting

extra food in an amniotic egg

albumen

*they obtain food through photosynthesis *plant like protist

algae

energy for the calvin cycle

also created in light reaction

transgenic organism

an organism that has been engineered to carry functional genes from another organism

*helices run in different directions

anti-parallel

replication in opposite directions is termed antiparallel

anti-parallel

immune system proteins that float in the blood and agglutinate foreign, donated blood

antibodies

marker proteins

antigenes aka

a vector

any tool used to insert foreign DNA into a cell this includes plasmids, viruses, gene guns, micropipettes, etc.

the environment we grow up and live in also defines our traits *chemicals modify them (sun/hair die)

apart from our heredity what can also define our traits

*it can be used to pinpointing genes responsible for hereditary diseases, confirming family relationships and individual identities, solving crime scenes, and styling the diversity of genes within population

applications of gel electrophoresis

joint

arthro

*it is a low tech way to make clones that mimics the process to make identical twins *in nature: the embryo splits into two-> sort of like binary fission *artificial embryo twining does the same but in a patri dish instead of incise a mom creating a two cell embryo

artificial embryo twining

smaller fibers called asters form behind the centrioles

asters

they are the building blocks of matter and the fundamental units of matter. all atoms have a nucleus and electron cloud and atomic # and atomic mass

atoms

blood goes in heart in atrium while it exits in ventricle... they are both parts of the heart

atrium/ventricle

once a zygote is formed it starts to divide. one cell becomes two cells which become four cells and so on until it becomes a bastula which contains many more cells than the original zygote

bastula

arginine

beadle's next work involved strains of mold that hard different mutations fro the synthesis of which amino acid

*characteristics of the way one acts *sheep dog herding instinct *retrievers desire to fetch

behavioral traits

two

Asexual cell division done by bacteria, this produces clones

binary Fission

*the way bacteria reproduce *dividing in two through cytokinesis

binary fission

*created 5 days after fertilization * a blastocyst is special because it is when an early embryo is formed and as a result the todipotent stem cells can either be harvested or the blastocyst could be implanted into a mom in order to create a clone.

blastocyst

bonds are connections between atoms in molecules or between molecules themselves. there are covalent bonds/ionic bonds/hydrogen bonds. chemical bonds are between atoms (-) and hydrogen bonds between molecules (---) weaker. the difference between ionic and covalent is the sharing/transfer of electrons.

bonds, types of bonds, and differences

*forming a little bump and then having the bump grow and eventually "fall off" as offspring

budding

base ph and is used to balance in the body

buffer

*endocytosis and exocytosis *requires energy *type of active transport

bulk transport

by measuring the x-ray crick calculated that there must be 10 nucleotides in each turn of the dna helix

by measuring the x-raty what did crick calculate?

ATP+ NADPH+ 6 CO.2 -->C.6H.12O.6

calvin cycle equation

stroma and in the chloroplast

calvin cycle occurs in the

*(soma) its job is to coordinate signals revived from dendrites and transmit them down the axon *within the cell body is the nucleus of the cell

cell body

growing cells in vitro aka in the laboratory in a culture medium such as a petri dish or liquid culture. Cell culturing allows scientist to test how different chemicals/drugs/medicines etc. affect human cells without needing human test subjects.

cell culture

antigens

cell surface marker proteins

stoping point

cessation

Lineages can change quickly or slowly. Character change can happen in a single direction, such as evolving additional segments, or it can reverse itself by gaining and then losing segments. Changes can occur within a single lineage or across several lineages

character change

1)all vertebrate species and a few invertebrates as well such as lancelets and sea squirts 2)a dorsal nerve cord 3)notochord wich is a stiff but flexible rod running down the dorsal side-becomes or vertebrae 4) pharyngeal (gill) slits 5)a post anal tail 6) bilateral symmetry and a complete digestive track 7)closed circulatory system 8)endo skeleton 9)reproduce sexually with diff sexes

characteristics of chordata

negative

charge on a dna molecule

he helped establish the modern system of blood donation and blood banks

charles drew

homologous

chromosomes of the same size/number; having the same types of genes on them

*a type of protozoan phyla -moves with cilia which are little tiny hairs -example:paramecium

ciliates

a hierarchal system is used whereby each organism is grouped into 7 categories aka taxa of decreasing size

classifying

*the pinches on the cells

cleavage furrow

recombinant DNA

combining different pieces of DNA together, typically from different species

traits that follow different rules

complex inheritance patterns

*traits that are shaped by more that none gene *polygenic inheritance

complex traits

ribosomes

composed of RNA and proteins

an area of high concentration touching an area of low concentration

concentration gradient

consume other organisms for their nutrition

consumer/heterotroph

lysosomes

contain hydrolytic enzymes

*the pattern seen when distantly related species develop similar traits--not from a common ancestor *organisms that have undergone convergent evolution would have analogous structures

convergent evolution

crossing over

creates an indefinite amount of genetic variation

restriction enzymes

cuts DNA at specific sequences

photosynthetic bacteria created about 2.9 billion years ago they produced oxygen leading to aerobic bacteria and they became chloroplast 2nd

cyanobacteria

*lammark believes change comes from individual *darwin believes change comes from environment

darwin vs lamark

individuals equipped with traits that allow them to cope efficiently with the local environment leave more offspring than individuals with less adaptive traits. As a result certain heritable variations become more common in the succeeding generations and thus the population evolves over time

darwin's theory of evolution by means of natural selection

*haploid *they only contain half the number of chromosomes we started with

daughters cells of meiosis II are ___

breaking apart dead bodies and organic molecules and recycling nutrients

decomposers

the breaking down of organic matter into simpler molecules

decomposition

organic nitrogen molecules aka protein/amino acids and nucleic acids aka RNA and DNA→NH.4+ and/or NO.3-

decomposition in the nitrogen cycle

to joint two (gene) ends together

define gene splicing

peroxisomes

degrade hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen

a letter is deleted

deletion

mouth second

deutorostomes

a two sugar carbohydrate such as sucrose or lactose

disaccharides

it requires a lot of food and energy

disadvantages of endothermic

PKU

disease where infants cannot metabolize phenylalanine

a molecule that codes for all an organism's proteins

dna

facilitated diffusion is still diffusion it doesn't require energy from the cell *it still is movement from high concentration to low concentration

does facilitated diffusion need energy

no because its still diffusion and it uses a concentration gradient

does facilitated diffusion require energy from the cell

a ranking based on social interactions; minimizes conflict and fighting (chickens and chimps)

dominance hierarchies

mitochondrion

double membraned site of ATP production

if wrong repeat this (aline only... sorry if you dont get it)

draw all the macro molecules and molecules and processes

if wrong repeat this (aline only... sorry if you dont get it...)

draw all the macro molecules and molecules and processes

prophase

during ___ chromosomes first pair up as sister chromatids then with their homologous pair

anaphase 1

during ____ homologous pairs are separated from each other

each turn of the calvin cycle requires and input of how many carbon dioxide molecules

proteins and nucleic acids→ protein/amino acids and nucleic acids aka RNA and DNA

eating in the nitrogen cycle

ion channels are opened when light reacts with the chemical causing chemical to change shape-eyes

electromagnetic receptors

CHO

elements that make carbohydrates

native to only one geographic location

endemic

factors from the environment that can mutate ones DNA

environmental factors

*simmilart to hibernation but in response to periods of intense heat *is part of social behaviors which are part of the biological clock behavior which is part of instinct

estivation

types of lipids

estrogen and heroin

*homologous structures: body parts that are similar in structure but not necessarily in function, from a common ancestor *analogous structures:body parts that have similar functions but have very different underlying structures, gotten independently from different common ancestors *vestigial structures:body parts that are reduced in size and no longer have their original function

evidence of evolution through comparative anatomy

*body parts that are similar in structure but not necessarily in function *such as the wing of a bird, the flipper of whale, and the arm of human. *all of these structures are composed of the the same basic bones and muscles which is what makes them homologous to each other *this similarity in underlying structure is evidence that homologous structures evolved from a common ancestor

evidence of evolution through comparative autonomy of homologous structures

*retrievers have a desire to fetch but you can train a dog to do something else when you toss the ball

examples of changing behavioral traits

pupils dilating in response to darkness, pulling hand from hot stove, suckling behavior in infants

examples of reflexes

the results were all yellow seed plants

f1 generation aka first filial

yellow seed x yellow seed

f1 generation cross

75% yellow and 25% green seed

f2 generation results aka second filial

joining of ova and sperm. the males sperm uses their flagella to swim up through the femealses vagina past the uterus and up to the fallopian tubes were fertilization actually happens

fertilization

the process by which zygotes, which are diploids, are made

fertilization

mRNA goes out of the nucleus through a nuclear pore out into the cytoplasm

first step of translation

*all of the membrane molecules (phospholipids and proteins) are not fixed in one place they are free to flow amongst each other like a fluid *ball crawl *mosaic refers to the fact that the cell membrane is a mixture of different molecules *fluid because they are free to move about

fluid mosaic model

chemical energy

food

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

for major macromolecules

bryophytes and pterophytes

for what plant gropus is water required for fertilization

pterophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms

for which gropu is sporophyte dominant

bryophytes

for which plant groups does water move through plant by diffusion only

*skin color, eye color, height, and hair color

four examples of polygenic traits

the addition of deletion of a single base pair

frameshift mutation

antibodies

free-floating proteins that attack antigens

*chonp -nucleic acids are made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorous

friedrich miescher isolated nuclein (today known as the nucleic acids) from white blood cells. Why does it make sense that he detected high levels of phosphorous in the nuclein

a monosaccharide carbohydrate C6H12O6 is in the shape of a pentagon and it is bonded differently than glucose

fructose

anything that congtains a seed

fruit

*red eye= dominant *white eyes=recessive *plays by complete dominance *sex linked

fruit flies eye color genotypes

*slime molds *heterotrophic decomposers that are fungus like even though they are protist

fungus like protist

sex cells

gametes

formation of gametes or sex cells

gametogenesis

after the bastula is formed the gastrula is formed. it is the dent in a basketball

gastrula

the development of a gastrula

gastrulation

*created by crossing over *allows populations to have a better chance to survive changes in environmental conditions *also created by the side to which each homologous pair is pulled to in anaphase

genetic variation

*if the environment is changing because since everyone will be unique there will be a chance for some to survive

genetic variation is good if/ sexual reproduction is good if

a monosaccharide carbohydrate C6H12O6 is in the shape of a hexagon and it is bonded differently than fructose

glucose

putting a little sugar tag on something such as marker proteins

gluycosylation

glycerol is used as the back bone for a typical lipid molecule and glycogen is a polysaccharide carbohydrate molecule made by animals

glycerol vs glycogen

cell culture

getting bigger in size

growth

is spread through drinking water contaminated with infected copepods. Worms migrate from the intestines to subcutaneous tissue and mate. The males die but the females migrate to skin of feed and exit back into water via popped blister.

guinea worm nematode

the place where an organism lives

habitat

1) q^2= frequency of rr 2)q= frequency of r (recessive allele) 3)p=frequency of R (dominant allele) can be found by using: p=q-1 4)p^2=frequency of RR 5) 2pq= frequency of Rr

hardy weinberg variables and equations

has a baby been born with out an chromosome?

*how characteristics are passed down from one generation to the next

heredity

same staying the same

homeostasis

*having 2 of the same alleles for a trait *a pair of alleles that are the same *TT or tt

homozygous

with 3 ATP molecules which later become 3 adp's and 3 p's

how are the 5 PGAL turned into 3RuBP again?

submetacentric

in what position is the centromere located

in anaphase

in what stage of mitosis do do the sister chromatids separate

small openings penetrating sponge walls and they function by allowing water to flow through them

incurrent pores

the variable that is being tested in the experiment (the treatment that creates the change) it should be the one difference between the control and the experimental groups

independent variable

an assumption based on observations

inference

recessive

is PKU dominant or recessive?

recessive

is Tay- sach's disease dominant or recessive?

recessive

is cystic fibrosis dominant or recessive?

dominant

is huntington's disease dominant or recessive?

atoms of the same element that have a different # of neutrons

isotopes

endoplasmic reticulum

its rough when it hangs out with ribosomes

*XXY *makes boys sort of girlish *47 chromosomes

klinefelters sundrome

milk sugar, its enzyme is lactase and the people that do not have lactase can't "have milk" so their body can digest milk and it results in bad stomach pains.

lactose

proteins

large embeded molecules

a sensory organ that detects vibrations in the water

lateral line

the quantity or type of independent variable, the independent variable should be expressed to include the level of treatment

level of treatment

nucleolus

located within the nucleus

in addition to gills, this group of fish have simple lungs basically modified swim bladders allowing them to gulp air for respiration

lungfish

*are small membrane bound sac like structures that contain digestive enzymes, the membrane keeps these hydrolytic enzymes enclosed and away from the rest of the cell, lysosomes can be employed to digest any old worn out pieces of the cell waste and ingested materials. *made out of membrane

lysosomes

* it allows our immune systems to identify and not attack our own cells * name tags for recognition purposes * antigens *glycoproteins * cells that are not ours will have different "marks" *they are a type of glycoprotein meaning they have a unique tag of sugar molecules attached to them *marks cells as our own

marker proteins

ions channels are opened physically by touch --ears and skin

mechanical receptors

involuntary activities such as hearth rate, breathing, and digestion

medulla oblongata

beyond, after, following, next

meta

pill shaped organelle with 2 membranes, the outer membrane defines the edge of the organelle while the inner membrane is highly folded and by having all of the folds it has a lot of extra surface area. And all of this surface area ( provided by the inner folds) allow the mitochondria to produce a lot of atp of they are considered to be the power plants for eukaryotic cells

mitochondria

Golgi Apparatus

modifies packages and transports secretory proteins

all prokaryotes used to be classified into a single kingdom called monera

monera

*embryo has one cotyledon which is a seed leaf *flower has a three part symmetry *leaf veins are parallel *vascular bundles are scattered through out the stem *monocots such as corn have a single cotyledon

monocots

both your genes and the environment

most diseases are caused by:

fatal

most trisomies are

*motile: means having the ability to move from place to place *sessile: means living attached in one spot

motile vs sessile

any change in the DNA

mutation

a,t,c,g

name the 4 nitrogenous bases that may occur in dan nucleotides

*from exposure to the pathogen example a cut infected by bacteria or a person sneezing or coughing *pathogen enters our body for example an open cut introduces bacteria

natural active immunity

are when the plant grows away from or against a stimulus the leaves coming from newly germinated seeds exhibit negative geotropism as they grow upward against gravity

negative tropism

*the ability to turn atmospheric nitrogen aka N.2→ NH.4+ by breaking the bonds of N.2 *can be done by the nodules in legumes and by lightning

nitrogen fixation in the nitrogen cycle

*the spaces between the myelin sheath in which the signal is transmuted through the axon

nodes of ranvier

when homologous pairs of chromosomes don't separate in meiosis

nondisjunctions

*environment: friends family etc * the influences of the in which we develop

nurture

information obtained directly by any of your five senses

observation

*fungi that instead of decomposing dead organic mater to obtain nutrition aka saprophytic they decompose LIVING organic mater such as athletes foot and cordycepts fungi which infect insects turning them into mind controlled zombies.

parasitic fungi

ascariasis, hook worm, gunia worm, trichinella

parasitic nematodes

dendrites, cell body, axon

parts of a neuron

*the transfer of antibodies from one person to another - there are natural passive immunity and artificial passive immunity -typically provides temporary protection

passive immunity

high to low and it does not use energy because it uses a concentration gradient

passive transport goes from____ and it does/ does not___

the covalent bond between two amino acids

peptide bond

all petals make up the corolla

petals

*all chordates have these characteristics at some point in their lives: -a dorsal nerve cord -a notochord -gill slits -post anal tail

phylum chordata

accessory /helpers of chlorophyll

pigments

female reproductive structures made of three plants: the stigma, style, and ovary; the ovary makes the ovule which contain the plants eggs inside

pistil/carpel

the substation of a single base pair in the DNA

point mutation

chain of amino acids

polypeptide

consume only autotrophs

primary consumer

nucleolus

produces ribosomes

2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate molecules

products of glycolysis

diagrams that hep us predict the probability of offspring's genotypes

punnett squares

information/instruction and CHONP

purpose of nucleic acids and elements in it

determining the age of a fossil by measuring the amount of radioactivity. Radiometric dating has and error factor of 10%

radiometric dating

6CO.2

reactants used in the calvin cycle

hydrolysis reaction

reaction that breaks apart

* very large population size *no migration of members into or out of our population *random mating *no mutation *no natural selection *no evolution

requirements for hardy weinberg equilibrium

* C.6H.12O.6→CO.2 *the glucose is obtained by eating other things and CO.2 is reproduced and expulced into the atmosphere through respiration

respiration in the carbon cycle

*genus is always capitalized *The species is always lower cased *both words are italicized or underlined

rules for writing scientific names

consume primary consumers

secondary consumer

the substances that dissolve in the substances

solutes

water is the solvent

solvent

vacuoles

spaces surrounded by a single membrane

the belief that life can arise from non-living matter. It is currently believed that spontaneous generation occurred only once in the history of the earth wight the evolution of the first living cells about 4 billion years ago

spontaneous generation

small reproductive structures encased in a hard protective shell that can grow into a plant

spore

false spores are haploid

spores are diploid true or false

the unpaired DNA sequences located on the ends of DNA molecules that have been cut by a restriction enzyme in jagged ways

sticky ends

*gases are exchanged through these microscopic pours in the leaves surface *transpiration is the evaporation of water through plants and it occurs through the stomata *there are many stomata on each of a plants leaf so many water molecules are transpiring and in turn pulling more water up the plant all the time *gases enter and exit plants through the stomata located on the lower epidermis layer of the leaf

stomata

Stomatal opening 1. Potassium ions move into the vacuoles. 2. Water moves into the vacuoles, following potassium ions. 3. The guard cells expand. 4. The stoma opens.

stomata opening steps

*cholesterol (found in animal cell membranes only)- a lipid that gives stability/ support to the membrane *these allow the cell membrane to attach to the cytoskeleton (which maintains shape of cell and does cell division) *on the outside part structural proteins are involved in making connections in the extracellular matrix to neighboring cells

structural proteins

keratin(skin/hair), collagen, actin, and myosin (muscles)

structural proteins

the notochord is a true backbone aka vertebrae

subphylum vertebrata

2 in glycolysis+2 in krebs+34 in ETC+ 0 in BOP= 38ATP molecules per glucose

summary on ATP production

cohesion between water molecules that is particularly strong at the surface

surface tension

1) a type of platyhelminthes 2)larvae in undercooked meat that is eaten and can mature and attach to the hosts intestine using its head called a rostellum

tapeworms

*the spindle breaks down because it is no longer needed *the chromosomes begin to uncoil and turn back into chromatin *the nuclei begin to form around the 2 groups of chromatin

telophase

it consist of the nitrogen-base called adenine, chemically bonded to the 5 carbon sugar, ribose

the Adenosine part

epidermis

the dermal tissue system in plants

it is a series of different carrier molecules embedded in the inner membrane sitting near one another

the electron transport chain

transpiration

the evaporative loss of water from a plant

when we don't take our full course of antibiotics a few of the stronger bacteria survive. Those surviving resistant bacteria then make up a disproportionate portion of the population and pass on their genes to the next generation. In this way bacteria have been evolving resistance to the drugs we use to kill them.

the example of natural selection of antibiotics

when we spray an insect-infested fuel with a pesticide a few insects are naturally able to survive because of a variation that allows them to resist the toxin. Those that survive can breed and pass on their pesticide resistance genes to the next generation. thus the next generation has a disproportionate number of resistant insects.

the example of natural selection of insecticides

*unicellular and prokaryotic (bacteria) *anaerobically metabolized organic molecules for energy/ heterotrophic *only prokaryotic life existed for about 2 billion years

the first life

homozygous

the genes for a particular trait are the same

multiple alleles

the inheritance pattern displayed by blood type

complete dominance

the inheritance pattern displayed in the pea plants by traits studied by mendel

2 times one per Acetyl CoA made from the 2 Pyruvic acids

the kreb's cycle runs how many times

the nucleus is still visible in interphase

the nucleus and interphase

*it is polar *touches the exterior and the cytoplasm *hydrophilic

the phosphate group of a phospholipid

life's ultimate energy source

the sun

*area where first neuron meets second neuron *the endings of axons meet the dendrites here, the small space gap between two neurons

the synapse

endoderm, extoderm, mesoderm

the there germ layers of a gastrula

*Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota *all of life is related and can be divided into there major clades/domains

the three domains

phenotype

the trait one has

vacuole

the warehouse

*type of archaebacteria *they live in extremely hot water

thermophiles

genotype

this word means the alleles a person has for a given trait

*protozoa *algae *fungus like protist

three major groups of the kingdom protista

to resist ph change

to buffer

an organisms trophic level is one level higher than the highest food the organism eats

to figure out trophic level

a phylogeny

today we categorize life based on what

sex-linked traits

traits with genes on the x chromosome

adults develop in your intestines after you eat undercooked pork. The larvae encyst in you r muscles. 2-3 month long illness with gastrointestinal problems, fever, child, etc

trichinella nematode

when a zygote gets 3 copies of a chromosome

trisomy

*having 3 of one chromosome *down syndrome on #21 *klinfelter syndrome XXY *metafemale XXX

trisomy examples

false, limiting factors can be either abiotic or biotic

true or false limiting factors can only abiotic

*the only monosomy you can live with *makes the person that has it look like a big child *the person is not fertile and does not go through puberty *single x females *45 chromosomes

truner's syndrome

starch, glycogen, cellulose

types of polysaccharides

r group

unique part of amino acids

have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms (the more double bonds the healthier) they tend to be liquid at room temp, and they are plant fats such as olive oil and fats in avocet, and nuts

unsaturated fats

micropippete

used to transfer very small amounts of liquids

a characteristic of vertebrate chordates. the notochord has become the vertebrae that wraps around the nerve cord

vertebrae

* fish:ectothermic amphibians:ectothermic reptilia:ectothermic aves:endothermic mammals:endothermic

vertebrates exhibit these body temperature regulation strategies

meaning they give birth to live young

viviparous

one member of a group sacrifices itself to warn others of a predator (prairie dogs)

warning signals

water-solvent salt-solute

water () salt ()

adaptations are mutations which benefit the living organism that obtains these positive traits. And through these, an organism's chance for surviving and/or reproducing is increased

what are adaptations

*occur in the mitochondria *are the three last stages of aerobic respiration *bop *krebs cycle *etc

what are aerobic respiration reactions

aneuploidies

what are karyotypes used to detect

sponges, because they are so primitive

what are the first animals to have thought to ever become extant

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

what are the four stages of mitosis

*they 2 helices are anti-parallel to each other *meaning that the 2 helices run/go in opposite directions

what are the helices to each other, and what does it mean

*eubacteria *archaebacteria *protista *fungi *plantae *animalia

what are the six kingdoms

1) the light reactions-occurs inside the thylakoids 2)the calvin cycle-occurs in the stoma

what are the two steps in photosynthesis

ine

what do amino acids end in

female

what do any of these mean on a pedigree

a chain of hexagons/glucose that look like a fence

what does cellulose look like

*it only pairs up in DNA with A

what does nitrogen base T pair up with

(adenosine triphosphate, adenosine diphosphate, adenosine monophosphate) it means how many phosphates there are attached to the adenine and ribose (adenosine)

what does the middle letter stand for in aTp, aDp, aMp

independent separation of the chromosomes

what does this show

* a nucleotide -deoxyribose sugar -nitrogen base -phosphate *unites for nucleic acids

what is #1 and its parts

*ribosome

what is #2

crossing over

what is happening

glycolysis

what is step one in aerobic respiration

glucose

what is the monomer of all 3 polysaccharide carbohydrates

it is a karyotype

what is this

meiosis II

what is this the result of?

producing seeds

whats the opposite of having no cones of flowers

translation

when RNA makes protein

in telophase

when does the nuclei form

from our parents

where do we get our genetic material from

bacteria

where plasmids originate

helicase

whet unzips chromosomes

other soil bacteria

who can convert ammonium into nitrates

a few special bacteria

who can use atmospheric nitrogen aka N.2

phoebus levene

who discovered the 3 parts of a nucleotide

because there are more genes than proteins

why is it no longer true that one gene codes for one protein?

*to find an unknown genotype

why would you preform a test cross

1. One organism 2. Population 3. Community 4. Ecosystems 5. Biome 6. Biosphere

Levels of organization

The disease is chronic and lifelong. Individuals are most often well, but their lives are punctuated by periodic painful attacks. Lifespan is often shortened with suffered living an average of 40 years.

Sickle-Cell Anemia

Adhesion. In adhesion, polar water molecules adhere (hold on) to the surface of a material that is polar; an example is water droplets clinging to the inside of a glass. If water is contained inside a thin capillary tube, this tendency to adhere will allow the water to move a short distance up the tube. This is the property of water that is demonstrated in the formation of a meniscus in a burette or pipette. Because xylem vessels are so thin, water moves up inside them a short distance simply by adhesion.

What property of water accounts for the fact that molecules of water "grab" the walls of the thin xylem vessels?

the energy that is needed for a reaction to start and that the enzyme helps lower

activation energy

*the body itself produces antibodies and WBCs in response to foreign antigens. 2 kinds: Humoral and Cell-Mediated. Typically provides long-lasting protection.

active immunity

sending a signal along a nerve cell (uses k+ and Na+) and kidneys using active transport to clean metabolic wastes out of cell

active transport examples

*when species evolve to occupy all the different niches aka ecological roles of a new area *darwin's finches in the galapagos *the adaptive part ends that the features the species developed have adapted to the environment of the species. IN order to allow the species to fill its/a niche *radiation part refers to the outward branching from a common ancestor

adaptive radiation

haploid gametes

after telophase 2 what kind of cells are produced

the 2 pgal's that left are combined to form 1 glucose

after the calvin cycle is completed 2 times

*agarose gel is a type of gel made out of: agarose, flask, gel mold, gel comb, buffer, and a microwave/heat *it is used in DNA fingerprinting and gel electrophoresis *this is what the DNA or the fragment things ago through

agarose gel

*attack/ clump together *antibodies/immune system proteis do this to foreign donated blood

agglutinate

confrontational behavior involving threats, displays or actual combat which settles disputes over limited resources

aggression (agonistic behavior)

another poor young scientist who pushed darwin to publish his first paper on natural selection along with him

alfred wallace

Plant-like autotrophs (ex. multicellular algae; unicellular algae)

algae

an enzyme can only catalyze one type of a reaction therefore they are considered specific (one enzyme only works upon only one particular reaction)

an enzyme can only ____ and due to this they are considered ____

cyanobacteria and aerobic bacteria

ancestors of mitochondria chloroplasts

having an unusual number of chromosomes/ not good chromosome #

aneuploidies

*behaviors in response to a n internal type rhythim *includes circadian rhythms and seasonal behaviors which include migration and hibernation *is part of instinct

biological clock

*examples include: -using viruses for bacteria, animals, plants -using plasmids for bacteria

biological vectors

sum of all Earth's biomes- all places of Earth where life is found

biosphere

it is the manipulation of living organisms and their life processes to manufacture products that improve the quality of life. This is a very broad term and it includes everything from using yeast to make bread to using DNA to solve a crime.

biotechnology

enzyme is a part of a reaction so it simply speeds it up, therefore enzymes are never used up but they can slowly wear out

can enzymes get used up? and if so why or why not

*the uncontrolled division of cells *cancers do not respond to cyclin signals that regulate cell growth resulting in tumors

cancer

mitosis

cell division aka

meiosis

cell division that makes gametes

pinocytosis

cell drinking

substructures of the cell, they are not alive, and they are constructed from combinations of the four organic macromolecules

cellular organelle

*mammals dominate major land niches (whole area) *first hominid ~7 million years ago *homo sapiens ~200,000 years ago

cenozoic era

*are cylindrical organelles that hang out in pairs in animal cells plans/bacteria do not have them, they are made of bundles of microtubules *they function in cell division by helping to divide the cell's DNA so that each new cell will get a full set of instructions.

centrioles

are cylindrical organelles that hang out in pairs in animal cells plans do not have them, they are made of bundles of microtubules

centrioles

these structures are involved in cell motility either functioning to move the entire cell along or moving substances along a cell's surface

cilia and flagella

all the things that are the same in both the control and experimental groups

controlled variables

a wet gel-like fluid solid form.... (like a peeled grape) that consist of mostly water and dissolved molecules.

cytoplasm

*the fibers of the cytoskeleton permeate throughout the cytoplasm *it gives the cells its shape *organizes cell division *it is the cell's "highway"

cytoskeleton

*their severity depends on size/density of the population size they are limiting *factors that have an increasing effect on a population as the population size increases *this shapes how populations overshoot and fall below the carrying capacity *factors that limit a population but that would not affect a small population as much as a a big population *food/prey, predators, competition, disease, parasites, water, sunlight, soil nutrients

density-dependent limiting factors

a test of your hypothesis

design and experiment

becoming more complex

development

yes! they did co exist during the mesozoic era

did dinosaurs and mammals co exist?

*the natural tendency of molecules to move from where there is a high concentration to neighboring areas where there is a low concentration * it will occur wherever a concentration gradient (high concentration next to low concentration) occurs *the cell membrane must be permeable to whatever molecule is trying to pass through * the movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration

diffusion

*some genomes may never make it to the cellular factories to make proteins *some proteins may fall apart after being made *some proteins may get more produced than others

discuss 3 factors that help determine what kinds of proteins a cell may manufacture at any given time

*the point mutation has the potential to change an amino acid on the polipeptide and if this occurs then the protein could be lethal or totally bad! *frameshift mutation is truly severe because if it occurs all of the amino acids after this mutate occurs will be different! therefore changing the protein completely!!!!

discuss the severity/possible outcomes of the 2 types of gene mutations

DeoxyriboNucleicAcid which is a long molecule that stores a code for how to build all the proteins and organism needs/ a chain of nucleotides

dna

anaphase 2

during _____ the sister chromatids split from each other

one

during replication of eukaryotic DNA how many DNA strands act as a template for the synthesis of a new DNA

during telophase

during what phase do chromosomes turn back into chromatin

CHO

elements that make lipids

CHONP

elements that make nucleic acids

CHONS

elements that make proteins

a think protective coating that forms and causes bacteria to become dormant, possibly for many years

endospores

living together within

endosymbiosis means

there are eukaryotic cells (prokaryote went inside a prokaryote forming an eukaryote cell that evolved over time.)

endosymbiotic theory is about why ...

they control their body temperature internally through their metabolism

endothermic

organic catalysts, meaning that they speed up chemical reactions

enzymes

H.2O ---> 2e- plus 2H+ plus O

equation for photolysis

6 CO.2 + 6 H.2O + sunlight → C.6H.12O.6 + 6 O.2 (carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen).

equation for photosynthesis

sperm (1n) + egg (1n) = zygote (2n)

equation for zygote

*cells that do have a nucleus and other internal structures (organelles) made out of membrane. *Eukaryotic cells are every type of life except bacteria such as plants animals fungy and protist

eukaryotic cells

*the study of embryos of different species for evolutionary purposes. *human embryos have gill slits that eventually become the thymus and tonsils; embryos of animals that we think are closely related based on other evidence go trough similar embryological stages *these similarities through embryological stages indicate common genes that have been preserved through their expression modified over geologic time *all embryos are similar showing common ancestry *vertebrates have gill slits and tails in early stages of life, this indicates genetic homologies

evidence of evolution through comparative embryology

deep sea bacteria use hydrogen sulfide (H.2S) instead of light

example of chemosynthesis

amoebas capture food this way by engulfing particles forming a membrane around them called a vesicle

example of endocytosis

amoeba getting rid of cell waste by having waste vesicles move to the membrane and dump their contents out of the membrane

example of exocitosis

*tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest, grasslands, desserts, tropical rainforest, estuary

examples of biomes

*genes determine our natural hair color but exposure to sun or hair dyes may change that color

examples of changing physical traits

brittle stars, sea stars, sand dollars, cushion star, sea urchin, sea cucumber, feather stars aka sea lilies

examples of echinoderms

*the first vertebrate to evolve from invertebrate chordate ancestors *early fish were cartilaginous and jawless *fish are divided into three classes Agnatha, Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes

fish

fish are generally not concerned with water loss and thus can excrete nitrogenous waste in form of ammonia a very toxic substance that must be very dilute thus fish pee a lot

fish excretion

*great variation: carnivors=many sharks, hervivores=parrrotfish, parasites=lampreys, filter feeders=whale sharks *hervivores have longer digestive tracts than carnivores *path of food through a typical fish digestive tract: mouth→esophagus→stomach/digestion→pyloric ceca/digestion→intestines/digestion and absorption→anus

fish feeding

*The technology entailing all processes of altering the genetic material of a cell to make it capable of performing the desired functions, such as producing novel substances. *Genetic engineering is the deliberate, controlled manipulation of the genes in an organism with the intent of making that organism better in some way. This is usually done independently of the natural reproductive process. The result is a so-called genetically modified organism (GMO). To date, most of the effort in genetic engineering has been focused on agriculture.

genetic engineering

*humans habituate to the feeling of clothing on their skin-they don't feel it after its been on a few minutes. we also habituate to certain smells *horses that pull carriages in a city

habituation examples

*an enzyme *first step of of dna replication *in dna replication this enzyme untiwist and unzips the double structure of DNA

helicase

asexual reproduction

helps a population colonize an area rapidly

*a blood clotting disorder caused by a recessive allele on the x chromosome *recessive *sex linked

hemophilia

*things that have let their marks on the diversity of life on earth pruning or growing the tree of life *explosion: when a lot of new variety of animals occur *extinction: when a whole lot of species disappear

historical changes in diversity

*they are passed from generation to generation when parents have a child and they each pass down trait *we inherit traits from our parents and pass them to our children

how are traits passed down

through independent separation of the chromosomes and through crossing over

how can meiosis create genetic variation

*with a pedigree *with a test cross

how can you determine an unknown genotype

phagocytosis

how do amoeba practice heterotrophy

it regenerates NAD+ allowing glycolysis to run again and again for quick energy

how does fermentation give us quick energy when we need it

only one

how many codons does methionine have

how much CO.2 is made in the krebs cycle

none

how much FADH.2 is made in break down of pyruvic acids

none

how much FADH.2 is made in glycolysis

10%

how much of the available energy contained in one trophic level gets passed on to the next trophic level

*steps 1) somatic cell nucleus and an enucleated e.g. are fused 2) a zygote is created 3)the zygote becomes a blastocyst 4)the blastocyst is implanted into the uterus 5)pregnancy leads to the clone baby *this clones the whole organism * SCNT and artificial embryo twinning are types of human being cloning

human being cloning, reproductive cloning

*humans use alcoholic fermentation to make beer and wine * CO.2 creates bubbles in dough that make bread rise

humans use alcoholic fermentation...

attractive forces between molecules unlike chemical bonds (bonds within molecules/between atoms) (---)

hydrogen bonds

aka trans fats and it is vegetable oil with hydrogen in it and it is bad for you

hydrogenated fats

1)closed circulatory system-blood stays inside vessels and is pumped by 5 hearts 2)segmentation-allows for compartmentalization of body-different segments have different functions 3) nephrida=excretion structures found on each segment. Similar to our kidneys 4)hermaphrodites 5)true coelomates 6)can regenerate

important annelida characteristics

2 pyruvic acids

in glycolysis glucose splits into

photosystem 2

in the light reaction light first hits

*complex behaviors that are innate and unchangeable *most instinctual behavior is triggered by a sign stimulus *usually involve more than one step; they are still pre programed *includes: social behaviors which are courtship rituals and territoriality , biological clock which includes circadian rhythms and seasonal behaviors such as migrate, hibernation, and estivation

instinct

eggs and sperm combine inside the females body

internal fertilization

the period of growth of a phase

interphase

altruistic behaviors towards kin (bees)

kin selection

1) mitosis 2)gametophyte generation 1n 3)fertilization (after the haploid sperm and egg fuse to create the diploid zygote) 4)mitosis 5)sporophyte generation 2n 6)meiosis 7)spores 2n

label the plants life cycle

states that older fossils are buried deeper than younger ones

law of super position

*can only diffuse 50% or until dynamic equilibrium is established/ when its isotonic *some things are to big to diffuse *only goes from high to low

limitations of diffusion

molecules made of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but mostly carbon and hydrogen

lipids

*both of them begin with DNA *both involve polymerases *gens are duplicated

list similarities between dna replicatoin and transcription

are small membrane bound sac like structures that contain digestive enzymes, the membrane keeps these hydrolytic enzymes enclosed and away from the rest of the cell, lysosomes can be employed to digest any old worn out pieces of the cell waste and ingested materials.

lysosomes

*messanger RNA *it is made up of the RNA nuclotides joined together *after it is made it goes into the cytoplasm

mRNA

PCR

makes copies of DNA molecules

*remove a plasmid and cleave it with restriction enzymes

making a transgenic bacteria by using plasmids as vectors step one

*first isolate the desired DNA gene by using restriction enzymes that cleave the DNA at the desired places *then put the DNA piece into a vector which will transport the desired DNA piece into the host cell

making a transgenic organism all steps

*first you must isolate the desired DNA/the desired gene that is in the chromosomes in the nucleus *you can isolate using restriction enzymes

making a transgenic organism step one

warm blooded animals that appeared along dinosaurs in the mesozoic era

mammals

vacuoles

may be filed with water food or other storage items

gametes and genetic variation

meiosis creates

nucleus endoplasmic reticulum golgi lysosomes endosomes mitochondria peroxisomes vacuole

membrane bound organelles

*spindle fibers attach to centromeres of the sister chromatids *the chromosomes are lined up in the middle (equator) of the cell

metaphase

*tetrads are completing crossing over and have lined up in the middle of the cell *23= 96/4

metaphase I

*produce methane; and live in the digestive tracts of animals such as cow, they also live in swamps, sewage *type of archaebacteria

methanogens

1. Radiometric dating relies on half-life decay of radioactive elements to allow scientists to date rocks and materials directly. 2. Stratigraphy provides a sequence of events from which relative dates can be extrapolated. 3. Molecular clocks allow scientists to use the amount of genetic divergence between organisms to extrapolate backwards to estimate dates.

methods and evidence that scientists use to put dates on events:

*are epigenetic tags, the methyl tags turn genes off while histone coiling has to do with coiling up the DNA, and if the DNA is coiled up it is off and it if uncoiled it is on *histone: proteins that hep organize DNA , in Stem Cells DNA is loosely wrapped around histones ready to spring into action and in differentiated cells DNA is tightly wrapped around histones *methyl tags are used to science genes by blocking their transcription *acetyl tags: they loosen interaction between DNA and histones

methyl tags and histone coiling and acetyl tags

*changes within a species over a relatively short period of time such as the peppered moths in the industrial london *Microevolution is evolution on a small scale — within a single population. That means narrowing our focus to one branch of the tree of life.

microevolution

*are protein fibers that help to give a cell some shape and form *together they form the cell's cytoskeleton *these fibers are also involved in cell motility

microfilaments and microtubules

the period of cell division

mitosis

*having only one chromosomes *turners syndrome X

monosomy

when a zygote only has 1 copy of a chromosome

monosomy

*most primitive:monotremes are oviparous. the offspring develop in reptilian like amniotic eggs *found only in australia and new guinea *examples include the duckbill platypus and the spiny anteater echidna`

monotremes

nontracheophytes, they don't have roots or mechanism for transporting water

name of early land plants which evolved form green algae

In ecology, the part of the environment occupied by a particular species along with the resources it uses and produces. A species' niche includes such factors as energy consumed, time of consumption, space occupied, temperature required, mode of reproduction, and behavior.

niche

normal blood glucose level

a stiff yet flexible rod between the nerve cord and digestive tract-notochord has become the vertebrae that wraps around and protects the nerve cord: so tis harder to break the nerve cord

notochord

the nucleolus is a darker/dense region that lies WITHIN the nucleus

nucleolus

a society in which ready made food is plentiful and easily obtained

obesogenic environment

*membrane bound structures in eukaryotic cells *organelles are like tiny rooms where different chemical reactions can occur away from each-other

organelles

egg cells for a female produced in her ovaries which are her gonads

ova

a femels gonads were she produces ova

ovaries

*petals, sepals, stamens, pistel/carpel

parts of a flower

anaphase 1

phase in which tetrads separate

*a visible trait an organism ha/ physical appearance *a trate one has that you can "phee" *expression of the genes we have

phenotype

virchow,schwann, schleiden

pioneers of cell theory

*they are oak tree, moss, fir tree *they are autotrophic *they are eukaryotic *they are all multicellular *yes they have a cell wall made of cellulose *they are all sessile

plantae

foot

pod

*list population size in each trophic level

pyramid of numbers

After receiving proteins Golgi bodies "package" them for delivery by modifying them in some way

receiving and packaging (Golgi Apparatus)

selfless behavior that is repaid at a later time (birds)

reciprocal altruism

1) they are hermaphrodites -> self fertilization... 2) they can asexually reproduce by regeneration aka fission.

reproduction of phylum Platyhelminthes

2 daughter cells with identical genetic material

results of mitosis

*decomposers: an organism that have physical adaptation s that allows them to break down and absorb their food frond ear organisms

saprophytic

prevents water loss

shell

*malnutrition, lead poisoning

some diseases like these are caused primarily by factors in the environment

*sickle cell, C.F., Huntington's, MSUD, PKU

some diseases like these are caused primarily by your genes

*violent rainstorms that filled the oceans * meteorite bombardment *constant volcanic eruptions * intense solar UV radiation

some early conditions on earth

*turner's syndrom *klinefelters syndrome

some non fatal aneuploides-sex chromosomes

*two sperm are sent down to one of the ovary's ovules, one sperm fertilizes the eggs to create a zygote and the other sperm fertilizes the diploid central cell 1n+2n=3n

step three in angiosperm reproduction

*after glycolysis turns glucose into 2 pyruvic acids and 2 ATPs *the pyruvic acids are converted to ethyl alcohol & Co.2 *also a quick energy loop allowing glycolysis 2 atp to run again quickly

steps in alcoholic fermentation

the males gonads that contain the sperm

testes

*pigments-(chlorophyll is main pigment) the pigments absorb light energy

the light reaction requires ....

*bryophytes aka mosses and pterophytes aka ferns

two seedless groups/ spores only groups

prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

two types of cells

structural and functional

types of proteins

golgi aparatus

ups

a less toxic form than ammonia that can be stored easier and requieres less water to excrete.urea must be diluted more than the uric acid but less than ammonia

urea

*is simply a membrane bound sac that can be used to store different materials *the large vacuoles many functions include storing nutrients, breaking down waste, helping the cell grow, and providing pressure necessary for maintaining the plant's shape *made out of membrane

vacuole

nitrates and ammonium

what are key components of fertilizer

amino acids

what are proteins a chain of

prohase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

what are the 4 phases of mitosis

substrate complex

what are the molecules/ reactants in the active site called

to examine an individuals 's parents or children's unknown genotypes

what can pedigrees be used for

ATP synthase

what diffuses H+

lysosomes digest things like food or white cell's lysosomes can digest bacteria, they are like vesicles but with digestive enzymes

what digests food in a cell

ovaries become fruit

what do ovaries become

ovules become seeds

what do ovules become

*Since Uracil is strictly for RNA it pairs up with Ain RNA

what does nitrogen base U pair up with

it means pre bearer aka sponges

what does porifera mean

it produces ribosomes due to that the components of ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleolus, and the ribosomes parts are sent out from the nucleus into the cytoplasm to become fully functional.

what does the nucleolus do?

affecting the shape of an enzyme molecule

what does the term denature mean

semi conservative

what does this represent

hydrogen bonds

what force holds the bases for two nucleotides together in the middle of the molecule

*the ribosome attaches itself to mRNA's first three bases known as codons

what hapens in translation after mRNA rushes to a ribosomes

*phospho diester bond *the bond that joins the phospho lipid to the sugar

what is #2

*phosphate group *there is one per nucleotide

what is #4

*it is when all the pieces of chromatin replicate- make a copy of themselves *happens during the S phase in interphase

what is dna replication and when does it occur

nucleotides

what is the monomer of all nucleic acids (dna and rna)

amino acids

what is the monomer of all proteins

all nucleic acids (rna, and dna)

what is the polymer of nucleotides

proteins

what is the polymer of the monomer amino acids

all three polysaccharide carbohydrates

what is the polymer of the monomer glucose

replication

when DNA makes DNA

during metaphase

when do spindle fibers attach to centromeres

during prophase

when does chromatin coil up into chromosomes

in the etc

when is NADH used in aerobic respiration

gymnospem and angiosperm

which plant group produces pollen

meselson and stahl

who discovered the semi-conservative

charles drew

who helped establish the modern system of blood donation and blood banks

friedrich miescher

who isolated nuclein from white blood cells

because people with O blood have no antigenes it is able to donate blood to anyone

why are people with type O blood called the universal donors

water is polar oil is not

why do oil and water not mix

binomials are written in Latin because -Latin is a dead language, no one speaks it so it does not evolve into dialects -latin was the official scientific language of the day

why is latin used in binomial nomenclature

*nitrogen is used to make proteins and nucleic acids

why is nitrogen needed by all organisms to survive

*a type of protozoan phyla -moves with flagella a whip like tail -example:trypanosoma is the protozoan that causes african sleeping sickness and Giardia which causes the dirreah sickness contracted from contaminated water -triconympha protozoan is also a type of zooflagallate that lives in the gust of terminus and it breaks down cellulose

zooflagellates

a fertilized egg

zygote

restriction enzyme

an enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of bases

it becomes Acetyl CoA

after pyruic acid looses 1 carbon atom

(self nourishment) are organisms that use energy to produce food molecules

autotrophs (producers)

cylindrical structures made out of microtubules

centrioles

lower the amount of activation energy needed for a reaction to begin

enzymes work because they _____

regeneration, budding, binary fission

examples of asexual reproduction

exponential growth shape

by re-attaching a loose phosphate group to an ATP molecule with energy from glucose

how can ATP be regenerated

proteins

in is used for

it is in off position

in what state is dna when it is coiled up

lipids contain twice the energy of carbohydrates

lipids contain ___ the energy of ____

mammals have highly developed kidneys for filtering nitrogenous waste out of the blood. mammals excrete waste in the from of urea. urea must be diluted more than the uric acid but less than ammonia

mammalian excretion

the mesoderm is inside layer of the gastrula and its cells become the skeleton and the muscles

mesoderm

the evolution into distinct physical differences

morphology

fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, birds

place these major vertebrate groups in order from first to most recent: birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, fish

*genotype ------- phenotype *IA IA, IA i ----> Type A blood *IB IB, IB i ---->Type B blood *IA IB -------> Type AB blood *ii ------> Type O blod

possible genotypes and phenotypes for blood type

reptiles breathe through lungs that are better developed than an amphibians

reptilia respiration

in the late 1800's the industrial revolution hit england. At the time a 2 certain types of moth light gray and black existed. These moths where prayed upon by birds. In the early 1800's the white form of the moth was a lot more common because the trees at the time were covered with lichens or whitish fungi which made the lighter form of the moth more camouflaged when resting on the tree. But during the industrial revolution pollution caused the lichens to die, exposing the dark bark of the trees. This made the darker version of the moth more camouflaged and better able to survive. As a result there was a significant increase in the number of black moths and a decrease in the number of light gray ones.

the example of natural selection of industrial melanism

*embryonic stem cells *somatic stem cells *induced pluripotent stem cells aka IPS cells

types of stem cells

angiosperms

what plant gropu produces fruit

DNA

which nucleic acid(s) is/are made up of AGC and T nucleotides

occurs more commonly in people (or their descendants) from parts of the world, such as sub-Saharan Africa, where malaria is or was common.

Sickle-Cell Anemia

*An event in which a lineage rapidly diversifies with the newly formed lineages evolving different adaptations. *If all of this diversification happens in a short amount of time, it is often referred to as an adaptive radiation *Although biologists have different standards for defining an adaptive radiation, it generally means an event in which a lineage rapidly diversifies, with the newly formed lineages evolving different adaptations.

adaptive radiation

*Development is the process through which an embryo becomes an adult organism and eventually dies. Through development, an organism's genotype is expressed as a phenotype, exposing genes to the action of natural selection. *Changes in the genes controlling development can have major effects on the morphology of the adult organism. Because these effects are so significant, scientists suspect that changes in developmental genes have helped bring about large-scale evolutionary transformations.

development

a muscle below the lungs that draws air into the lungs

diaphragm

*noticed with capital letters *they are the ones that "win"/ get produced *the version of the trait one has if their genotype is TT or Tt

dominant

*the homologous pairs separate from each other to the 2 poles but double stranded chromosomes aka pairs of sisters remain linked together by their centromeres *creates genetic variation

during anaphase I

consists of all the communities in a given area plus all of abiotic (nonliving) factors in environment

ecosystems

chemical reactions in the body would occur best at warmer temperatures. if an ectotherm best too cold his body processes wills low down-a potential disadvantage if trying to escape from a predator or capture food. if a reptile gets too hot, enzymes could denature causing death. for this reason reptiles are limited as to where they can live. most reptiles are found in temperate and tropical areas. to deal with these problems reptiles use behavior to control their body temperature. for example they can burro under cool rocks if its too hot or sun themselves on top of rocks if they need to warm up. many reptiles in temperate areas become dormant during colder seasons

ectothermy disadvantages

6CO.2 + 6H.2O + sunlight energy -> C.6H.12O.6 + 6O.2

equation of photosynthesis with what plants need/reactants and what plants make/products

camouflage, mimicry, warning coloration, territoriality

examples of adaptations

Not extinct, currently living.

extant

how many of each genotypes are present in the offspring

genotypic ratio

gizzard/crop

produce egg and sperm but they have methods to avoid self fertilization

hemraphrodites

how many ATP are produced from the ETC alone

how many hydrogen bonds does guanine make with cytosine

state what is going wrong

identify the problem

random movement not toward or away from a stimulus

kinesis

having only one of a chromosome

monosomy

1)shell 2)albumen 3)chorion 4)yolk 5)embryo 6)amnion 7)allantois

name the parts of the amniotic egg

*recessive *G= normal vision *g=color blind *sex linked

red-green color blindness

they are tiny cell parts made out of RNA and some proteins

ribosomes

when an all the enzymes are occupied

saturation point

*the genes are located on the x chromosome, but not the y chromosome *23rd pair *females follow normal inheritance rules but only one gene controls the male's traits since he only has 1 x chromosome

sex linked traits

CHO's and phosphorous

what are phospholipids made out of

hydrogen ions

what diffused through ATP synthase

james watson and francis crick

who is famous fro discovering the 3d molecular shape of DNA

testes and ovaries

2 places where meiosis occurs

*chemicals or radiation

2 possible mutages

dna and rna

2 types of nucleic acids

RNA and DNA and nucleotides

2 types of nucleic acids an what they are long chains of

*if theres to many unsaturated fatty acids the cholesterol helps to stiffen *cholesterol can help loosen up if there are to many saturated fatty acids

2 ways cholesterol is used in the membrane

reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning

2 ways cloning can be done

1.initial slow growth( lag phase) 2.exponential phase 3.decelerating growth asthe poulation approaches the carrying capacity

3 distinct parts of logisitic growth

insecta, arachnida, crustacea

3 main classes of insects

*breakdown of pyruvic acid *kreb's cycle *electron transport chain

3 steps in in aerobic respiration reactions

*G1 phase: normal metabolic activity: the cell grows, makes protein, acquires and uses energy etc *S phase: all the pieces of chromatin replicate-make a copy of themselves DNA replication *G2 phase: final growth phase, organelles and cell parts needed for division are made/ 2 sets of furniture

3 things that happen in interphase

4,000 million years= 4 billion years

4,000 million years=_ billion years

G3P

6PGal aka:

Huntington's Disease

A rare inherited neurological disorder affecting up to 8 people per 100,000 . The disease normally starts between ages 40 and 50 . It causes cell death in selective areas of the brain. HD's most obvious symptoms are abnormal uncontrollable jerking body movements, but it also affects a number of mental abilities. Symptoms increase as the disease progresses.

*if the cell becomes to large, DNA can't keep up with the demand for proteins so cells must be small

Amount of DNA in a cell and cell size

foreign substances that trigger the attack of antibodies in the immune response.

Antigens

1*mRNA: AUG ACA CUA CGGUCA UAG 2*met, the, leu, arg, ser, stop

Base pairing practice: transcribe this molecule of DNA into mRNA: TAC TGT GAT GCC AGT ATC ... Then code it into protein

all the living things in an environment

Biotic factors

*every time you sense something many neurons are involved for the sensation to be sent to your CNS which is the brain and spinal chord, then the signal goes on to diff types of neurons

Central nervous system aka CNS

the stable, unchanging community that marks the end of succession a.k.a The biome for a given area

Climax community

*One of the major algae divisions; most important algae found in ocean; make a glass shell for themselves to live in; form chains to sink less quickly; used in tartar-preventing toothpaste; ex. used in tartar toothpaste because the glass shells scrape tartar off of teeth, they are also found in paints polish and soap *golden color and they have pretty glass shells

Diatoms

is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment

Ecology

C.6H.12O.6 + 6 O.2→6 CO.2 + 6 H.2O + 36-38 ATP

Equation for Aerobic Respiration

*9:3:3:1 *9 will be homozygous dominant *3: will be heterozygous one way *3: will be heterozygous the other way *1 will be homozygous recessive

Explain what Mendel's famous ratio means

microtubules

Form the cilia and flagella

*it is in interphase *final growth phase; organelles and cell parts needed for division are made *has 2 sets of furniture

G2 phase

*to be successful a vector must -target the right cells - integrate the gene into the cells :the gene must become part of the host's genetic material -activate the gene :the gene must go into the nucleus and be turned on -avoid harmful side affects *this must function correctly for gene therapy to be a success

Gene Delivery

*it functions in the acceptance packaging and delivery of cell proteins * proteins from the rough ER get sent to the G.A. for further processing and packaging. *made of membranes *molecules fuse with the G.A. and they are tagged with specific labels that transport proteins will use to deliver them to the proper place in the cell

Golgi Apparatus

*One of the major algae divisions; thought to be direct ancestors of Kingdom Plantae; they have green chlorophyll; some are unicellular, and some are multicellularnsuch as sewed *lichens -> with fungus

Green Algae

hydrogen ion, proton

H+

translation

Happens at the ribosome

*the passing of traits from parents to children *the reason why siblings look like each other and children look like their parents

Heredity

1) cleave the desired gene 2) place the desired gene inside a vector ... in the tomatoes case it was a Bt gene obtained from bacteria *the first two steps are the steps to make a transonic organism 3)add the vector back to a bacteria 4) grow the bacteria 5)put cells from the desired plant with the growing bacteria so that the bacteria can insert their modified genes into the plant 6)kill the losers

Hot to create a GMO tomato

It causes cell death in selective areas of the brain

Huntington's Disease

The disease normally starts between ages 40 and 50

Huntington's Disease

most obvious symptoms are abnormal uncontrollable jerking body movements but it also affects a number of mental abilities. Symptoms increase as the disease progresses.

Huntington's Disease

Recall that a hydrogen bond is a weak interaction between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and, in this case, the oxygen of another molecule. Water is a polar molecule, with the region around the oxygen atom having a slight negative charge and the regions around the hydrogen atoms having a slight positive charge. In water, the negative regions on one molecule are attracted to the positive regions on another, and the molecules form hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen Bonding

Each individual thread of the mycelium; makes up the mycelium. They are little strings of connected cells

Hyphae

polymer

Is DNA a polymer or a monomer

*this is the non coding DNA sections of DNA between genes that are about on.1% is unique for every individual- that is about 3 million letters

Junk DNA

*just following the influx of the sodium ions potassium ions flow outward through the ion channels that also open *this helps to re establish the negative charge of resting potential

K+

*states that genes fro different traits are inherited independently from each other *They are independent/ getting one gene doesn't mean you'll get the other because they "come from different bags" #experiment with mms

Mendels law of independent assortment

*in a population, there exist more that 2 types of alleles for a trait *more than just T and t

Multiple Alleles

photosynthesis

NADPH is in____

paleozoic era

Name the era:first reptiles:~300 million years ago

paleozoic era

Name the era:first vertebrates which are fish: ~ 500 million years ago

cenozoic era

Name the era:homo sapiens ~200,000 years ago

Organism's role in the environment Aspects: where it lives(habitat), how it obtains nutrition, and amount of space needed(territory)

Niche

A human genetic disorder, in which the body lacks the enzyme necessary to metabolize phenylalanine (an amino acid).

PKU

If the condition is diagnosed early enough, an affected newborn can grow up with normal brain development, but only by eating a special diet low in phenylalanine for the rest of their life.

PKU

Untreated, it can lead to mental retardation.

PKU

the problem is readily detectable within days of birth from a small blood sample, so screening for this disease is done routinely in most industrialized countries.

PKU

Extension of the cytoplasm

Pseudopod

*examples:ferns *reproduction:spores *first plant to be vascular, but still live in moist areas since their sperm must still travel through a film of water to reach the egg yet they can grow much taller *sporophyte is the dominant generation meaning they spend most of their life with diploid cells

Pterophytes

*not all sections of RNA are translated into proteins *before leaving the nucleus transcripts are processed

RNA Processing

*One of the major Kingdom Protista groups: heterotrophic decomposers; fungus-like b/c they get food thru decomposition and absorption and they also reproduce through the use of spores; animal-like b/c they have the ability to get together in colonies and move together as one over the forest floor. *they obtain food through decomposition of organic material * are often considered to be fungus like *protist sometimes cause dogs to be taken to the veterinarian unnecessarily by frantic gardeners

Slime Molds

A different lymphocyte that will come and destroy pathogens and infected body cells

T-cells

Death usually occurs between the ages of 2-5.

Tay-Sach's Disease

Infants with this disease appear to develop normally for the first six months of life. Then, as nerve cells become distended with gangliosides, a relentless deterioration of mental and physical abilities occurs.

Tay-Sach's Disease

The disease occurs when harmful quantities of fatty acid derivative called a ganglioside accumulate in the nerve cells in the brain.

Tay-Sach's Disease

like the word implies it consist of 3 phosphate (PO.4) groups chemically bonded to echoer

The Triphosphate part

Cohesion. In cohesion, water molecules stick to other water molecules. This is made possible by hydrogen bonding.

Water molecules pull each other like beads on a string; as one molecule is evaporated through a stoma, another is pulled up. What property of water is demonstrated here?

ATP is the primary form of life-sustaining chemical energy (produced by mitochondria or chloroplasts)

What is ATP?

that the heat killed the s bacteria did not cause and infection, but that if he co-injected the heat killed s with live r into the mice. That the mice did develop and infection. And he was able to isolate live s strain from the infected mice even though the s strain he put in there was dead

What were Avery's shocking results with the heat killed s bacteria and r bacteria

sex chromosomes

all pairs of chromosomes are = size except

*1st vertebrates to make a transition to land *examples include frogs, toads, and salamanders *amphibian menas double life which reforest to the metamorphosis of a aquatic larvae aka tadpoles into land living adults *amphibians are thought to have evolved from early lobe

amphibians

dipeptide forming a peptide bond through condensation reactions/dehydration synthesis by taking a water molecule away

an amino acid+amino acid= (draw) and then draw the difference when a hydrolysis reaction occurs

the make up or physical structure of an organism

anatomy

cyanobacteria

ancestors of chloroplasts

are punnett squares possible for polygenic traits

*44 out of the 46 chromosomes we have *the non sex chromosomes

autosomes

like reptiles birds cannot afford to dilute their urine. however birds must concentrate their urin not because they live in dry places but because excess water is heavy. thus birds also excrete waste in the form of white powder of uric acid along with their feces.

aves excretion

phagocytosis

cell eating

*T-cells/a type of lymphocyte destroy pathogens and infected body cells -antibodies latch onto antigens immobilizing the thing and marking it for death

cell mediated active immunity response

*all cells have it and it is vital in maintaining homeostasis inside the cell *structure-the fluid mosaic model

cell membrane

plasma membrane

cell membrane aka

*association of two separate stimuli *the ability to associate one stimulus with another also *learning thru association of 2 unrelated stimuli

conditioning aka associative learning

when two bacteria join pili and exchange plasmids. This increases genetic variation and rate of evolution

conjugation

Endoplasmic reticulum

consist of many sheets of connected membrane

skin

derm

a peptide is a bond and a dipeptide is a molecule

difference between a dipeptide and a peptide

the double bonds with fewer hydrogen

difference between a saturated fatty acid and an unsaturated fatty acid

*they both start during different age periods affecting different age ranges *they both have different symptoms like huntington's disease has abnormal, uncontrollable jerking and tay-sach's disease makes people unable to swallow, blind, deaf, and paralysis

differences between Huntington's Disease and Tay-sach's disease

* diffusion does not require energy and when a cell is involved it takes place across a semipermeable membrane *diffusion can only happen if there is a concentration gradient (i there is a difference in the amount of diffusing substance on one side to another) * a substance always diffuses from high concentration to low concentration

diffusion mini review

diffusion will occur naturally if a concentration gradient is established, no energy needed

diffusion will/will not occur naturally if a _____ is established- no energy/ energy required

nucleus

dna is located in the

the ectoderm is the outside surface of the gastrula and its cells become the epidermis aka skin and nervous system

ectoderm

deriving their heat from their environment

ectothermic

ectothermy is not very costly from an energy perspective. endotherms such as mammals sped a large portion of their food energy to maintain body temperature. in contrast ectotherms can survive on 1/10 the amount of food a similar sized mammal would require

ectothermy advantages

*stay within the tissues of the female parent and are fertilized there *a fertilized egg is called a zygote. this grows into an embryo. in two groups of plants the embryos are enclosed and dispersed as seeds inclosed in protective coats

eggs

a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance

element

hydrogen 1 oxygen 2 nitrogen 3 carbon 4

element and # of bonds the typically make

the study of how animals behave in their natural environment

ethology

ethanol

ethyl alcohol aka

stimulates fruit ripening and leaves to drop, balances have many ethylene that they can make fruits around them to ripen

ethylene

*1830: 1 billion *1990: 6 billion *2011: 7 billion *2050: 9-11 billion is estimated

few mile stone years in human population

most fish are ectothermic deriving their heat from their environment. water temperatures don't fluctuate as greatly as temperatures on land

fish body temperature regulation

cytoplasm

fits the cell between the nuclear envelope and plasma membrane

a long whip like structure that moves in a whip like fashion, flagella are usually less numerous on a cell than cilia; many cells have only one or 2

flagellum

gymnospem and angiosperm aka the pollen producing group

for which plant groups is the gametophyte generation microscopic

changes within one gene

gene mutation

the sum total of alleles carried in all members of the population

gene pool

law of independent assortment

genes for different traits are inherited independently

*eubacteria:true bacteria such as e. coli *archaebacteria:ancient bacteria such as thermophiles *protista:amoeba, algae, paramecium *fungi:mushrooms, yeast, mold *plantae:oak tree, moss, fir tree *animalia: dog, chicken, starfish, ant, sponge

give examples of each of the six kingdoms

cholesterol

gives strength to animal cell

*having 2 different alleles *a pair of alleles that are different *Aa

heterozygous

how much NADH is made in break down of pyruvic acids

how much NADH is made in glycolysis

6- it makes 3 per run but it runs twice

how much NADH is made in the krebs cycle

a worldwide effort by scientist in the 1990's to identify the 20,000 to 25,000 human genes and to sequence of all of the DNA found along our 23 chromosomes. The project was completed in 2003. This knowledge can help in the understanding of the genetic causation of disease and to develop new technologies for diagnosing and treating disease.

human genome project

one of its strands was newly synthesized

if you were to examine both strands of a double stranded DNA molecule that was produced via semiconservative replication, what would you find

in the bonds between the phosphates

in what part of atp molecule is the energy stored?

acrocentric

in what position is the centromere located

metacentric

in what position is the centromere located

codominance

inheritance pattern of sickle cell anemia

*they intervene *non-coding RNA sequences that are removed

introns

the ability to make things move

life is al about energy

thylakoid

light reaction occurs primarily inside a

sunlight + pigments + 6 H.2O--> ATP + NADPH + O.2

light reactions equation

a chemical that hardens the plants cell walls. A tree would collapse if it were not for its frame work of lignin-rich cell walls

lignin

did the data support the hypothesis or not, for this you can not say the hypothesis is proven you must say that the hypothesis is supported

make conclusions by analyzing data

*put the DNA/ the desired gene piece into a vector

making a transgenic organism step two

male= XY and female=XX

male and female sex chromosomes

the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages.

metamorphosis

proteins

microfilaments and microtubles are made of

*after the interneuron receives the signal it sends it to the motor neurons *they alow the body to responde to a stimulus *they are connected to the muscles and signals coming down these neurons cause the muscles to move in response.

motor neurons

*genes how affected gene, appearance etc *inherited genes

nature

*both work together to make us ho we are/ aka our phenotypes depend on both

nature vs nurture

movement in one particular direction

net movement

the simplest unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell/ neuron

neuron

the double membrane than enclosed the nucleus

nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane

*protects and surrounds the nucleus and it contains the nuclear pores

nuclear membrane/nuclear envelope

* used by things to get into and out of the nucleus

nuclear pores

some lay eggs

oviparous

attaching a phosphate to something

phosphorylation

the 3rd step in which water splits to replace missing electrons

photolysis

it is a bunch of pigment molecules and it is associated with proteins clustered together

photosystem

1)sexual: most cnidarians are male or female as adults 2)asexual reproduction via budding 3) most cnidarians are hermaphrodites, but both the egg and the sperm are released into the water to increase the chances of cross fertilization

phylum cnidaria reproduction

*the state in which the cell shrinks do to that water leaves the cell *low turgor pressure

plasmolysis

a "chain style" molecule made of the same monomers linked together.

polymer

proteins

polypeptides is another name for

the colonization of "new" areas created by the actions of volcanoes

primary succession

the process through which proteins are made

protein synthesis

*types of sensory neurons that respond to an external stimuliy, these receptors detect different types of sensory information and generate action potentials sent along chains of neurons ultimately to the brain for analysis of the information *mechanical receptors, electromagnetic receptors, chemical receptors

receptor neurons

*detect and relay chemical messages *they allow outer molecules to trigger a response inside a cell *receptor proteins change shape when external substance attach to them and this new shape often allows materials to enter the cell triggering some sort of response.

receptor proteins

*the version of the trait one has if their genotype is tt (2 small letters only) *noted with lowercase letters *they are masked by dominant alleles

recessive

*molecules with a tendency to give away electrons. ex: ammonia, methane, water, and hydrogen gas * no oxygen was present!

reducing gases/ early atmospheric gases

experiment must be performed multiple times or on many subject to be valid this is because there are change events that we cant control and repetition minimizes the likelihood that chance events will alter our results

replication

reptiles are ectothermic as are fish and amphibians.

reptile body temperature regulation

*they absorb water and minerals which are things that wee need a bit of such as magnesium which holds chlorophyl together *the water an minerals are mainly found in soil *the roots also function to anchor the plant and throughout the xylem the roots is able to transport water and dissolved minerals upward to the rest of the plant/ aka to the shoots

roots

a) wind dispersed b)snags and travels on animal furs c)explosive launch: these are the piping flowers of prairie ridge that my mom screamed at. The explosion allowed them to fall far enough from their mom so that they don't fall in their moms shade and so instead they fall in a place were they can grow and get sunlight d)animals will eat the seed and poop it out, allowing the seed/pit to travel the farthest and it comes out in fertilizer/poop e)wind dispersed f) it tools, and floats/washes ashore on other islands

say how each of these things are dispersed: a) dandelion, b) timothy grass, c) oxalis, d) cherry, e) Maple tree, f) coconut

leaf like structures, at first they encase the flower in what is called a bud then under the flower they are able to support the flower. All the sepals make up the calyx

sepals

male red stickleback fish fight aggressively with other male red stickle back fish;scientist determined that the sign stimulus was the color red, thus any red object in view of the make stickle back would cause this aggressive behavior.

sign stimulus example

*the chromosome identical pairs

sister chromatids

*a group of similar looking organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring *genetically homologous *reproductive and makes fertile offspring

species

male reproductive structures; made of two parts the another and the filament; the anthers make pollen which contains the plants sperm

stamens

a branched chain of glucose

starch

Many lineages on the tree of life exhibit stasis, which just means that they don't change much for a long time, as shown in the figure to the right.

stasis

*while the double fertilization changes turns into the seed, the flower's ovary has become a fruit with the seed(s) inside

step five in angiosperm reproduction

*over time after the double fertilization the central cell becomes the endosperm: food tissue for the developing plant and the zygote becomes the embryo, also the ovule has become the seed

step four in angiosperm reproduction

something that causes an organism to respond or react

stimulus

1)they haven true tissues or digestive track; so water moves food/wastes through the body of the sponge;they are not protosomes or deutorosomes 2)cells supported by matrix of spongin and spicules 3)water flows in through the sponge p;ores and out through the osculum 4)they have specialized cells

structure of the phylum porifera

cell wall, dan, cell membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, flagella, cytoskeleton

structures in prokaryotic cells

to build or to make

synthesize

*Domain-this was introduced in the 1990's to emphasize the uniqueness of archaebacteria from other forms of life. The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea, eukarya *Kingdom-the largest taxon if you do not include domain *phylum for animals or division for plants *Class *order *family *genus *species

the seven taxa

ATP and NADPH as energy

things also used int the calvin cycle

monotremes, marsupials, placentals

three groups of mammals

*a trait is a notable feature or quality in a person *each of us has different combination of traits that make us unique

traits

* it occurs in the nucleus *a gene's code is converted from DNA to RNA specifically mRNA *the genes decided to make a copy of itself, so the dna unzipped with the help. *afterwards free floating rna nucleotides (all but t) floated in and base paired alon one

transcription

*swap of pieces *reciprocal translocations = even swap *robertosonian translocation = the long arms join at the centromere and the 2 short arms are lost

translocation

crossing over between different chromosome numbers

translocation

*channels for entry or exit * they help substances cross the cell membrane by channeling or carrying the substances across *facilitated diffusion/active transport

transport proteins

*trisomies *monosomies *triploidy (3n)

types of aneuploidies/nondisjuctions

eubacteria (or true bacteria) and archaebacteria (or archaea) both of which have prokaryotic cells

types of bacteria

point mutation and frameshift mutation

types of gene mutations

*operator *promotoer *3 processing genes in the lac opperon: 3 lactose processing genes

types of genes in the operon

in aves and reptiles the ammonia that accumulates in their bodies is converted into a substance called uric acid. although uric acid is still toxic it forms a solid white powder which can be safely stored in the body without need for dilution

uric acid

a non living particle composed of a nucleic acid core and a protein coat

virus

coenzymes

vitamins=___

*independent separation of the chromosomes: a random process that decides to which side the sisters are pulled to *crossing over

ways meiosis creates genetic variation

1st as sisters then as tetrads

ways the chromosomes pair up in prophase 1

a hole in gel where we place a sample

well

1) it takes energy to get energy- an organism metabolic energy is lost as heat through the environment 2)not all parts of an organism are available as forms of energy for examples: cellulose and bones 3) you cannot receive previously used aka spent energy- only the biomass stored on the organism at the time of consumption 4)some organisms must survive in order to reproduce otherwise the food web collapses

were does the rest of the energy (that is not contained in one trophic level and gets passed down to the next trophic level) go?

osmosis, aquaporins

what are 2 ways water can cross a cell membrane

*it has type A and Type B antigens *it has no antibodies *it can receive A, B, AB, and O blood types/ all

what are the antigens, antibodies, and blood types of blood type AB

CHO and long term energy

what are the elements in lipids and the purpose of lipids

ATP, NADH, and FADH.2

what are the energy molecules created in kreb's cycle

glucose and oxygen

what are the products of photosynthesis

H.2O and it got busted up (turned into 2 electrons, 2 h+, and one oxygen which would later pair up and secrete the leaf)

what are the reactants use in the light reaction

*glycolysis *Bop *kerb's cycle *etc

what are the steps in aerobic respiration

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

what are the three domains

amino group, r group, COOH carboxyl group

what are the three parts of an amino acid (draw the molecule)

lactic acid and alcoholic

what are the two types of fermentation

when you exercise to the max muscle cells face an oxygen shortage, and begin to respire anaerobically. In other words when you work out faster than you can deliver oxygen to muscle cells the kerbs cycle and etc shut down for there is no oxygen to catch the electrons and run the cycles, this creates a jam up. THe bad thing is that lactic acid can create a painful burning feeling in overly active muscle cells.

what causes lactic acid fermentation

tRNA

what contains an anti codon

guard cells

what controls the opening and closing of the stomata

*the instructions encoded in our genes *non genetic/environmental factors can help change/ shape traits

what defines our traits

the shape of the enzyme

what determines which reaction a particular enzyme will catalyze

that if you change a gene's code, then you also change the phenotype/vitamins

what did beadle and tatum's experiments show

female with out the trait

what does this mean on a pedigree

*DNA replication -helicase unzipping -dna polymerase is helping free floating nucleotides in the nucleus match up with their complementery base to reform the double helix structure along the leading strand and forming okazaki fragments on the lagging strand

what does this show

*as an Acetyl CoA enters a krebs cycle it joins up with a 4 carbon molecule and turns into a 6 carbon molecule called citric acid: 2C+4C+=6C

what happens after Acetyl CoA is created

a tRNA worker approached the ribosome because they had the anti codons which paired perfectly with the codon.

what happens after a ribosome gives the chemical shout out in translation

*mRNA

what is #1

an enzyme that breaks apart moltose

what is maltase

*mendel's famous dyhibrid ratio is 9:3:3:1 *out of the 16 possible combinations in a dyhibrid punet square: *9- will be homozygous dominant *6 /3 each - will be heterozygous *1- will be recessive

what is mendel's famous ratio

oxygen, CO.2

what is not used in glycolysis

genera

what is the plural of genus

the backbone

what is this

*it is a typical graph of a polygenic trait *bell curve

what is this a graph of? and label the parts

codominance

what is this an example of: BB= black BW=black and white WW= white

incomplete dominance

what is this an example of:BB=Black BB'= gray B'B'= white

*the miller urey experiment that tried to simulate the earths atmosphere during the precambrian era *formation of amino acids such as glycine, such as ribose / sugar and adenine which is one of the nitrogenous bases used in DNA, RNA, and ATP

what is this and what was the result

point mutation

what kind of mutation is it if a codon supposed to be a g change to a

all organisms perform respiration

what kind of organisms perform respiration

it is in telophase 1)cleavage furrow in animal cells

what stage is this in and label the parts

interphase

what stage of the cell cycle takes the longest

*he proposed that DNA was always in the same order-tetranucleotide=wrong *though all of his discoveries he still thought proteins were better hereditary material

what theory of levene's was incorrect about dna

ions (are transported by using atp... are not permeable due to their charge so they have to be pumped out) such as K+ and Na+

what things are moved through active transport

*redi's experiment where he left two pieces of meat in separate containers. One which he covered and the other which he left uncovered. The covered one got no maggots, and the uncovered one did. *pasteur's experiment in which he had two flasks one with a normal neck and one with an s shaped neck. the s shaped neck got no bacteria and the other one did

what two major experiments disproved spontaneous generations?

reproductive cloning

what type of cloning was dolly produced by

marker proteins

what type of membrane protein are antigens

only o

what types of blood could a person with type O blood receive in a transfusion

people not really exposed to it

what types of patients would be best candidates for therapy using AAV vectors

plant cells

what typically has large central vacuole?

it is precluding molds from producing essential nutrients-slowing or stopping the growth of mold

what was radiation doing to the mold's dna in beadle and tatum's experiments

*sometimes ponds died out and they were forced to land *there was a large food supply on land because plants and insects already lived there *there was shelter no land *there were no predators on land at the time *there is more oxygen in the air than in water

what were the advantages/ selective pressures for the fist amphibians to evolve

it helps energize NADP+

what what is the purpose of photosystem 1

*bonds that link nucleotides (sub units of dna) together

where are the phosphodiester bonds found in dna

from evolution of other bacteria due to the oxygen created by photosynthetic bacteria

where do aerobic bacteria come from

cytoplasm

where does glycolysis happen

nucleus

where does mRNA processing happen

*same thing as asking where in an animal's body are gametes created *in animal's gonads or sex organs

where does meiosis occur in an animal's body

in the stroma of the chloroplast

where does the calvin cycle happen

nucleus

where does transcription take place in a cell

sticky ends are useful for gene splicing (which is used to create genetically modified organisms)

why are sticky en useful

*C.6H.12O.6 + 6 O.2→6 CO.2 + 6 H.2O + 36-38 ATP *glucose is split into two pyruvates in glycolysis, which becomes AcetylCoA, later Citric acid, and eventually a four carbon molecule *oxygen is the last electron acceptor and it combines with 6O.2 to produce water *6 CO.2 are made trough out- 2 in BOP, 4 in Krebs (3 per pyruvate, 1 bop, 2 krebs) *38 atps are made through out- 2 in glycolysis, 2 in Krebs, 34 in ETC

write about both the reactants and products in aerobic respiration

*the heterozygous trait is halfway between the dominant and recessive trait *the heterozygous person has a third version of the trait that is halfway between the other 2 versions of the trait *uses ' and capital letters instead of lower case letters *they blend *example HH=curly HH'= wavy H'H'=straight

incomplete dominance

*growth of multicellular organisms *to repair damage or replace dead cells *reproduction- it is how unicellular organisms reproduce

name three reasons of cel division

after dna unzips itself it helps free floating rna nucleotides float in and base pair along the strand

rna polymerase

*her x-rays *was dead due to cancer *her x-rays helped her get the pictures that helped watson and crick discover the 3d DNA structure *she wasn't credited for her work and she was mistreated

rosalind elsie franklind

*all organisms have two copies of every gene *the copy of genes are not always identical-they usually come in to separate forms *each form is called an allele *some alleles are dominant and others are recessive

rules of heredity

*most fungi are this meaning they decompose dead organic matter to obtain nutrition

saprophytic

*a type of protozoan phyla -moves with pseudopods which are extensions of cytoplasm -example:amoeba -shelled amoeba prtozoan is a type of sardine that makes up the chalky white cliffs of dover which are composed of limestone formed by the little shells of this shelled amoeba organism

sarcodines

when an enzyme is in demand by a substrate but it is busy with another substrate

saturated (enzyme)

tropical grasslands

savannas

all plants are made of cells

schleiden

all animals are made of cells

schwann

*through a process of conjugation with each other, bacteria exchange genes through a matting channel linking the 2 bacteria. Bacterial viruses also carry a similar process in which the virus attaches to the host injecting its genes through the channel tail

scientist in the 1940s discovered that bacteria are able to exchange genetic material with each other. Describe how they do this

the changes that happen in communities after the ecosystem has been DISRUPTED by natural disaster or human actions

secondary succession

*the mRNA rushes to the ribosome

what happens after mRNA leaves the nucleus in translation

the high concentration of H+ in the thylakoid next diffuses outward through a membrane protein called ATP synthase

what happens after the electrons make their final jump in photosynthesis

*the ribosomes gave a chemical shout-out into the cytoplasm after reading the first codon

what happens after the ribosomes attaches to the mRNA in translation

because antibody may attack the red blood cells due to the marker proteins

why might it be dangerous to receive a blood donation from the wrong type

to save energy

why might it be good for a bacterium to be able to turn its genes on and off

*i tis another anaerobic respiration process *it occurs in animal muscle cells when they get overly fatigued

what is lactic acid fermentation and where does it occur

lamarks mechanism for evolutions called the inheritance of acquired traits

what is lamarks mechanism for evolution called?

an enzyme that breaks apart lipids

what is lipase

sister chromatids

what is pulled apart in anaphase 2

break down of pyruvic acids

what is step two in aerobic respirations

inorganic chemicals

what is the energy source for chemosynthesis

adenine, ribose, 3 phosphates

what molecules make up an adenosine triphosphate

golgi apparatus

what organelle does phosphorylation and glycosylation

the industrial melanism involves the peppered moth

what organism does the industrial melanism involve

the electron cloud clashes and the atoms then can share or take electrons creating ions or not

what part of an atom collides with another

anaphase I

what phase is this in

positive geotropism

what plant behavior explains why roots grow down

anthophytes aka angiosperm

what plant gropu is divided into monocot and dicot

pterophytes gymnospem and angiosperm

what plant groups have a vascular tissue

bryophytes

what plant groups is gametocyte dominant

gymnospem and angiosperm

what plant groups produce seeds

cohesion and adhesion play a small role in the movement of water up a plant

what properties of water help the water travel against the pull of water

interphase

what stage is this in

it is in anaphase

what stage is this in

metaphase

what stage is this in

*occurs in yeast and some bacteria *occurs after glycolysis in the cytoplasm

when and where does alcoholic fermentation occur

*it occurs in the muscles when O.2 is in short supply; ex while extreme working out (sprinting) *after glycolysis *in the cytoplasm

when and where does anaerobic respiration occur

in metaphase

when are the chromosomes lined up in the middle of the cell

during prophase

when do the membrane, nucleolus, and the nucleus disappear

a gene is considered to be sex-linked if it is located on the x chromosomes

when is a gene considered to be sex linked traits

to NADP+ which becomes NADPH

where do re-exited electrons go after photosystem 1

inside the thylakoids

where do the light reactions take place

The disease also affects other bodily structures-including the lungs, eyes, spine curvature and weakness in the heart and blood vessels.

Marfan's Syndrome

ribosomes

May exist in free or bound state

1*first dinosaurs and mammals: ~225 million years ago 2*first birds: ~150 million years ago 3*dinosaur extinction: ~65 million years ago

Mesozoic era

instructions on how to build protein

DNA has...

*allow scientists to use the amount of genetic divergence between organisms to extrapolate backwards to estimate dates. *the idea that the longer 2 species have been diverging from a common ancestor the more differences that can be expected in their DNA/proteins *few differences=more closely related; Many differences=more distantly related

Molecular clocks

Root that refers to a fungus

Myc-

*became the naturalist for a trip around the world *he made many interesting observations especially around and in south america *in the remote pacific islands called the galapagos he noticed that the land birds appeared similar to birds on the mainland, but also different, and that each species seemed perfectly designed for the habitat in which it lived... for examples some large tortoises that lived on the islands with no ground plants had a notch in their shells that allowed them to raise their heads to reach plants that where higher up

charles darwin

lipids that keep cell membranes nice and fluid

cholesterol/steroids

nucleus

controles the activities of the cell

Breezy conditions. Breezy conditions would increase the rate of evaporation of water from the surface of the leaves, lowering the water potential, and resulting in more rapid evaporation. However, if the plant is subjected to very high wind movement, the stomata may actually close, which prevents water loss.

Which condition would result in the higher rate of transpiration: breezy conditions or still air?

creating charts, tables, and graphs for easy analysis

record and organize your data

*excluding other members of the same species from an area; allows animals to minimize competition for food, shelter, mates, etc (cheetah) *using aggressive behaviors to maintain an exclusive breeding and feeding ground *part of social behaviors which are part of instinct

territoriality

consume (at least 1) secondary consumer

tertiary consumer (3rd level consumer)

they function in cell division by helping to divide the cell's DNA so that each mew cell will get a full set of instructions.

what do centrioles do

almost all chemical reactions in our body our helped along by enzymes

what do enzymes do to our body

genes code for proteins

what do genes code for?

*a fertilized egg *first cell of a new organism *they are created sexually through the process of fertilization shown below

zygote

2 amino acids linked together

dipeptide

RiboNucleicAcid a molecule that copies DNA and helps cells build their proteins.

rna

*only guys have it *no male carriers

how can you tell if a pedigree is sex linked

paired

diplo-

male

what do any of these mean on a pedigree

Is huntington's disease dominant or recessive

Dominant

DNA is transcribed into proteins which code for amino acids which form proteins

DNA is transcribed into _____ which code for _____ which form proteins

they are added to 3 RuBP's (a 5 carbon molecule) creating a new 6 carbon molecule

How are 3 CO.2 used in the calvin cycle

a nucleotide

What is the polymer of ATP

structure, amino acids, CHONS

What is the purpose of proteins, what are they made out of, what are their elements

The answer to this question depends somewhat on the type of plant and the situation for which it is adapted. In general, however, unless a plant is specially adapted for hot conditions, the rate of transpiration will drop in a hot environment because heat stress may cause the stomata to close, which conserves water. This is why you do not want to shine a 100-watt light bulb directly on your experimental plant!

Which condition would result in the higher rate of transpiration: hot environment or warm environment?

Dry environment. A dry environment would result in the higher rate of transpiration because the water potential in the surrounding air would be lowest, resulting in more rapid evaporation.

Which condition would result in the higher rate of transpiration: humid environment or dry environment?

genes control enzymes wich control the cell cycle

____ control _____ which control ______

human genome project

if it attaches to the operator it does not allow RNA polymerase to attach to the promoter but if it does attach to the promoter because it has ben deactivated/and its shape has changed due to the inactivation then the RNA polymerase can attach to the operon and form 3 enzymes/proteins ... one per the processing genes

active repressor protein

the place where a chemical reaction occurs/ where the substance binds to the enzyme

active site

a waterproof docent dry out egg that provides nourishment for the embryo by the time that organism hatches it looks like a tiny adult, shell is leathery

amniotic egg

*needs to have decent of genetic inheritance so trees loosing leaves is not biological evolution *decent with modification

biological evolution

*represents the total amount of living tissue available within each trophic level of a food chain *represents the amount of potential food available

biomass pyramid

*a group with ecosystems with similar climate =a biome *large geographical areas that are characterized by a group of ecosystems in an area of similar climate.

biome

NO.3-→N.2

denitrification in the nitrogen cycle

fermentation

anaerobic respiration aka _____

reactants

another name for substrates

genes are pieces of DNA that determine traits

gene

* has 2 chambers *fish and larval amphibians such as tadpoles have this heart *not applicable * single loop

*name number of chambers (atria/ventrices) *who has this heart *O.2 and Non O.2 blood mixes? *single loop or double loop circulatory system

* has 3 chambers *adult amphibians have this heart *a lot * double loop

*name number of chambers (atria/ventrices) *who has this heart *O.2 and Non O.2 blood mixes? *single loop or double loop circulatory system

* has 3 chambers *most reptiles have this heart *some blood mixes *double loop

*name number of chambers (atria/ventrices) *who has this heart *O.2 and Non O.2 blood mixes? *single loop or double loop circulatory system

* has 4 chambers *mammals, birds, and crocodilians have this heart *no blood mixes * double loop

*name number of chambers (atria/ventrices) *who has this heart *O.2 and Non O.2 blood mixes? *single loop or double loop circulatory system

one fat molecule and it is formed through a dehydration synthesis/condensation reaction by taking a water molecule away

1 glycerol molecule+3 fatty acids = (draw) and then draw the difference when a hydrolysis reaction occurs

*transcription and translation

2 steps to make a protein

*the spindle fibers shorten pulling the sister chromatids. *the centromeres split as the sister chromatids are pulled away from each other towards opposite sides of the cells

2 things that happen in anaphase

*spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of chromosomes aka sister chromatids *the chromosomes are lined up around the middle/ equator of a cell

2 things that happen in metaphase

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

3 types of carbohydrates

incomplete dominance

3 versions of the trait are long tail, medium tail and short tail

*the duplicated chromatin now coils up into chromosomes and pairs with its identical copy aka it makes sister chromatids and they are joined by a centromere *the nuclear membrane and nucleus disappear *centrioles, which are cylindrical structures made out of microtubules, begin to move towards the opposite ends of the cell *spindle fivers, a network of microtubules, begin to form between the centrioles and smaller fibers called asters from behind the centrioles

4 things that happen in prophase

*the spindle breaks down because its no longer needed *chromosomes begin to uncoil aka turn back into chromatin *2 new nuclei begin to form around the 2 groups of chromatin *cytokinesis occurs aka the cells begin to divide into 2 cells -animal cells cleavage furrow -plant cells a cell plate forms along the equator of a cell

4 things that happen in telophase

Sickle-Cell Anemia

A co-dominant disease. In many forms of this disease the red blood cells change into a sickle shape upon deoxygenation because of abnormal hemoglobin. This process damages the red blood cell membrane, and can cause the cells to become stuck in blood vessels. This also deprives the downstream tissues of oxygen (anemia). The disease is chronic and lifelong. Individuals are most often well, but their lives are punctuated by periodic painful attacks. Lifespan is often shortened with suffered living an average of 40 years. Sickle-cell disease occurs more commonly in people (or their descendants) from parts of the world, such as sub-Saharan Africa, where malaria is or was common.

Cystic Fibrosis

A common hereditary disease that affects the entire body, causing progressive disability and early death. Difficulty breathing is the most common symptom and results from frequent lung infections due to abnormal production of thick mucus. Thick pancreatic secretions also create digestive problems.

aneuploidy

A condition where one has a strange number of chromosomes

Marfan's Syndrome

A connective tissue disorder characterized by unusually long limbs and spidery fingers. The disease also affects other bodily structures-including the lungs, eyes, spine curvature and weakness in the heart and blood vessels.

PKU

A human genetic disorder, in which the body lacks the enzyme necessary to metabolize phenylalanine (an amino acid). Untreated, it can lead to mental retardation. the problem is readily detectable within days of birth from a small blood sample, so screening for phenylketonuria (PKU) is done routinely in most industrialized countries. If the condition is diagnosed early enough, an affected newborn can grow up with normal brain development, but only by eating a special diet low in phenylalanine for the rest of their life.

*the energy produced is stored as several energy products such as 2ATP, 6NADH, and 2FADH.2 *4 CO.2 are also produced and released into the air

After the citric acid created from Acetyl CoA undergoes reactions and releases its remaining and stored energy

*examples:flowers, trees, oak trees, dandelions, lilies, roses, grasses *reproduction:angiosperms are plants with flowers that develop seeds inside of a structure known as a fruit for reproduction *vascular *flowering plants *sporophyte is the dominant generation meaning they spend most of their life with diploid cells *are divided into monocots and dicots *angiosperms: sperm inside pollen grains travels to pistil through insects and other animal pollinators, the animals will do this because the smell of color attracts them to the flower since they know that these things are sign of food either nectar or some pollen for themselves (if a flower is pretty the flower will me animal pollinated if flower is ugly it will be wind pollinated)

Angiosperms

*Organisms were first classified by Aristotle around 350 BC, and his system taught us a great deal about the diversity and structure of organisms *his system was used for over one thousand years, however as technology and knowledge advanced it became obvious that a new system was needed *It consisted on a two kingdom system in which Aristotle grouped all life as either plant or animal -Aristotle's sub groups under Animals were Air, Water, Land. -Aristotle's sub groups for plans were Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees *founder of early taxonomy; grouped all life as either plant or animal in a 2-kingdom system (his subgroups were "air," "water," and "land" under Animals. Under Plants, he had "herbs," "shrubs," and "trees."

Aristotle and his system/ early taxonomy

a type of WBC that produces specific antibodies against foreign antigens

B-cells

Rod like shape of bacteria

Bacillus

*bacteria: -scientist have genetically engineered bacteria to enhance the ability to metabolize oil -this could be used to clean up oil spills

Bacterial examples of GMO / Genetic Engineering

*examples: mosses and liverworts *reproduction: spores *non vascular meaning they have no xylem or phloem and they are limited to moist areas *gametophyte: the dominant generation meaning they spend most of their life with haploid cells *bryophytes are the most limited land plants limited to moist areas since the sperm must travel through a trim of water to reach the egg

Bryophytes

*this swede is the father of modern taxonomy that we use today *his system involved 6 kingdoms divided into phyla or divisions, and those into classes, which are divided into order, then families, genera and finally species -> descend through the taxa each category includes less organisms with more characteristics in common *He developed the system of binomial nomenclature whereby each organism is given a scientific name-this means that each name is made of two words aka a binomial *father of modern taxonomy; developed the system of binomial nomenclature

Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778 and his system

1) Chemical work: such as building a large molecule (dehydration synthesis to create proteins) 2)mechanical work: such as moving muscle proteins (muscle proteins like actin and myosin pulling on each other causes muscle contractions) 3)active transport: such as pumping ions across a membrane through active transport proteins 4)dehydration synthesis/ synthesis of proteins 5)digesting carbs and lipids/ hydrolysis

Cellular work that requires ATP

*A=no gnath=jaw *the most primitive vertebrates;examples hagfish and lampreys *lampreys have simple vertebrae but hagfish retain a true notochord through life like invertebrate chordates *lacks paired appendages like fins so they are not strong swimmers *lampreys are parasitic: feeding by attaching mouths to other fish and sucking their blood. Hagfish tend to be scavengers feeding off dead/dying fish. Their mouths are round and sucker like typically with rows of teeth that allow it to attach and hold on

Class Agnatha

*Chondr=cartilage ichthyes=fish *examples include sharks and rays *they have a haw but still a cartilaginous skeleton *notochord is replaced y vertebrae as an adult *Reproduction -practive internal fertilization:eggs and sperm combine inside females body -some lay eggs aka oviparous -some keep their eggs inside their body and bear live young ovoviviparous *strong sense of smell: detecting chemicals in the water- sharks can detect one drop of blood in 35 gallons of water *sharks have a lateral line on their sides which is a sensory organ that detects vibration in the water *evolution of jaws allowed them to eat bigger harder food thus allowing these fish to be larger;most are carnivores *paired pectoral fins evolved->gave greater control over movement

Class Chondrichthyes

grouping together objects based on similarities

Classification

*fossil fuels→CO.2 *we use fossil fuels for combustion since they are high energy forms of carbon so we can burn them and release that energy *oil, natural gas, coal *these forms of carbon were formed when autrotrophs millions of years ago , whom instead of being decomposed were rapidly buried and compressed into the earth. millions of years of heat and pressure turned these organisms into the fossil fuels were use for most of our energy needs. since these are made of carbon it shouldn't be surprising that combustion of fossil fuels releases CO.2. Humans have burnt such a large quantities of fossil fuels in the last 150 years that we are throwing the carbon cycle out of balance and looting too much CO.2 into the atmosphere and massive deforestation makes this problem worse →global warming and overall climate change

Combustion of Fossil Fuels in the carbon cycle

is the struggle by organisms for resources and it results from overlapping niches

Competition

*An inheritance that follows these rules *one allele completely masks another allele -TT=Dominant trait -Tt=Dominant trait -tt= recessive trait

Complete Dominance

A common hereditary disease that affects the entire body, causing progressive disability and early death

Cystic Fibrosis

Difficulty breathing is the most common symptom and results from frequent lung infections due to abnormal production of thick mucus

Cystic Fibrosis

Thick pancreatic secretions also create digestive problems.

Cystic Fibrosis

1) extract DNA from crime scene evidence which could be hair, blood cells etc. And also extract DNA from suspects 2)amplify your sample of the crime scene evidence by using polymer ace chain reaction aka PCR which is a process that makes millions of copies of your DNA samples 3) cut the DNA into pieces with restriction Enzymes 4) then separate the pieces by size by pulling them through a gel by the process of gel electrophoresis in which short pieces travel faster than longer fragments 5) create a picture where the DNA fragments stopped in the gels and compare: the matching DNA fingerprints indicate DNA from the same person. *DNA finger prints can also be used to determine hereditary DNA things *a method of identifying an individual based on their DNA sequence using electrophoresis and proves; most commonly used to present crime scene evidence, determine paternity, and help diagnose genetic disorders

DNA finger printing

*in dna replication *after helicase unzips and untwist DNA polymerase helps attach free floating nucleotides match up with their complementery base to reform the double helix structure *Dna polymerase works in only one direction along a dna strand.

DNA polymerase

*C.6H.12O.6→CO.2 *decomposition is respiration formed by decomposers

Decomposition in the carbon cycle

prokaryotes do not have a membrane bound organelles while eukaryotes do. *eukaryotes have a nucleus *eukaryotes are larger *only organism formed from prokaryotic cells are bacteria

Difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

*One of the major algae divisions; have 2 flagella -one moves them forwards and the other makes them spin-. some secrete dangerous toxins - "red tides"; ex: Pfiesteria *caused fish kills in NC *can also be mixotrophic

Dinoflagellates

*the idea that eukaryotic cells formed a mutualistic relationship between different types of prokaryotic cells. Evidence: mitochondria and chloroplast both obtain their own circular DNA and ribosomes similar to prokaryotes, mitochondria end chloroplast reproduce y binary fission independently of the cell, double membrane on mitochondria and chloroplast *explains the origin of the first eukaryotic cells about 1.5 b.y.a.

Endosymbiotic theory

*it deals with the different ways our genes are regulated *the epigenome consist of molecular systems that can turn on/off and regulated gene expression -the signals that can turn the genes on or off can be instigated through direct contact, hormonal signals, or by signals nearby *all cells have the same DNA as a result of mitosis, but different genes turn on/off in different cells creating different cell types that is why this epigenetics important in cell differentiation in embryological development -epigenetic marks are used to separate different types of stem cells from each other by turning genes on/off *epigenes can also change during ones lifetime due to exposure to different environments *epigenetic's gene switches may be inheritable *it is not just the DNA that is changed but it is also the things surrounding the DNA -controls the expression of genes

Epigenetics

C.6H.12O.6→ 2 ethanol + 2 CO.2 + 2ATP

Equation for Anaerobic Respiration-Alchoholic Fermentation

C.6H.12O.6→ 2lactic acid + 2ATP

Equation for anaerobic respiration-lactic acid fermentation

*One of the major algae divisions; mixotrophic; have flagellum and a red eye spot to move *they perform photosynthesis like a plant but it has a flagellum and moves around and can ingest food like a protozoan therefore it is said to be mixotrophic

Euglenophytes aka Euglena

Eukaryotic DNA normally exist as a double stranded molecule that is shaped in a double helix

Eukaryotic DNA normally exist as a ______- stranded molecule that is shaped in a _________ ______

Fungi secrete enzymes onto their food, digest it outside their bodies, and then absorb in the organic material

Extracellular digestion

it is in interphase and it is normal metabolic activity; the cell grows, makes protein, acquires and uses energy, etc

G1 phase

*Imagine that in one generation, two brown beetles happened to have four offspring survive to reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone stepped on them and had no offspring. The next generation would have a few more brown beetles than the previous generation — but just by chance. These chance changes from generation to generation are known as genetic drift. *In each generation, some individuals may, just by chance, leave behind a few more descendents (and genes, of course!) than other individuals. The genes of the next generation will be the genes of the "lucky" individuals, not necessarily the healthier or "better" individuals

Genetic drift

1) isolating/ removing the desired gene aka piece of DNA by using restriction enzymes 2) removing the plasmid from the bacterial cell 3) cleaving the plasmid and the gene for HGH 4) splicing the human gene into plasmid 5) form a recombinant plasmid 6) put the recombinant plasmid back into the bacteria 7) the bacteria will produce the desired protein (HGH)

Genetic engineering steps for making a transgenic Bacteria

it functions in the acceptance packaging and delivery of cell proteins, proteins from the rough ER get sent to the G.A. for further processing and packaging. The G.A. also consist of a series of membranes but they are not connected.

Golgi Apparatus

*examples:conifers such as pine trees, furs, spruce trees *reproduces by using seeds on female cones. Male cones produce pollen which encases the plants sperm, and they have needle like leaves: two characteristics of gymnosperms *vascular *sporophyte is the dominant generation meaning they spend most of their life with diploid cells *in gymnosperms the gametophyte generation is so small it occurs only within a pollen grain (male) and within the scales of the female cone (female) *means naked seeds *sperm inside pollen grains is loan by the wind to the female cones which have the eggs, gymnosperms are the first plants to have pollen grains-> allows gymnosperms to survive in dry and harsh climates

Gymnosperms

*states that characteristics that one acquired during a lifetime could be passed down to the next generation. Thus if you work aug and become really strong then your kids will be born with a propensity toward strength. -can be disproved by the fact that ancestors of giraffes had a short neck, but now giraffs got a long neck or that if your finger is cut off your child won't be born with a missing finger -be all you van be/ become the best at what you are/ improve or be better/ inner desire to strive -use it or loose it/ if you have a part of you that is useful it will get bigger and vise versa/dissuse -inheritance of acquired characteristics/ if you accrue a trait you can pass it on to your kids -lamark thinks it comes from within *Darwin says that changes come from the environment -in nature organisms tend to produce more offspring than will survive: sea turtles -as populations grow larger there is increased competition for resources such as food: if a pack of wolf grows then there will be more competition for deers and other animals -through sexual reproduction, no 2 offspring are identical there is always genetic variation within a population: humans are made with genetic variation through crossing over and independent separation of the chromosomes etc -due to these variations, some organisms within a population are better able to survive and these will pass on their genes to their offspring; Natural selection -individuals equipped with traits that allow them to cope efficiently with the local environment leave more offspring than individuals with less adaptive traits. As a result certain heritable variations become more common in the succeeding generations and thus the population evolves over time

How does lanark's proposed mechanism for evolution differ from darwin's ideas

because the type A blood anti B antibodies wold attack the foreign B-blood resulting in clumps in the blood stream, hindering/ slowing down blood flow

If you have type a blood why would it be dangerous to receive a transfusion of type B blood

*are pluripotent *can be taken from bone marrow *adult cells not undifferentiated *this is the turning back of differentiated cells *created by turning on or by introducing stem cell genes, or by using chemicals *they have potential as therapy since they can become any cell, and it is less expensive than Embryonic Stem cells *results of reprogramming IP stem cells aren't perfect yet this is because there are distinctive methyl tags on IP stem cells that are not on other stem cells and as a result IP stem cells are not totally the same as stem cells

Induced pluripotent stem cells aka IPSC

plants use this vacuole to store various materials this vacuole is also important to maintaining a plant's structure for when full they help the plant stay firm

Large central vacuole

*symbiotic associations b/w a fungus and a photosynthetic organism such as algae or cyanobacteria ; fungi = usually ascomycetes and a few are basidiomycetes; photosynthetic organism = green alga, cyanobacterium, or both; extremely resistant to drought and cold; often first organisms to enter barren environments *the fungus provides the alga with both water, minerals and a place to live *in return the algae provides the fungus food through photosynthesis *since it involves both a heterotroph and an outotroph lichens can live in many areas other organisms cannot such as a bare rock-> called pioneer species *they help break down rock into soil thereby creating habitat for plants

Lichen

*Some individuals from a population of brown beetles might have joined a population of green beetles. That would make genes for brown coloration more frequent in the green beetle population than they were before the brown beetles migrated into it. *Gene flow — also called migration — is any movement of genes from one population to another. Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries. If genes are carried to a population where those genes previously did not exist, gene flow can be a very important source of genetic variation. In the graphic below, the gene for brown coloration moves from one population to another.

Migration/gene flow

A mutation could cause parents with genes for bright green coloration to have offspring with a gene for brown coloration. That would make genes for brown coloration more frequent in the population than they were before the mutation.

Mutation

The body of a fungi; a tangled mass of threadlike filaments that grows in a substrate where the food is; a tangled mass made out of hyphae

Mycelium

*mutualistic relationship between plant roots and fungi; 80% of all plant species form this with fungi; essential for the growth of many plants *plant provides fungus with food *in return the fungus wraps itself around the roots of the plant creating a larger surface area for the absorption of water and nutrients

Mycorrhizae

*sodium ions that rush into the cell during an action potential, a resting neuron has a negative charge but when all the sodium rushes in the charge inside changes to positive. this positive charge is sent along the neuron as the sodium rushes inward through proteins down the length of the neuron like a wave

Na+

paleozoic era

Name the era: cambrian explosion of invertebrate life: ~545 million years ago

cenozoic era

Name the era: mammals dominate major land niches (whole area)

the precambrian era

Name the era: oldest evidence o life was prokaryotic: between 3.5 and 4 billion years ago

paleozoic era

Name the era:arthropods such as trilobites appear

the precambrian era

Name the era:cyanobacteria and the start of photosynthesis > 2.5 billion years ago: first autotrophs are not plants

mesozoic era

Name the era:dinosaur extinction: ~65 million years ago

the precambrian era

Name the era:first autotrophs

mesozoic era

Name the era:first birds: ~150 million years ago

mesozoic era

Name the era:first dinosaurs and mammals: ~225 million years ago

the precambrian era

Name the era:first evidence o eukaryotic cells about 1.5 billion years ago Endosymbiotic Theory

cenozoic era

Name the era:first hominid ~7 million years ago

paleozoic era

Name the era:first land animals which are insects and amphibians: ~400 million years ago

paleozoic era

Name the era:first land plants ~450 million years ago

the precambrian era

Name the era:first multicellular life forms such as sponges and jelly fish ~700 million years ago

molecules made of atoms of Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous. Nucleic acids are complex polymers (chains) of smaller molecules called nucleotides

Nucleic acids

the citrate quickly becomes transformed into something else and undergoes a bunch of further REACTIONS to release stored and remaining energy

Once the Acetyl CoA joins up with a 4 carbon molecule and becomes citric acid

*To perform this reaction you need a DNA that has bee extracted from cells -this DNA can come from skin cells, saliva, or hair follicles *it uses: buffers->to keep the PH the same, primers->to tell the polymerase were to begin copying (will either attach to the first or the 2nd site), polymerase enzymes, and free nucleotides *PRC works by -denaturation: heat is used to separate two strands of the DNA to be copied (no helicace) -anneling: the primers are short sections of DNA with a specific base sequence complementary to a portion of the DNA to be copied. The primers anneal or bid to these portions, this is called hybridization. This marks the starting point for replication -Extension/Elongation: DNA polymerase replicates the DNA by riding along the unpaired strands using free nucleotides to create the missing strands -repeat many times *a laboratory method of making numerous copies of DNA from a very small amount

PCR aka polymerase chain reaction

*the 1st colonizers in succession *as pioneer species grow and fill the area they actually change the habitant and make it more suitable for other species as one group of species replaces the former, the ecosystem is undergoing suvvesion

Pioneer organisms

first lichens + mosses then grasses/small plants

Pioneer sp. in Primary Succession:

grasses + small plants

Pioneer sp. in Secondary Succession:

The correct sequence is c,d,a,b. Recall that water moves from regions of higher water potential to regions of lower water potential. Therefore, the region of lowest water potential is at the farthest end of the transpiration pathway.

Place the following in order (list the letters), from highest water potential to lowest water potential, under normal conditions. a. Mesophyll of leaves b. Outside air around leaf c. Spaces around roots d. Inside the xylem vessels

the number os sets of DNA that are present in an organism's cells

Ploidy

*these traits are controlled by the influence of 2 or more gene pairs (not just one gene pair) *organisms have a range of variation with most individuals having a middle version of the trait *several gene pairs control a trait *wwYyUUbbRr

Polygenic inheritance

1. A big fire 2. Bulldozing an area 3. Farmers abandoning their fields

Possible causes of secondary succession:

*not very specific *many animals *the name did not say much about the organism trying to be classified *many types of organisms can exist under different names

Problems with using Common Names

*pros: -some scientist say its safe -lower price for food -increased farmer safety due to the reduction of pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and other harmful chemicals -it could lead to end world hunger -more food -it could be engineered to help deliver scarce but necessary vitamins such as the golden rice does -it is faster to produce crops with desired traits than by doing selective breeding (and non gmo selectively bread crops can end up tasting bad or looking weird when cooked) *Cons: -some scents don't rust it because it involves combining genome -could accidentally create toxic plants -it is not trusted -it can and has been leading to pest resistance -creating GMO's is a chemical baked approach rather than a knowledge based approach (selective breeding) -it is looked down upon because it tryes to better God's creation -it involvers the ethical issue that people want to try to act like God and this is wrong .

Pros and cons of GMOS

*ribonucleic acid its just like DNA except *its single stranded *it has a different sugar:ribose instead of deoxy ribose *it has a different nitrogen base uracil/U instead of thymine/T *nitrogen bases in RNA are A,G,C, and U

RNA

relies on half-life decay of radioactive elements to allow scientists to date rocks and materials directly.

Radiometric dating

Is Cystic Fibrosis dominant or recessive

Recessive

Is PKU dominant or recessive

Recessive

Is Sickle-Cell Anemia dominant or recessive

Recessive

Is Tay-Sach's Disease dominant or recessive

Recessive

*One of the major algae divisions; red pigment lets them live / photosynthesize at greater depths * nori used in sushi, agar *bacteria growth medium, and carrageenan - thickener in ice cream

Red Algae

*Sex can introduce new gene combinations into a population and is an important source of genetic variation. * You probably know from experience that siblings are not genetically identical to their parents or to each other (except, of course, for identical twins). That's because when organisms reproduce sexually, some genetic "shuffling" occurs, bringing together new combinations of genes. *This shuffling is important for evolution because it can introduce new combinations of genes every generation. However, it can also break up "good" combinations of genes.

Sex and genetic shuffling

In many forms of this disease the red blood cells change into a sickle shape upon deoxygenation because of abnormal hemoglobin. This process damages the red blood cell membrane, and can cause the cells to become stuck in blood vessels

Sickle-Cell Anemia

is just the endoplasmic reticulum minus the ribosomes since smooth E.R. doesn't contain ribosomes it functions primarily in the synthesis of lipids.

Smooth E.R.

Reproductive body of fungi; produces spores

Sporangium

Main reproductive structure of fungi; displaced; if they land in a friendly environment, each of these will begin to germinate new hyphae.

Spores

1) virus not retrovirus 2) the good gene which is ADA- this is the gene she can't make 3) splice/insert the working ADA gene into the virus 4)removed bone marrow which has stem cells 5)the virus injects/infects the good gene in her stem cells 6)put the newly engineered bone marrow stem cells turned into /created healthy and robust t cells *this was done on Ashy

Steps to SCID/ADA deficiency gene therapy

he child becomes blind, deaf, and unable to swallow. Muscles begin to atrophy and paralysis sets in.

Tay-Sach's Disease

Light conditions would generally result in the higher rate of transpiration. Stomata are generally open in the light, and solar energy increases evaporation.

Which condition would result in the higher rate of transpiration: light or dark?

coenzyme

a helpers helper

PCR aka polymerase chain reaction

a laboratory method of making numerous copies of DNA from a very small amount

gel electrophoresis

a standard technique that separates molecules such as DNA on the basis of size by using electricity to separate pieces within a gel matrix known as agarose gel. Since each individual has unique DNA this technology allows you to visualize differences based on how DNA separates within the gel.

determining the absolute age of a fossil

absolute dating

*NH.4+ and/or NO.3-→ protein/amino acids and nucleic acids aka RNA and DNA

absorption and assimilation by plants in the nitrogen cycle

c +g and a+t or a+u for RNA

according to base pairing rules what pairs with what

acid: dissociates to release hydrogen ions H+ and basic: dissociates to release hydroxide ions

acid vs base

anmals that have 3 cell layers with a digestive tract but no body cavity. Such as a flat worm

acoelomates

*Occurs when a nerve signal travels through a neuron 1)Na+ rapidly diffuses inside neuron which causes a reverse polarity 2)K+ diffuses rapidly outside the neuron re establishing polarity 3)active transport called the sodium potassium pump maintain the re established resting potential with more Na+ out and K+ in *all of this occurs like a wave *constant stimulation won't allow them to "sit back down"/ reset itself so you feel numb *when a neuron does receive a signal it becomes an electrical signal involving the movement of ions in and out of the neuron.

action potential

*if a cell needs to import or export a large amount of a particular substance *active transport allows cells to move substances against their concentration gradients-from low to high *it does require energy/uses atp *the movement of materials in or out of the cell against the concentration gradient *low to high *special transport proteins act as pumps *moves ions or other molecules

active transport

low to high or high to low and it does use energy (it is used for the passage of ions)

active transport goes from ___ and it does/does not ____

*any characteristic either structural or behavioral that aids and organisms chance of survival; a chance brought during evolution by the process of natural selection *positive mutations *camouflage, mimicry, warning coloration, territoriality *provides some improved function *behavior, protein, anatomical feature, body temp *adaptations are well fitted to their function and are produced by natural selection

adaptation

*feathers and wings-provide lift feathers are also beneficial for insulation *large sternum aka breastbone for the attachment of a powerful wing/breast muscles *4 chambered heart for efficient circulation *hollow bones makes them lighter *no theeth makes them lighter. instad birds have a muscular sac in their esophagus called a gizzard that mashes the food. birds will swallow small stones and store them in their gizzards to help with this mechanical digestion. then when it is time to fly long distances they can regurgitate the stones *beak instead of jaw-beaks are lighter than jaw bones *air sacs attached to the lungs. this allows the birds to get oxygen when they inhale and exhale twice as much oxygen from each breath *internal testes located under air sass-external testes would cause balance problems for birds in flight. however sperm production must be done at a temperature cooler than body temperature, birds have solved this problem by having testes located next to their air sacs. the cool air form the air sacs keeps the testes slightly at a cooler temperature. also female birds only have one ovary both gonads shrink when birds are not breeding

adaptations for flight in aves

*Induced pluripotent stem cells aka IPSC -are pluripotent -can be taken from bone marrow -adult cells not undifferentiated -this is the turning back of differentiated cells -created by turning on or by introducing stem cell genes, or by using chemicals *somatic stem cells -multipotent -are in each of us, such as the stem cells in the bone marrow->can turn into blood cells -they are in teeth, heart, gut, bones, blood, blood vessels, and muscles -special considerations: they exist in low abundance in the body

adult stem cells

*pros -they are good at targeting and entering cells -some target specific cell types -they can be modified so that they can't replicate and destroy cells *cons -they can carry a limited amount of genetic material, so some genes are to big to fit into some viruses -they can cause immune responses in patients (patients could get sick, or the immune system could block the virus from delivering the gene/it may kill the cells once the gene has been delivered) -can lead to inflammation

advantages and drawbacks of viral vectors

it allows the animal to control their body temperature internally through their metabolism. this is necesarry because their chemical reactions inside the body are very sensitive to temperature, if it gets too cold the entire system slows down... can you imagine a bird flying at a high altitude *crash*. allows animals to inhabit anywhere including cold regions

advantages of endothermic

excited electrons are stripped from chlorophyll and transferred to the first electron transport chain (ETC) protein

after light hits photosystem 2

it repeats

after the calvin cycle is completed once

*golden rice: -scientist genetically engineered rice planes with a gene to produce beta-carotene and vitamin A -It would help people in developing countries get vitamin A-> and as a result the people could avoid going blind *salmon: -scientist genetically engineered genes from to fish into salmon that increase growth rate x3 -It would help the salmon get to the market faster -> this would make more money *soy beans: -scientist genetically engineered soy beans with a protein that makes them resistant to herbicides -as a result farmers can kill weeds with herbicides with out damaging the soybeans *plants: -scientist genetically engineered plant genes in order to control sodium ions -This would allow scientist to be planted and harvested in salty areas

agricultural examples of GMO/Genetic Engineering

when a bird inhales some air goes to the lungs and some to the air sacs. when the bird exhales, stored air in the air sacs travels to the lungs. in this way birds can receive oxygen when they inhale and exhale

air sacs

*polination: transferring of pollen from the anther which is a make part to the top of the stigma where the pistil is which is the female part. Wind, water or animals can help pollinate *the pollen grain from germination germinates and grows a pollen tube down thru the pistil in order to get sperm and egg close together. The pollen tube will stop growing when it reaches the ovules. *two sperm are sent down to one of the ovary's ovules, one sperm fertilizes the eggs to create a zygote and the other sperm fertilizes the diploid central cell 1n+2n=3n *over time after the double fertilization the central cell becomes the endosperm: food tissue for the developing plant and the zygote becomes the embryo, also the ovule has become the seed *while the double fertilization changes turns into the seed, the flower's ovary has become a fruit with the seed(s) inside *the seeds are released from the fruit and germination aka beginning to grow occurs

all of the steps in angiosperm reproduction

everything needs fuel and uses that fuel to do the things it needs to do in order to live and survive

all organisms must acquire and use energy

this is regulating ones internal to keep conditions suitable for life (healthy so you don't die)

all organisms use energy to maintain homeostasis

collects waste and aids in gas exchange in an amniotic egg

allantois

*2 of them *alternative forms of the sane gene *a member of a series of genes that occupy a specific position on a specific chromosome *set of genetic information

allele

*there are 3 alleles for blood type *I^A, I^B, i *each individual has a pair of those alleles though there are 3 available

alleles in blood type

amphibians are ectothermic-deriving their heat from their environment. since temperatures on land can fluctuate greatly adult amphibians have evolved many behavior to control their body temperature

amphibian body temperature regulation

amphibian circulation changes as the organism changes from its aquatic stage to its terrestrial stage. In the aquatic stage the amphibian has two chambered heart and a single loop circulatory system like that of the fish. however as an adult amphibians develop a three chambered heart. Attached to this heart is a double loop circulatory system one loop is for exchanging gases with the environment through respiratory organs such as lungs skin etc. the second loop carries blood to the bodes organs for gas exchange. the three chambered heart lacks some efficiency of the other tetrapod hearts but pumps much stronger and faster than the 2 chambered heart. it is better suited to providing the high level of energy required to live on land

amphibian circulation

most amphibians are not particularly concerned with water loss as larvae. for this reason many amphibians excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammonia in the larval stage. as a cults most amphibians convert highly toxic ammonia to urea a less toxic form that can be stored easier and requires less water to excrete.

amphibian excretion

most amphibians undergo metamorphosis. thus they are born in the water and have a completely aquatic stage like tadpoles as they grow however they eventually develop adaptations that allow them to live on land like limbs lungs ribs better circulation etc as an adult. as such there are basically two stages fro feeding in their aquatic stage most amphibians are herbivores eating algae and plant material. as adults most amphibians adapt a carnivorous lifestyle primarily feeding on insects

amphibian feeding

fertilization is external in almost all amphibians. eggs must be kept moist and thus most amphibians lay their eggs in the water aka oviparous. among amphibians a great number of strategies have evolved to help eggs survive until hatching

amphibian reproduction

while larval amphibians breathe with gills adult breathe either through lungs, their skin or both. Although most amphibians have some sort of lung structure it is usually primitive and inefficient compared to other tetrapod vertebrates having little suface area for gas exchange. these amphibians must also rely on diffusion of oxygen through their skin and thus must stay moist at all times. they usually spend most of their time in or near a water source. other amphibians have more efficient lungs and do not rely on breathing through their skin . these amphibians do not need to live as close to a body of water and must only return to a body of water for reproduction

amphibian respiration

color blindness or hemophilia

an example of a human sex-linked trait

testcross

an experiment to determine unknown genotypes

plasmid

an extra piece of circular DNA found in bacteria separate from the main circular chromosome

trangenic

an organism with genes from another organism is ____

does not breath oxygen, bacteria 2 billion years ago

anaerobic

anaerobic bacteria became mitochondria first

anaerobic bacteria became ___ ___

*due to that the pyruciv acid cannot go to the mitochondria the pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid *regenerates NAD+ allowing glycolysis to run again and again for quick and dirty energy *yields 0atp but glycolysis yields 2 atp every time it runs *lactic acid is a painful by product that builds up in muscles (lactic acid may later be burned as fuel once O.2 levels return to normal after exercise)

anaerobic respiration steps for lactic acid

except for glycolysis all steps in aerobic respiration are aerobic meaning that they require oxygen. Aerobic respiration is able to get 38 molecules of ATP per one glucose molecule. But sometimes energy can be harvested without oxygen through anaerobic respiration. In anaerobic respiration the only process that produces energy is the same first step: glycolysis in which there is a net gain of 2 ATP. (compare that to the 38 molecules of energy produced in aerobic respiration)

anaerobic vs aerobic respiration

*Bird and bat wings are analogous — that is, they have separate evolutionary origins, but are superficially similar because they have both experienced natural selection that shaped them to play a key role in flight *Similar because of convergent evolution, and not because of common ancestry. Two characters are analogous if the two lineages evolved them independently. *body parts with similar function but different underlying structures. 2 body parts are analogous if their similar function was not inherited from a common ancestor, but they evolved separately due to evolution in the similar environment *analogies are result of convergent evolution

analogous structure

*the spindle fibers shorten pulling on the sister chromatids *the centimes split as the chromatids are pulled away

anaphase

anaphase is the action phase where the chromosomes separate

anaphase is the ____

1)cephalization: they are the first phylum t o have a head 2)ganglion is a mass of nerve cell bodies 3)eye spots act as photoreceptors 4)auricle looks like ears but are sensitive to touch of chemicals; they are hemoreseptors used to find food 5)pharynx is as muscular tube that leads to the mouth. digestive enzymes are secreted through the pharynx onto the decaying material and as the material breaks down the worm can suck in the nutrients and expel undigested material through its pharynx 6)gastrovascular: cavity that has one opening; mouth only 7)move with cilia

anatomy of planarians which are free living flat worms

aerobic bacteria

ancestors of mitochondria

*dorsal=back *ventral=stomach *posterior=bottom *anterior=top

animal vody places

*they are dog, chicken, starfish, ant, sponge *they are eukaryotic *they are heterotrophic *they are all multicellular *no cell wall *they are mostly motile

animalia

*animals obtain their nitrogen by eating plants or other animals and use the consumed nitrogen to make their own proteins and nucleic acids which can then be released by nitrogenous waste

animals in the nitrogen cycle

proteins that free float in our blood stream and they attack and latch onto foreign invaders/antigens - they are a protein in the shape of a Y in which the \/ are the antigen binding region *chemicals that kill bacteria with ought killing our cels because bacteria are so unique

antibodies

different cells will have different marker proteins which are antigens *generates antibodies

antigens

*agriculture-can make crops that are resistant to pest or herbicides; can improve the ability of rope to grow under harsh conditions; can alter crops to have new traits such s more/different nutrients; can make crops that are more flavorful, have a longer shelf life, etc. *medicine: can engineer plants, bacteria, etc. to create medicine for us at a low cost; can introduce genes associated with human diseases into model organisms such as mice for medical research *other industry: can engineer bacteria to metabolize oil or other pollutants; organisms could be genetically modified to help produce biofules.

applications of genetically modified organisms

*two body sections:cephalothorax and abdomen *4 pairs of legs so 8 legs *spiders, scorpions, mites, tikes, pseudoscorpions

arachnida

*they are ancient bacteria such as thermophiles -they are prokaryotic -they are either heterotrophic or autotrophic -they are mostly unicellular -yes they have a cell wall -they are mostly sessile *methanogens *thermophiles *halophiles

archaebacteria

proteins are not straight chains of amino acids they fold in unique 3d shapes and the shape determines the function but the shape can change through denaturing

are proteins straight

*this involves getting shots or injections *example snake anti venin

artificial passive immunity

vaccinations, example flu vaccine which has dead or weak form of antigens of the flu virus and when we are injected with those our body is able to make specific antibodies against the flue virus

artificial passive immunity

*farmers and breeders allowed only the plants and animals with desirable characteristics to reproduce causing evolution of farm stock *people instead of nature chooses who gets to reproduce by using the idea of selections to cause mayor changes in their plants and animals over the course of decades

artificial selection

the intentional breeding of organisms by humans to produce plants and animals with certain traits

artificial selection aka selective breeding

the most common human nematode infection. Fertilized eggs in feces are ingested and larvae migrate to lungs and are coughed up and swallowed. The larvae pass back to the intestines and become adults

ascariasis Nematode

is a group of many different populations (different species) that live in the same place and same time

community

*cells divide by mitosis keeping the chromosome number the same *creates genetically identical individuals aka clones *helps a population colonize a new area quickly

asexual reproduction

*the environment is unchanging be cues if it is suitable for one it is suitable for all since they are all the same

asexual reproduction is good if

*in humans: chromosomes 1 to 22 *all but our sex chromosomes

autosomes

*are the hormones that help control plant tropisms one of the effects of auxins is the cause plant cells to elongate. plant have a variety of other hormones that regulate their growth and other life processes *a plant hormone that causes elongation , auxin is formed when starch signals creates/lead to auxin. Auxin collects here elongating the bottom cells causing the stem to curve upward *auxin collects here elongating the bottom cells this causes the platen to bent *has opposite in roots making them bend down

auxins

*birds are thought to have evolved from reptiles, specifically dinosaurs during the mesozoic era. most scientist think birds evolved from a group of dinosaurs called theropods *some fossil finds -fossil of archaeopteryx:this is considered to be an early bird from the mesozoic not an early ancestor to modern birds. it had a skeletal structure similar to theropods and also had feathers and clawed wings -recent fossil finds from china of flightless dinosaurs had fethers

aves

birds are endothermic so they control their body temperature internally through their metabolism. this is necessary because chemical reactions inside the body are very sensitive to temperature. if it gets too cold the entire system slows down. the fact that birds are endothermic allows them to maintain constant activity despite changes in environmental temperature allowing them to flight at very high cold altitudes without freezing and crashing...

aves body temperature regulation

birds have four chambered heart connected to a double loop circulatory system. there is complete separation between the right and the left sides of the heart. this is extremely efficient and powerful. this is necessary because flight requires a very high level of energy. birds hearts beat anywhere from 150 to 1000 times per minute

aves circulation

birds have a muscular sac in their esophagus called a gizzard that mashes the food. birds will swallow small stones and store them in their gizzards to help with this mechanical digestion. then when it is time to fly long distances they can regurgitate the stones. feeding in birds varies-different birds eat different things such as worms, insects, fish ,seeds, and fruit, a birds feeding niche can often be inferred by examining shape of the beak

aves feeding

fertilization is internal. birds are oviparous aka egg laying and development of the embryo is external in an amniotic egg. the eggshell contains calcium which makes it harder than the reptile egg. most birds do care for their hatchlings. some birds have developed altruistic behavior in which sisters thane turns having babies and caring for the sister's

aves reproduction

bird lungs have a great amount of surface area for gas exchange. connected to their lungs are air sacs. when a bird inhales some air goes to the lungs and some to the air sacs. when the bird exhales, stored air in the air sacs travels to the lungs. in this way birds can receive oxygen when they inhale and exhale

aves respiration

*a long fiver that receives signals from the cell body, axons send signals away from cell body *an arm like projection that comes off the cell body *sends the signal along

axon

a cluster of genes along with its sequence, a section of DNA

operon

they have DNA arranged in a circular form rather than linear pieces found in eukaryotic cells and their dan is not kept in the nucleus but int eh cytoplasm of the cell

bacteria's DNA

*binary fission -an asexual cell division that makes clones *conjugation -two bacteria join pili and exchange plasmids -this increases genetic variation and rate of evolution *formation of endospores -a thick protective coating forms and bacteria become dormant possibly for many years

bacterial reproduction

*they live in two chells *scallops *they use siphons to take in water and then gills are actually the organs that filter feed by piking the small particles out of the water *they have an open circulatory system so blood doesn't travel in vessels

bialves

is evidence for the endosymbiosis theory *both mitochondria and chloroplast divide themselves by binary fission which is also the way bacteria reproduce *like worms... splitting into two

binary fission

*a name made out of two words aka binomial nomenclature *binomials consist of the genus which is the first word and the species which is the second word *binomials are written in Latin because -Latin is a dead language, no one speaks it so it does not evolve into dialects -latin was the official scientific language of the day *Naming system developed by Carolus Linnaeus; each organism is given a scientific name made of two words (hence "binomial"). Consist of the genus and the species, written in Latin

binomial nomenclature

the belief that life arises only from other living things

biogenesis

*the study of where organisms live and how they are distributed around the world. *study of endemic species. *giant tortoises exist in both the galapagos and in the aldabra islands in the indian ocean these two groups of tortoises are not closely related to echoer however they each had a different ancestor that migrated to the islands and both groups eventually and independently became giants

biogeography

the study of life

biology

*differences: -the one in photosynthesis is in the middle, and the one in aerobic respiration is at the end -the start in photosynthesis is photosystem two where electrons are energized to jump to the etc, and in aerobic respiration NADH and FADH.2 transfer electrons from sugar to the etc -in photosynthesis it occurs in the chloroplasts, and in aerobic respiration it occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion -in photosynthesis the final electron acceptor is NADP+ after it is re-energyzed in photosystem one, and in aerobic respiration it is Oxygen which turns into H.2O *similarities: -they both help make atp by indirectly giving energy to atp synthase (the h+ which are pumped in from energy of electrons are diffused out creating energy for atp synthase) -the things that travel through the etc are electrons -the etc are proteins -as the electron bounces on the etc it looses energy -both etcs have a beginning and an end -the energy from the etc is used to pump H+

both photosynthesis and respiration involve the use of an electron transport chain compare and contrast similarities and differences between the ETCs

*happens in the mitochondrion *the cell sends the 2 pyruvic acids made in glycolisis to the mitochondria *each pyruvic acid loses a CO.2 (total of 2 CO.2) and becomes a two carbon molecule called AcetylCoA *the carbon broken of each pyruvic acid is released as 2 CO.2 molecules *also 2 NADH are produced, one per pyruciv acid

breakdown of pyruvic acid

the percentage of c-14 to c-12 in a the atmosphere has remained constant for the history of earth. Because living things constantly incorporate carbon into their bodies by respiration, the c-14 ratio in a body is equal to the c-14 ratio in the atmosphere. When the organism dies they stop making carbon completely. Over time the c-14 breaks down. The half life which is the amount of time it takes for 1/2 of the radioactivity to break down of c-14 is 5600 years. By measuring the c-14 ratio in a fossil and comparing that to the c-14 atmosphere one can determine how many half lives have past since the organism died, and thus how old the fossil is. C-14 can be reliable used for fossils up to 50,000 years old

c-14 dating

the protein coat of viruses that holds their dan or rna

capsid

molecules made of atoms of Carbon Hydrogen and Oxygen

carbohydrates

how carbon atoms cycle through out both the biosphere and the non living parts of the world

carbon cycle

*have physical adaptations to consume and digest animal flesh -sharp canines -keen sense of smell and sight

carnivores

pigments

carotenes, xanthophyl, chlorophyl

*a person who is heterozygous for a recessive disease/condition *2 people who are carriers can produce a child with the condition-25% change *being a carrier is a genotype not a phenotype, therefore most people who are carriers don't know that they are

carrier

*the maximum number of organisms in a population that the environment can support indefinitely

carrying capacity aka K

peroxisomes because they use enzymes to break up hydrogen peroxide

catalce central

*genetic drift *gene flow/migration *non random mating/sexual selection *mutations *natural selection *evolution

causes for evolution/genetic change

*faulty or mutated genes/ DNA *environmental factors *radiation:UV rays, X-rays, nuclear rays or gamma rays *certain chemicals like carcinogen or cigarette smoke *genetic factors like bad genes inherited from parents *some viruses

causes of Cancer/ mutation of DNA

*all cells have it and it is vital in maintaining homeostasis inside the cell. *It allows very small molecules to pass freely, while the movement of larger molecules is regulated by transport of proteins. *made out of membrane *it is made up of lipid molecules that naturally arrange into a spherical dual layered membrane *it is also made from amphipathic phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins

cell membrane

1.all living things (organisms) are made of cells (either one or many cells). 2. cells are the basic unit of organization in living things 3. all cells come from pre existing cells

cell theory

*prokaryotic (bacteria) have this hard protective layer just outside the cell membrane (why antibiotics work) *plants have a cell wall (made of cellulose) to to protect the sell from injury and it also provides skeletal support for plants *animals do not have it (why antibiotics work)

cell wall

bacterias have this hard protective layer just outside the cell membrane

cell wall

-gain water by diffusion (grow) -shrink and loose water

cells surrounded by a hypotonic solution will... and cells surrounded by a hypertonic solution will..

a process that harnesses energy from food and stores it as ATP

cellular respiration

how mitochondria manufacture energy and convert the energy of the food we eat into energy that cells can use (ATP)

cellular respiration

a chain of glucose hooked together like a link fence (fiber)

cellulose

*the center of an x that joins the sister chromatids aka the identical pairs of chromosomes

centromere

balance and coordination

cerebellum

consious brain: sensory messages and thinking

cerebrum

chemical f: uses words H2O and Molecular f: uses pics H-O-H

chemical formula vs molecular formula

ion channels popen when chemical in air or in food reacts with a chemical in the nerve cell and changes shape-nose and tounge

chemical receptors

*a proces where organisms make food using chemical energy *preformed by some types of bacteria

chemosynthesis

*some bacteria are chemosynthetic *meaning they make their own food using energy stored in inorganic molecules

chemosynthetic

a plants response to chemicals

chemotropism

head

chephalo

*literally means head-foot *highly developed brains *unlike other mollusk they have a closed circulatory system

chephalopods

it is a green pigment that allows plants to photosynthesize which is to construct sugar molecules out of water and carbon dioxide

chlorophyll

*organelles that have a double membrane like mitochondria. Inside are more membranes arranged like stacks of pancakes that connect to one another. *The chlorophyll allows plants to photosynthesize that is construct sugar molecules out of water and carbon dioxide. The chlorophyll captures energy from the sun and puts it to work making glucose. *plants only

chloroplast

organelles that have a double membrane like mitochondria. Inside are more membranes arranged like stacks of pancakes that connect to one another.

chloroplast

chlorophyl has help from other pigments such as xanthophylls (yellow) and carotenes (orange)

chloroplast accessory

chloroplast contain a green pigment (a molecule that absorbs light) called chlorophyll. THe chlorophyll allows plants to photosynthesize that is construct sugar molecules out of water and carbon dioxide. THe chlorophyll captures energy from the sun and puts it to work making glucose.

chloroplast and photosynthesis

line sponge walls and are also called collar cells. They function of these flagellated cells is to move water in a nd out the sponge while trapping food particles or things such as a sperm

choanocytes

the plasma membranes of animal cells contain cholesterol molecules to help stabilize the membrane (ex: if theres to many unsaturated fatty acids the cholesterol helps to stiffen it or visa versa the cholesterol can help loosen up if there are to many saturated fatty acids)

cholesterol and plasma membranes

allows for gas exchange in an amniotic egg

chorion

*all the new DNA in a cell *chromatin is a thin threadlike pieces of DNA during interphase DNA is in chromatin form

chromatin

DNA inside the nucleus is chromatin which is a tangled collection of long linear pieces of DNA

chromatin

*DNA inside the nucleus is chromatin which is a tangled collection of long linear pieces of DNA

chromatin/chromosomes

*involve chunks of genes/pieces of chromosomes *these occur during cell division when chromosomes break apart and/or rejoin incorrectly

chromosomal mutations

*tightly packed thread like structures *packages for dna *a really long piece of coiled up DNA that contains genes along its length

chromosome

*during mitosis the chromatin coils up into distinct, tightly packed rod-like structures called chromosomes

chromosomes

*visible pieces of coiled up chromatin *humans have 46 chromosomes which consist of 2 sets of 23 chromosomes *packaged DNA- this is done in several steps *efficient storage units of DNA

chromosomes

Ancestral organism shared by two or more descendent lineages — in other words, an ancestor that they have in common. For example, the common ancestors of two biological siblings include their parents and grandparents; the common ancestors of a coyote and a wolf include the first canine and the first mammal.

common ancestor

* structures involved in cell motility either functioning to move the entire cell along or moving substances along a cell's surface *a cilium is a hair like structure that protrudes from the cell membrane and waves in a stroke like fashion. *a flagellum is a long whip like structure that moves in a whip like fashion (usually les numerous than cilia... many cells only have one or 2)

cilia and flagella

is a hair like structure that protrudes from the cell membrane and waves in a stroke like fashion much like oars un a row boat.

cilium

*patterns that are repeated on a daily basis *are part of the biological clock behaviors that are part of instinct *circa=about and dia=day *a 24 hr behavioral cycles

circadian rhythms

plasmid

circular DNA used as a vector when maxing transgenic organisms

A group of organisms that includes all the descendents of a common ancestor and that ancestor. For example, birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles and their extinct relatives form a clade.

clade

*oste=bone *largest group of fish; examples include-carp, trout, bass *have a bony skeleton, jaws, and paired fins *most practice external fertilization in which sperm and egg combine outside of the fish's bodies and most lay lots of eggs aka oviparous *most have a swim bladder which is an air filled chamber that below the backbone that gives the fish buoyancy control allowing it to float or sink *well developed senses for detecting chemicals which are taste and smell- for example salmon use this ability to travel thousands of miles back to the exact river in which they were born for their own reproduction *have lateral line on their sides which is a sensory organ that detects vibrations in water *unlike sharks bony fish have an operculum or gill cover that moves to help pull water across their gills *while most bony fish are in the ray-finned group 2 other much smaller groups exist that were most likely important in the evolution of tetrapod animals lobe finned fish and lungfish

class Osteichthyes

*any offspring produced by asexual reproduction -> therapeutic cloning, scnt, and all other types of cloning are asexual

clone

sphere like shape of bacteria

coccus

*the heterozygous trait is the dominant trait and the recessive trait is too aka there is no recessive/ dominant trait... they are BOTH expressed *uses another letter of the alphabet in place of lowercase letters NN=normal blood NS=some normal+some sickle SS=sickle shaped red blood cells *the heterozygous person has a trait that is both the other 2 version of the trait

codominance

*3 bases/letters in a row on DNA or mRNA *each codon represents one of the 20 amino acids used to build proteins *for example the first codon along DNA represents the first amino acid in a protein. The second codon along DNA represents the second amino acid in the protein and so on....

codon

body cavity

coelom

animals with a body cavity completely surrounded by a mesoderm such as a segmented worm

coelomates

*The term coevolution is used to describe cases where two (or more) species reciprocally affect each other's evolution. So for example, an evolutionary change in the morphology of a plant, might affect the morphology of an herbivore that eats the plant, which in turn might affect the evolution of the plant, which might affect the evolution of the herbivore...and so on. *Coevolution is likely to happen when different species have close ecological interactions with one another. These ecological relationships include: -Predator/prey and parasite/host -Competitive species -Mutualistic species *when two or more diff species evolve in response to each other result ion in some sort of relationships

coevolution

cohesion is the attraction to each other and adhesion is the attraction to something else

cohesion vs adhesion

*a relationship between 2 organisms where one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed *remora fish attaches to the fins of shark and hitches a ride, it also gains protection and gets stray scraps of food that drift back when the shark feeds, the remora benefits at to cost to the shark. *epiphytes aka air plants cling on the branches of a tree in order to gain anchorage without having to put down their own roots *caribou use their hooves to dig in snow to find lichens and other food, arctic foxes can follow behind and used the holes dug by the caribou to look for small animals to eat

commensalism and examples

* all living things shares the same genetic code of DNA and many gens are similar among varied forms of life.Scientist use this fact to show that all forms of life on earth are related. *We can look for relationships among organisms by comparing their DNA or by comparing the product of DNA-proteins *speices with more recent common ancestor have more similar DNA/Proteins while those with more distant common ancestors show more differences in their biochemistry * sequencing of DNA and/or proteins to look for close/distant evolutionary relationships *human DNA and chimpanzee DNA is about 98% the same

comparative biochemistry

- in aerobic respiration 38 atp are produced through out while in anaerobic only the 2 atp are produced in glycolysis are made -C.6H.12O.6→ 2lactic acid + 2ATP is for anaerobic -C.6H.12O.6 + 6 O.2→6 CO.2 + 6 H.2O + 36-38 ATP is for aerobic -glucose is broken down in glycolysis for both to create 2 ATP -oxygen in aerobic respiration is used as the final electron acceptor in the etc in aerobic to create water -6 CO.2 are made through out in aerobic respiration -the pyruvates are converted into lactic acid in anaerobic regenerating NAD+ allowing glycolysis to run again and again for quick cheep and dirty energy -anaerobic is in the cytoplasm in muscle cells -aerobic is in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of aerobic cells -they occur to produce energy when needed -during many chemical reactions now classified as cycles or steps.

compare and contrast aerobic respirations and anaerobic respiration in a human

*only asexual -it is faster -good for a stable environment -mitosis -creates clones -3 different ways: regeneration, budding,binary fission -helps colonize a new area quickly *both -used to reproduce -both use mitosis *only sexual -requires meiosis to make gametes and fertilization to create a zygote and from then on its all mitosis -good for changing environment -slower -requires both male and female

compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction

*stamen is to pistil *anther wich is the most import an part of the stamen since it holds/makes the pollen with the plants sperm is to the ovary which is the most important part of the pistil since it holds the ovules which carry the eggs *the pollen which the another makes is to the ovule which the ovary has *the sperm which pollen carries is to the egg which the ovules carry

comparison of male and female parts

*23+23=normal / both of the gametes that form the zygote need to be haploid so that the zygote can be diploid aka normal *because a zygote needs one full set and to get this full set it will get half from each parent and half a set is haploid so that the parents can make the baby a diploid

concerning what you know about how a baby is made, why is it important that meiosis create cells with half the normal number of chromosomes (haploid cells)

also known as dehydration synthesis which is joining two monomeners together by removing a molecule water (H+OH)

condensation reactions

a cell phenomenon where cells chemically communicate with each other and stop dividing/ multiplying when there is no more room/ space to divide

contact inhibition

nucleus

contains the DNA in the form of Chromatin

* it is an organelle that pulses and squeezes to constantly pump water back out of the cell thereby maintaining its osmotic balance with the environment * used by unicellular protists like paramecium and amoeba that are in constant danger of exploding from osmosis due to the hypotonic freshwater home

contractile vacule

*divergent evolution results in closely related species that diversify and evolve into more distinct forms, in which these two organisms should have homologous structures diverged from the common ancestor. *convergent evolution results when distantly related species develop similar analogous structures not from a common ancestor but because of a similar environment *They are both used as evidence for evolution because they explain how organisms can change and have changed over time. Homologous structures from divergent evolution are evidence of how an organism can speciate and become into two newly evolved organisms and the analogous structures is evidence that organisms, even if they come from a different common ancestor, that organism adapt to their environment. And thats how different non related organisms can get similar traits because they both have separately evolved similar analogous structures for their similar environment.

contrast divergent evolution and convergent evolution. Explain how they are both used as evidence for evolution

the group that lacks the variable being tested (independent variable); used for comparison

control group

Process in which two distinct lineages evolve a similar characteristic independently of one another. This often occurs because both lineages face similar environmental challenges and selective pressures.

convergent evolution

If the association between two species is very close, they may speciate in parallel. This is called cospeciation. It is especially likely to happen between parasites and their hosts.

cospeciation

*a seed leaf that gives the plant nutrition. The cells that make up the first true leaves won't have any chlorophyll yet because they are not exposed to light yet

cotyledon

*behaviors used to attract a mate; they confirm that they are of the same species but opposite sex, primed for mating, and not a physical threat *part of social behaviors which are part of instinct

courtship

formed when two adjacent atoms share electrons with each other H-O-H (-)

covalent bonds

*a process in prophase I in which homologous chromosomes take advantage that they are near each other and they undergo crossing over in which one or more sections of a chromatid from one chromosome can exchange with the corresponding sections of chromatid from its homologous chromosome...in other words: equal sections of DNA are exchanged between the homologous in a tetrad *makes things slightly different gametes/ achieves genetic variation *exchange of equal sections of genes between each other *this shuffles the genes between all the homologous pairs *making each gamete unique

crossing over

*typically 5 pairs of legs so 10legs *2 antennae *2 compound eyes *lobsters, shrimp, water flee, matnis shrimp , crabs *breath through gills *chelipeds aka claws

crustacea

*current birth rate:19/1000, 252 babies born every minute *current death rate: 8/1000, 105 people die each minute *world population growth rate 1.1% *human population: just over 7 billion

current human growth rate

*its the waxy surface on a cactus/ apple *this waxy cuticle coats the leaves and other above ground parts of most plants helping the plant body retain water *the cuticle also slows down the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between surrounding air and inside the photosynthesizing leaves *a waxy layer that prevents water from losing too much water. plants in dry areas often have a very thick cuticle, while plants in areas that are moister usually have a thinner cuticle. a cuticle may also be present on the owed epidermis

cuticle

cyanobacteria became chloroplast 2nd

cyanobacteria became ___ __

a type of enzyme, which is a protein. *this enzyme can either trigger the start or stop of mitosis

cyclins

*it occurs in the cell and it begins to divide into 2 cells *animal cells- the membrane begins to pinch in by forming a cleavage furrow *plant cells-a cell plate the start of a new cell wall, forms in the equator of a cell

cytokineis

division of the cytoplasm

cytokinesis

*a wet gel-like fluid solid form.... (like a peeled grape) that consist of mostly water and dissolved molecules. *all of the cell's organelles are suspended in this fluid environment and it is here that all the cell's chemical reactions occur

cytoplasm

microfilaments+microtubules

cytoskeleton =

*missing pieces *terminal deletion= when the tip of the chromosome is broken off *interstial deletion= a piece is lost but the chromosome rejoins

deletions of chromosomes

the study of population growth characteristics

demography

*thin fibers who's job is to receive stimulatory signals from the environment (on skin dendrites will detect hot/cold). They send the signals to the cell body *finger like protections of the nerve cell *pick up the signal

dendrites

*food/prey, predators, competition, disease, parasites, water, sunlight, soil nutrients

density dependent limiting factors examples

*factors that limit all populations equally regardless of size *natural disasters such hurricanes, blizzards, tornadoes; acts of man such as cutting a forest, extreme H.2O such as floods or droughts, and extreme anything

density independent limiting factors

*natural disasters such hurricanes, blizzards, tornadoes; acts of man such as cutting a forest, extreme H.2O such as floods or droughts, and extreme anything

density independent limiting factors examples

what is measured as the results of your experiment

dependent variable

the alleles in the genotype RR are homozygous and dominant

describe the alleles in the genotype RR

the first life on earth was unicellular/prokaryotic and heterotrophic

describe the first life on earth

dry, arid, hardly any rainfall. cacti and succulent (can hold water) plants are pretty much the only plant life that can survive here. big temperature shifts occur on a daily basis due to the lack of moisture in the air. animal life includes jackrabbits, owls, kangaroo rats, lizards, snakes, and tortoises

deserts

*embryo has 2 cotyledon which are seed leafs *flower has 4 or 5 part symmetry *leaf veins are branched out/net like *vascular tissue in circular arrangement around stem which means there is an organization of xylem/phloem *such as penots have two cotyledons

dicots

plant cells contain chloroplast with chlorophyll and animal cells don't animal cells contain centrioles and plants dont plant cells have a cell wall and animals dont plant cells are rigid in shape and animal cells usually arent

differences between plant and animal cells

eukaryotes have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, and they are larger than prokaryotic cells the only organisms composed of prokaryotic cells are bacteria

differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

*differentiated cells:cells that are fully developed, meaning that they are already developed into the type of cel that it wants/has to be *without differentiation we'd be a blob of zygotes but due to differentiation were are able to develop different functioning body parts, making us complex. *the epigenome is important in the process of celular differentiation during embryological development because all the cells in an organism have the exact same DNA but different genes turn on and off in different cells to create the variety of cell types that exist in a multicellular organism.

differentiation

*diffusion is fast and efficient over small distances *but slow and inefficient over large distances

diffusion and cell size

passive transport

diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion are all forms of what?

*mating between two individuals in which 2 traits are examined *must use foil for punent squares

dihybrid cross

a cross between two individuals in which two different traits are examined

dihybrid cross

*our cells are diploid (2n) because we carry around two sets of DNA in our body (somatic) *any cell with 2 complete sets of chromosomes *diploid cells are also known as somatic cells

diploid (2n)

*combining proteins after the proteins have achieved there tertiary structure the proteins can hook up with other preens making different types of proteins and us more complex *proteins are able to accessorize by putting on "earings" such as dangling sugars or phosphates and this can change the function of the protein and where the protein ends up *the mRNA can be spliced in different ways/alternative splicing and due to this an mRNA can code for many different types of polypeptides/proteins

disuss 3 different ways in which one gene can end up coding for several proteins

*the pattern seen when closely related species diversify/move apart and evolve into more distinct forms *example: adaptive radiation *organisms that have diverged from a common ancestor would have homologous structures

divergent evolution

interphase of the cell cycle

dna replication occurs during ___

*a trisomy on the 21st pair *causes mental retardation and other problems *likelihood of having this can increase with age of the mother when reproducing

down syndrome

*many genes are highly linked to obesity which can then lead to the development of diabetes

dr campbells research

during prophase in mitosis

during what phase does chromatin coil up into distinct tightly packed rod like structures called chromosomes

during interphase to save time

during what phase does dna replicate

interphase

during what phase is DNA in chromatin form

*when the amount of substance is the same on both sides *this is when diffusion stops *molecules will continue to move back and forth *there will be no net movement

dynamic equilibrium

spiny

echino

outside

ecto

*NADH and FADH.2 carry electrons to the ETC in other words high energy electrons from NADH and FADH.2 are delived to the carrier molecules in the ETC and they are passed t=down the ETC- they are able to do this because these molecules are high energy because they contain high energy electrons and H+ from the break down of glucose *electrons bounce along a series of proteins loosing energy which is used to pump H+ across the mitochondrial membrane *O.2 is the final electron acceptor and it combines with H+ to become water *higher concentration of H+ diffuses across membrane through ATP synthase creating 34 more ATPs

electron transport chain (ETC) in cellular respiration

*from a blastocyst/embryo created thru therapeutic cloning -pluripotent -cells are identical to the cloned person *they can be donated to science, kept for ever, or killed *from a blastocyst/embryo -identical to no one -fully adult cell is differentiated -pluripotent *A zygote is totipotent until after a few divisions, then it becomes pluripotent

embryonic stem cells

inside, inneer

endo

*surround and engulfs substances/particles *to allow certain larger substances to enter a cell a section of the cell membrane actually surrounds the substance and then encloses it in a small membrane called a vesicle *pinocytosis and phagocytosis are both forms of endocytosis

endocytosis

*E.R.= maze like series of connected membrane sheets that originate off the nuclear envelope and wind their way throughout the cytoplasm * E.R. produces lipids and proteins ant transports both of these * Rough E.R. has a rough appearance due to the presence of numerous small ribosomes (that produce protein) embedded in its surface *Smooth E.R. it is an endoplasmic reticulum minus the ribosomes.It functions primarily in the synthesis of lipids.

endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.)

a maze like series of connected membrane sheets that originate off the nuclear envelope and wind their way throughout the cytoplasm

endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.)

the ready food supply in a seed for the embryo. this is needed because since baby's in seeds can photosynthesize so they have a ready food supply to get them started until the plant develops its first leaves for photosynthesis

endosperm

according to the endosymbiotic theory the ancestors of mitochondria and chloroplast were just free living specialized bacteria, the theory states that these specialized bacteria were engulfed by a prokaryote cell host. Abnormally the cell host did not digest the specialized bacteria, so the specialized bacteria began living inside the host bacteria. Over time a interdependent relationship developed. Eventually these specialized bacteria bacteria within the cell evolved into two organelles known as mitochondria and chloroplasts. The specialized bacteria that became mitochondria was aerobic bacteria and the special bacteria that became chloroplast was photosynthetic bacteria/ cyanobacteria. Due to this the host bacteria was transformed into the first primitive eukaryotic cell. (in other words prokaryotes went inside other prokaryotes and evolved into eukaryotic cells)

endosymbiotic theory

*in the phosphate group it takes energy to unite all of the phosphates to form the "tail", so when the phosphates are broken apart they release stored energy *the phosphate group has a lot of potential energy packed tightly, but when the phosphate group is "stretched" or it "relaxes" all of the potential energy is turned into kinetic energy (energy of movement). So cells can use that energy that has been released when the phosphate groups are broken off to preform all kinds of cellular work *when ATP is involved in a chemical reaction one or 2 phosphate bonds can be broken releasing energy *energy is found in the triphosphate bonds

energy in the triphosphate

*diagrams that can show the transfer of energy, biomass or numbers through each trophic level *it depicts the amount of energy at each trophic level, when primary consumers eat producers not all of the plant material is digested and used by the consumer therefore some energy is lost.. the same result in each trophic level .

energy pyramid

*pigs: -scientist have engineered pigs with genes that will allow them to extract more phosphorous from their food -this would reduce the amount of phosphorous in animal poop-> and this would reduce water pollution *bacteria: -scientist have genetically engineered bacteria to enhance the ability to metabolize oil -this could be used to clean up oil spills

environmental examples of GMO / Genetic Engineering

*****they speed up chemical reactions in the membrane *they change a substance so it can enter the membrane *they especially important to the membranes of chloroplast and mitochondria (ATP)

enzymatic protein

ase (lipase)

enzyme names usually en in

protein

enzymes are a type of____

break apart molecules or bring them together

enzymes can

*it is a single layer of transparent cells that allow light to pass through onto the layer know known as palisade mesophyll *There are hundreds of stomata in the epidermis of a leaf. Most are located in the lower epidermis. This reduces water loss because the lower surface receives less solar radiation than the upper surface. Each stoma allows the carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis to enter, while water evaporates through each one in transpiration.

epidermis

*deals with the different ways that our genes are regulated *An Epigenome consists of a record of the chemical changes to the DNA and histone proteins of an organism; these changes can be passed down to an organism's offspring. *The epigenome comprises all of the chemical compounds that have been added to the entirety of one's DNA (genome) as a way to regulate the activity (expression) of all the genes within the genome. The chemical compounds of the epigenome are not part of the DNA sequence, but are on or attached to DNA ("epi-" means above in Greek). Epigenomic modifications remain as cells divide and in some cases can be inherited through the generations. Environmental influences, such as a person's diet and exposure to pollutants, can also impact the epigenome. *It shapes the physical structures of our genome

epigenome

anywhere that an ocean encounters fresh water you'll find an estuary. the water is brackish or slightly salty, which supports specific species of grasses and crustaceans. estuaries are important breathing grounds for many aquatic species

estuary

*they are true bacteria such as e coli *they are prokaryotic *they are either heterotrophic or autotrophic *they are mostly unicellular *they are the most divers kingdom of them all and most bacteria belong to this kingdom *yes they have a cell wall *they are mostly sessile *its an extremely diverse group

eubacteria

both have ribosomes of their own that are similar size and structure of prokaryotic ribosomes, both have dna of their own and it is similar to prokaryotic dna, both have 2 membranes (one of their own and another one remains of the host cell), both organelles divide themselves by binary fission like prokaryotic cells

evidence for endosymbiosis

dna in mitochondria and chloroplast contain dna similar to bacteria dna, mitochondria and chloroplast have ribosomes with similar size and structure to those of bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce through binary fission, both have 2 membranes

evidence for endosymbiosis

*fossils *comparative anatomy *comparative embryology *biogeography *comparative biochemistry

evidence for evolution

*body parts that have similar functions but have very different underlying structures *example the body shape of a shark and the body shape of a dolphin both body shapes appear similar and provide excellent hydro dynamics and propulsion in water *however structurally the fish and the dolphin are very different and so they evolved similar body shapes from different lines of ancestry * interestingly analogous structures provide strong evidence for evolution since they support the idea that organisms adapt to fit their environments.both dolphin and shark evolved similar body shapes (not from each other) because these shapes are favored for a life in water

evidence of evolution through comparative autonomy of analogous structures:

* body parts that are reduced in size and no longer have their original function *these are used as evidence for evolution because it shows the inheritance of genes for useless structures must have come from a common ancestor in whom the structure had its original structure *example: huam appendix

evidence of evolution through comparative autonomy of vestigial structures

the fossil record indicates that certain species have changed over time. Also the fossil record indicates that different species have appeared at different times in history

evidence of evolution through fossils

the gradual change in species over time

evolution

*graylag geese: when an egg rolls away from the nest she will use her neck to roll it back; it is known to be instinctual fort two reasons 1) geese raised in isolation do it 2) if you pull the egg away while she's rollin it she will continue her motions as if the egg was still there *spider webs, courtship displays, birds songs

example of instinct

*data from the hudson bay fur trappers shows a related cycle of lynx the predator and the snowshoe hare the pray abundance over many years. the hare displayed the population cycles of increase and decreases and the lynx population followed with a similar cycle of increases and decrease about a year behind the hares

example of predators being a limiting factor

members of a population might become reproductively isolated through behavioral traits, for example they might mate in different times such as the rainbow trout spawn in the spring and the brook trout spawn in fall and there is genetical traits such as: Sea urchins, because they do not mate. They broadcast their gametes into the ocean where sperm and eggs fuse to form zygotes and then develop into larvae. The Giant Red Urchin (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and Purple Urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) cohabit the rocky intertidal along the western U.S., but they do not interbreed. Their gametes are genetically/chemically incompatible, maintaining species integrity.

example of reproductive isolation

1.one step in sending a signal along a nerve cell involves the active transport of k+ and Na+ ions. 2. the kidneys use active transport when cleaning metabolic waste out of the cell

examples of active transport

*regeneration -worms when they are cut in half the part that was missing in each half regenerates *binary fission -done by bacteria when they split in two by mitosis *budding -common among invertebrate animals like coral where it forms a bump which eventually grows and leaves

examples of asexual reproduction

*a person may be born with an increased risk of heart disease but eating right and exercising may lower that risk

examples of changing predisposition to a medical condition

*pavlov's dog;he rang a bell whenever he pulled out food. the do learned to associate bell with food and thus slobbered in response to the bell regardless whether or not food was there *some smoking cessation treatments involved taking medications that interact with the nicotine in cigarettes causing you to feel nauseous when you smoke. eventually you will associate smoking with feeling nauseous even when you no longer take the drug *some predators have learned to associate brightly colored pray with bitter taste or nausea

examples of classical conditioning

*x-rays, UV radiation, chemicals, radioactive substances, nondisjuction in older mothers, random DNA errors

examples of environmental factors that can cause DNA mutation

sweat (loosing water which contains heat so you don't over heat), hunger (stomach sends signals to mind to want to eat so you eat and not starve), if you drink salt water you stop peeing so your cells have water since the salt gets rid of water, scabs

examples of homeostasis

*geese will imprint on whatever they see after they are born and will treat is as their mother forever *humans have some degree of imprinting when it comes to learning language-we have a much greater capacity for learning languages at young ages

examples of imprinting

House sparrows have adapted to the climate of North America, mosquitoes have evolved in response to global warming, and insects have evolved resistance to our pesticides. These are all examples of microevolution — evolution on a small scale.

examples of mircoevolution

*industrial melanism: with the peppered moth increase and decrease in different colors for camouflage *insecticides: over time the few pesticide resistant insects are able to reproduce and make more pesticide resistant insects *antibiotics: the few resistant bacteria are able to reproduce and eventually evolve. making bacteria evolve resistance to the drugs we use to kill them *the Caribbean brown anole populations:the change of lizards in the caribbean in order to adapt to their environment *tomcods: the fish became resitand to PBC due to a mutation

examples of natural selection

*materials can be exported out of the cell via exocytosis *unwanted materials or materials to be secreted into the bloodstream are first packaged in a vesicle , the vesicle is moved over to the cell membrane where it fuses. in doing so the vesicle is able to dump its contents into the extracellular space. *the golgi apparatus packages proteins like hormones in vesicles and these vesicles move to the cell membrane and dump their contents outside of the cell

exocytosis

*they get turned on exONs and Expressed *coding sections of RNA that is left to make a protein

exons

the group that has the variable being tested (independent variable)

experimental group

meiosis creates 4 cells with one set of genes per cells. Both males and females create these gametes. When sperm and cell combine the chromosome from sperm go to egg. Only one set is present from each of the sets making the 2 sets present in a zygote that will later become the offspring

explain how the process of meiosis ensures that offspring will have typically 2 alleles for a trait bet thorough with you response

to cleave is to cut, while to splice is to join two loose ends/things together

explain the difference between cleaving and splicing

-Pretend that height is controlled by ABC -AABBCC= tall people, AaBbCc=average, and aabbcc= short people -but there are still other possible combinations like AaBBCc, AABbCc, AabbCc, etc...

explain why polygenic traits have so many different versions

the amount of individuals doubles continuously over time, this is how populations grow over time

exponential growth

sperm and egg combine outside the fish's bodies

external fertilization

*membrane bound proteins help a substance pass through the bilayer * some of the proteins in the membrane interact with different substances and escort them to the other side... these substances are not permeable to the cell's membrane *still diffusion does not require energy but does require concentration gradient

facilitated diffusion

*mosses and ferns: the spam must swim in a tim of water to the eggs therefore these two plants live near the water * gymnosperms: sperm inside pollen grains is loan by the wind to the female cones which have the eggs *angiosperms: sperm inside pollen grains travels to pistil through insects and other animal pollinators, the animals will do this because the smell of color attracts them to the flower since they know that these things are sign of food either nectar or some pollen for themselves (if a flower is pretty the flower will me animal pollinated if flower is ugly it will be wind pollinated)

fertilization of plant divisions

fish have a 2 chambered heart with a single loop in their circulatory system. this system is efficient but slow. this works for aquatic animals such as fish. living in water means they don't have to expend as much energy resisting gravity as terrestrial animals do.

fish circulation

*two strategies for external fertilization - laying a few large eggs requires a lot of energy per egg but each egg has a greater change or survival ; agnathans -laying a lot of little eggs requires very little energy per egg but each egg has a low chance of surviving ; most Osteichthyes

fish reproduction

*breath through gills:water comes in mouth passes over gills and out through operculum-interesting note sharks have gill slits but no operculum due to this many sharks would suffocate if they stop moving *oxygen enters the blood steam by diffusing across the membranes of the gills into capillaries *some fish breathe air! they gulp air which goes to a simple lung and diffuses into the blood in fact the swim bladder is thought to have evolved from early air breathing fish

fish respiration

*is used to describe how good a particular genotype is at leaving offspring in the next generation compared to how good other genotypes are at it *if brown beetles constantly leave more offspring than green beetles because of color you would say brown beetles have a higher fitness *an organisms fitness depends on the environment

fitness

peptide bonds

force that links the monomers

form a testable explanation for a problem

form a hypothesis

*CO.2 aka carbon dioxide *C.6 H.12 O.6 aka glucose *fossil fuels *CaCO.3 aka calcium carbonate

forms of carbon

*Fertilizer: -NH.4+ which is ammonium - NO.3- nitrates *Nitrogen gas aka N.2 *organic nitrogen forms aka protein/amino acids and nucleic acids aka RNA and DNA *nitrogenous waste such as urea, uric acid, or ammonia

forms of nitrogen

NH2 (amino group) then the center R(unique side group) -C-H and COOH the carboxyl group

formula for amino acid

c6h1206 and the purpose is to give energy

formula of a carbohydrate and purpose

found in animals after eating a meal animals store excess sugar (glucose) in a long chain called glycogen in their liver muscles and this helps them maintain homeostasis

function of glycogen

lipids are used for long term energy storage and release, they are used as insulation, and building many cell parts such as the membrane

function of lipids

plants make glucose molecules and then store them in a long chain called starch (glucose ) ex: potato

function of starch

the fibers of the cytoskeleton permeate throughout the cytoplasm

function of the cytoskeleton

enzymes, actin and amylase

functional proteins

to form the structure of our bodies head, skin,muscles, organs(keratin, collagen,) muscle movement (actin and myosin) immune system (antigens and antibodies) and catalyzing all chemical reactions (enzymes)

functions of proteins

*they are mushrooms, yeast, mold *they are eukaryotic *they are heterotrophic *they are mostly multicellular except for yeast *yes they have a cell wall made of chitin *they are all sessile *Absorptive (they absorb their food); Extracellular digestion (they secrete enzymes onto their food, digest it outside the bodies and then absorb in the organic material) * often colonial rather than singular *they are decomposers, but some of them are saprophytic and others are parasitic

fungi

*haploid cells involved in sexual reproduction *sex cells *sperm cells in men *ova/ ovum or egg cells in females

gametes

*are snails and slugs *they either have a shell or no shell *their scraping tounges is called a radular and they use this for feeding by scraping food from the environment *hermaphrodites *they have an open circulatory system so blood doesn't travel in vessels

gastropods

*it is a way to sort and measure the DNA strands. -this technique is also useful for separating other types of molecules such as proteins *Electrophoresis is how we push DNA strands through the gel filter by adding an electrical current, with a negative charge at the holes and a positive charge at the other end *to do gel electrophoresis you must -1st place the DNA at the holes at the end of the gel -then you must turn on the electricity to watch the strands move -afterwards the result must be stained so that the groups of DNA can be visible to the naked eye *shorter fragments move faster than longer fragments and as a result fragments of the same size will clump up together *a standard technique that separates molecules such as DNA on the basis of size by using electricity to separate pieces within a gel matrix known as agarose gel. Since each individual has unique DNA this technology allows you to visualize differences based on how DNA separates within the gel.

gel electrophoresis

*a segment/short section of DNA along a chromosome that codes for the production of one protein, for example: an enzyme

gene

it is a short individual section of dna coding for specific protein

gene

*portion of genes alleles in a population that are of a particular type. For example: at a particular locus, pea plants may either have a yellow pea allele or a green pea allele so a a population of pea plants would have some frequency off yellow pea alleles ranging from 1% to 100%

gene frequency/ allele frequency

*this technique is used to cure disorders such as hemophilia, CF, blindness, deadly bubble boy disease, and HIV by changing the genome -must be single gene diseases -must have knowledge on disorder -will adding a normal copy of the gene fix the issues? -can the gene be delivered to the affected tissue (example: for CF gene can be delivered with an inhaler) *gene delivery must be able to function properly in order to do gene therapy, lethal un predicted outcomes may occurs (such as jesse's inflammation), when using viruses as vectors we must be carful with immune responses. *Not all diseases can be treated by gene therapy, and for a gene therapy to be successful vectors must target, integrate, activate,and avoid *a method of treating genetic disorders by inserting a functional copy of the missing or non functional gene into target cells

gene therapy

*ther were the first eukaryotes on planet earth *they live in moist/wet/ aquatic environments *most are unicellular though some are multicellular *they are classified as protest because they lack characteristics of plants animals and fungi

general characteristics of protists

*differences among offspring *the raw material that natural selection works with *can be created trough 1)meiosis -crossing over, independent separation of the chromosomes etc. And sexual reproduction (sperm and egg) 2)mutations -changes in genes=new traits

genetic variation

*uniqueness created by crossing over * this makes siblings not look exactly alike *crossing over and side it is pulled to in anaphase

genetical unique offspring

*contains two letters always *a pair of alleles/ genes one has *an organisms genetic make up aka allele combinations *type-o'-genes *ex TT Tt or tt

genotype

genotype for female

genotype for male

* speciation can get started because populations were prevented from interbreeding by geographic isolation. Scientists think that geographic isolation is a common way for the process of speciation to begin: rivers change course, mountains rise, continents drift, organisms migrate, and what was once a continuous population is divided into two or more smaller populations. *development of species apart from each other due to a geographical barrier, such as a physical barrier or an unfavorable habitat between the two populations that keeps them from mating with each other *reduction of gene flow *when a population is divided in to 2 populations by a physical barrier the 2 new populations will evolve according to the selection pressures of their new environments

geographic isolation

*major events in geologic time *precambrian era paleozoic era mesozoic era cenozoic era

geologic time scale

*mutations that occur in reproductive cells like eggs and sperm *they can have no change in a phenotype, or they can have a small/big change in a phenotype

germ line mutations

mammals derive their name from the mamary glands which produce milk to nourish young after birth, mammals also have other glands such as sweet glands for cooling off, oil glands, and saliva glands

glands

a highly branched chain of glucose

glycogen

glycolysis has a net gain of 2 atps

glycolysis and atp

*meaning they have a unique tag of sugar molecules attached to them *marker proteins (antigens)

glycoprotein

*sex organs *this is where sperm and egg cells aka gametes are created *where meiosis occurs in an animal cell

gonads

the place were gametogenesis takes place

gonads

grasses grow here, summers are hot, winters are cold, rainfall is hard to predict. animal life includes prairie dog, bison, foxes, ferrets, grouse, snakes, and lizards. tropical grasslands are called savannas

grass lands

a plants response to gravity

gravitropism/geotropism

he was born in Austria in 1821 and he then went to the monastery and was in charge of tending the monastery garden later he studied science and math at the university of vienna

gregor mendel back ground

*two sets of similar/ corresponding chromosomes *2 sets of 23 *the same chromosomes from each set *homologous pair

homologous chromosomes

it is replicated in the opposite direction in okazaki fragments

how is the leading strand replicated differently than the leading strand

*the amount of available water is on one of the factors that can control the opening or closing of the guard cells around the stomata. in dryer conditions the guard cells loose water and sag towards each other effectively closing the stomata. this helps prevent too much water loos. in wetter conditions the guard cells plump up with water away from each other opening the stomata. *a pair of guard cells on either side each stoma control its opening and closing *Guard cells are cells surrounding each stoma. They help to regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the stomata. To understand how they function, study the following figures. As you look at the figures, keep in mind that an increase in solute concentration lowers the water potential of the solution, and that water moves from a region with higher water potential to a region of lower water potential.

guard cells

loss of sensitivity to unimportant stimuli;allows animal to conserve time and energy (red stickleback fish)

habitual

*when an animal comes to ignore a repeated stimulus that is never followed by reward or punishment *a decline in response to harmless repeated/constant stimuli

habituation

*which is the amount of time it takes for 1/2 of the radioactivity to break down *c-14 is 5600 years *of a radio active isotope its 1.3 billion years

half life

*type of archaebacteria *"salt-loving", live in extremely salty water *live in extremely salty water

halophiles

*a cell that has only one set of chromosomes *haploid cells are necessary to create offspring through sexual reproduction *the haploid cells involved in sexual reproduction are known as gametes

haploid (1n)

*a hemoglobin gene is normal if the hemoglobin protein works fine *but if the instructions are changed/mutated changes in the hemoglobin protein could result as sickle cell anemia

hemoglobin genes and sickle cell anemia

*the bodies of herbivores are adapted to digest vegetable matter -they have flattened teeth prefect for chewing plant matter -have long intestines for digesting cellulose

herbivores

organisms that consume autotrophs and or other heterotrophs for energy

heterotrophs (consumers)

*response to cold temp, heart rate decreases, metabolism decreases, body temp decreases *is part of social behaviors which are part of the biological clock behavior which is part of instinct

hibernation

well

hole in gel where we place a sample

microtubules

hollow protein fibers

*Inherited from a common ancestor. Human eyes and mouse eyes are homologous structures because we each inherited them from our common ancestor that also had the same sort of eyes. *homologous characters are used to help build the hypothesis of the phylogenetic tree *characters in different organisms that are similar because they were inherited from a common ancestor that also had that character. *example: the four limbs of tetrapods *body parts similar in underlying structure due to inheritance from a common ancestor *function may or may not be the same

homologous structures

drives hooks into the intestines of their hosts and can cause anameia as they such your blood. They can be transmitted through the sin from contaminated soil

hook worm nematode

*sometimes chromosomes are incorrectly distributed into the egg or sperm cells during meiosis when this happens one cell may get 2 of a chromosome and the other gets none

how can a person get to few or too many chromosomes

by gout transported through facilitated diffusion

how can glucose enter a cell

organisms that are closely related have greater number of taxa in common. Thus you can determine evolutionary relationships a kaka phylogenies between two organisms simply by knowing how they are classified.

how can phylogenies be determined by using taxa

* first the generation number in roman numerals then a dash then their number *example I-1 or II-5

how can you point out a person from here?

*males are carriers *girls have the trait *it is not xxy

how can you tell that a pedigree is not sex linked

it shifts all of the codons! changing the proteins entirely !

how come a frameshift mutation is bad

it affects the polypeptide because it has the potential to change the protein/ amino acid

how come a point mutation is bad

*he isolated dna from different organism and measured the levels of bases to get results and T=1.0 A=1.1 G=2.6 and c=2.4 du to this he noticed that A+T where closely linked and that G+C were to, coming to the conclusion of how they are arranged/paired

how did chargaff's data help with the discovery of DNA's base paring rules

*it was able to grow in complete medium but not in minimal medium *it could not grow due to inability of obtaining vitamins (B.6)

how did x-rays negatively affect the mold culture #299

we use the CO.2 to make bread rise

how do humans use the CO.2 made during alcoholic fermentation

through transport proteins by active transport and these proteins act as pumps using tap

how do ions cross the membrane

*scientist use 3 key factors to identify chromosomes -size: easiest way to tell the chromosomes apart -banding pattern:the size and location of a band on chromosomes that make each chromosome pair unique -centromere position: it is the same in both due to the separation of the daughter cells (centromeres are regions in chromosomes that appear as a constriction and they have a special role in separation of the chromosomes- required for microtubules to attach to )

how do scientist read chromosomes

*Linnaeus based most of classification on the physical structures on the organisms both internal and external./Linnaeus used physical traits aka appearance *Nowadays in addition to anatomy, development and behavior .... we also use biochemistry which come pairs DNA and proteins, in addition to anatomy to determine relationships -today we categorize life based on phylogeny

how do we determine which organisms are more closely related to one another

*through biochemistry and molecular clocks we are able to estimate the dates of divergence between organisms, and as a result we are able to detect the changes that a species undergoes over time (aka we are able to chart the evolution of a species)

how do we use comparative biochemistry to gather evidence for evolution

break a phosphate bond/ remove a phosphate group

how do you et energy from ATP

*mate the unknown individual with one whose genotype is known aka: with one who is homozygous recessive

how do you preform a test cross

convergent evolution is explained by organisms evolving in response to similar environments / similar selection pressures

how doe we explain the evolution of similar traits from different common ancestors

it replicates in a semi-conservative way and in an anti parallel way because after the DNA with the help of helicase then each strand serves as template for the new other half of the DNA (semi conservative) and the way that this new half of the DNA is made depends if it is the leading strand or the lagging strand because both of those strands are replicated in different directions because template DNA strands both go in different directions making DNA replication anti-parallel and the DNA strands Anti-parallel

how does DNA replicate?

it regenerates NAD+ allowing glycolysis to run again and again for quick energy.

how does fermentation give us quick energy when we need it

the codon to anticodons interface helps ensure correct protein synthesis during translation by making sure that the correct amino acid gets delivered per the corresponding codon. It does this because the anticodon can only code for a specific codon and a specific amino acid which the tRNA worker with the anticodon will carry. Therefore the tRNA worker's anticodon will match up to its corresponding codon delivering the matching amino acid and not another "wrong" amino acid ;ensuring correct protein synthesis during translation.

how does the codon/anticodon interface help ensure correct protein synthesis during translation

cisgenic engineering is deferent because organisms are engineered by transferring genes between individuals that can breed naturally. While transonic organisms are engineered to have its own dan plus working genes from another species

how is cisgenic engineering different from transgenic engineering

seedless: swimming in water, seed plants: inside pollen

how is sperm delivered in seedless plants and in plants with seeds

it is divided up according to how they obtain their food

how is the kingdom protista divided up

*water is uptake from soil and it travels up the xylem through cohesion and adhesion while transpiration generates a pulling force on the column of water in the xylem/ once a water molecule exits it pulls another water molecule to the exit/stomata *cohesion is attraction to water *adhesion is attraction to something else

how is water able to move up throughout the xylem

how many CO.2 are made in glycolysis

one

how many DNA strands act as a template during the process of transcription

how many amino acids make a protein

*64 because 4^3=64 *4=the amount of letters available *3=how many are used

how many combinations of amino acids are there

how many hydrogen bonds does adenine make with thymine

1 and to unite with another one to form glucose

how many molecules of PGAL aka G3P exit during each turn of the calvin cycle and why

how many net ATP are made during the first step of all types of respiration

how may pyruvates are made in glycolysis

none

how much ATP is made in breakdown of pyruvic acids

how much ATP is made in glycolysis

4 - 2 in krebs, 2 in glycolysis, none in the breakdown of pyruvic acids

how much ATP is made in glycolysis, krebs, and breakdown of pyruvic acids

how much ATP is made in krebs

how much CO.2 is made in break down of pyruvic acids

none

how much CO.2 is made in glycolysis

6- 2 in BOP, 4 in krebs, 0 in glycolysis

how much CO.2 is made in krebs, break down of pyruvic acids, and glycolysis

2- 2 in krebs, 0 in glycolysis, 0 in BOP

how much FADH.2 is made in glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and breakdown of pyruvic acids

how much FADH.2 is made in krebs

10- 2 in glycolysis, 2 in BOP, 6 (3*2) in krebs

how much NADH is made in the break down of pyruvic acids, the krebs cycle, and glycolysis

*78% nitrogen gas vs 21% oxygen gas

how much of the earth's atmosphere is made up of nitrogen gas compared to oxygen

* 1st determine whether there is a greater % of water inside or outside a cell *then determine which way the water will diffuse remembering that diffusion moves materials from higher concentration to lower concentration

how to solve problems to analyze concentrations and determine which way the water will diffuse

*he proposed a tripple helix *pauling had forgotten the negative charges of the oxygen atom in a phosphate group and the way he staked them, the charges would in actuality repel each other

how was Pauling incorrect about his theory of DNA structure (what did he propose)

Anti-___ antibodies

how would you write specific antibodies

*It is created by 1) somatic cell nucleus and an enucleated e.g. are fused 2) a zygote is created 3)the zygote becomes a blastocyst 4)stem cells can be harvested and then differentiated into different types of cells such as pancreatic cells, nerve cells, or muscle cells *can be used to get replace organs/parts/or tissues to treat diseases such as spinal injuries -the replaced organ/part/tissues will not be rejected because it has the same marker proteins *it doesn't allow the cloned zygote to develop into an offspring instead the zygote dies after the stem cells are removed in the blstocyst stage *this can create Embryonic stem cells that are pluripotent and that won't be refused by the body

human cellular cloning, therapeutic cloning

*type of WBC called "b--cells" who produce specific antibodies against foreign antigens

humoral active immunity response

*the combination of two or more different things. *An offspring resulting from the cross between parents of different species or sub-species. *For instance, a mule is an animal produced by breeding animals of different breeds, particularly a cross between a horse and a donkey.

hybrid

breaking apart a polymer (into monomers) by adding in a molecule of water (H+OH)

hydrolysis reactions

plants grow towards water-> it is a positive tropism

hydrotropism

*a solution that contains a higher concentration of solute and thus a lower concentration of water than the cell exposed to the solution *in a hypertonic solution water will diffuse out of the cell *saltier than *makes the cell shrink

hypertonic solution

how many of each phenotype are present in the offspring

phenotypic ratio

* a solution that contains a lower concentration of solute and thus a higher concentration of water than the cell exposed to the solution. * in a hypotonic solution water will diffuse into a cell *fresher than *makes the cell grow

hypotonic solution

Dna fingerprinting

identifying an individual using their unique DNA arrangement

to make insulin!!!! and to reproduce in order to get more bacteria to make more insulin

if a scientist gives a bacteria a human gene for insulin using recombinant technology what does the scientist want the bacteria to do?

thr-tyr-gly

if mRNA consist of this order of bases ACAUAUGGC which polypeptide will be created

they would be in the kingdom plant but they can't photosynthesize

if sponges weren't in the kingdom porifera what kingdom would they be in? What prevents them from being in this kingdom?

because they where inherited from a common ancestor

if vestigial structures are functionless why do organisms still posses the genes to make it

*our protection form disease *our bodies responses to pathogens/ foreign invaders that can make us sick

immunity

all cells coming from after cell division will be cells with those mutations to DNA replication

impact of mutations

*learning with a time limit -imprinting is learning that can only occur during a short window of time *learning with a significant innate component acquired during a critical time period *usually occurs early in life and involves forming a social attachment usually irreversible

imprinting

5-carbon sugar

in a nucleotide what connects to the nitrogen bases

*it means that the answer to life is chocolate... jkjk *to get rid of cellular debris (trash) on the bacteria cells. And as a result separate/create lysate to later use for transformation assays

in avery's test tube assay, he used detergent to "lyse" bacteria cells, what does this mean?

1) porifera; sponges have no ceolom 2) cnidaria; jellyfish have no coelom 3)platyhelminthes; flat worms have no coelom 4)nematoda;round worms have a pseudocoelom 5)annelida;segmented worms have a true coelom 6)mullusca; true coelom 7)arthropoda have true coelom 8)echinodermata have true coelom 9)chordata have a true coelom

in chart write yellow for true coelom blue for no coelom and orange for pseudocoelom

*crossing over within one sister/itself *pieces are on the wrong side of the centromere/on the wrong arm

inversion

*in photosynthesis: -light energy→ NADPH and ATP→ glucose -light energy energy energizes electrons till they reach the final acceptor and create NADPH and indirectly ATP with the energy they give off while getting to the final electron acceptor. -this energy is then used in the calvin cycle to create glucose *in aerobic respiration: -glucose→ FADH.2 and NADH→ ATP -from glucose turns into FADH.2 and NADH consecutively by becoming a pyruvate, AcetylCoA, Citric acid, and a four carbon molecule -the energy made from this aka: NADH and FADH.2 transfers electrons from sugar to etc to produce ATP... though some other ATPs are made along the way

in photosynthesis and respiration starting forms of energy undergo to mayor energy conversions

palisade mesophyll

in what layer of a leaf does most photosynthesis take place

our traits are in our genes that encode the instructions that define our traits

in what our traits in

in telophase

in what stage of mitosis do the chromosomes uncoil

in telophase

in what stage of mitosis does the mitotic spindle disappear

when an enzyme slightly changes to fit its substrate

induced fit theory

*they are automatic responses to the environment- genetically determined *inherited behavior programmed by our genes; shows natural select (because natural selection also selects behavioral traits not only structural traits) *reflexes or instinct

innate behavior

*3 body segments: head, thorax, abdomen *3 pairs of legs so 6 legs *2 eyes *metamorphosis *parthenogenesis is de development of unfertilized eggs a sexual reproduction. *breath through holes in their abdomen called spiracles

insecta

gene therapy

inserting functioning copies of genes into a person with a genetic disorder

an extra letter is aded

insertion or duplication

*type of learning in which the animal formulates a course of action by understanding the relationships between the parts of a problem *allows an animal to encounter a new situation and figure it by extrapolating from previous similar experiences *includes all symbolic logic such as reading and math and problem solving behavior *limited mostly to primates *the ability to perform appropriate behavior on the first try without previous learning *mental trial and error

insight learning/reasoning

glycogen

insulin promotes polymerization to create

*A partially assembled adaptation. Complex adaptations evolve in a series of smaller steps and these steps along the history of an adaptation's evolution are called intermediate forms. *may have been an advantageous intermediates *taking features that evolved in one context and using them for new functions

intermediate form

*after the sensory neuron rescieves the signal it sends it to the inter neuron *an interneuron's job is simply to pass the signal along. they are located inside the CNS so in our brain and spinal chord and they help coordinate signals between other neurons including transmuting signals to the brain *after the interneuron receives the signal it sends it to the motor neurons

interneurons

* G1 Phase: Normal metabolic activity; the cell grows, makes proteins, acquires and uses energy etc *S Phase: all the pieces of chromatin replicate-make a copy of themselves aka DNA replication *G2 phase: final growth phase; organelles and cell parts needed for division are made

interphase

*cells in the gonads do normal cell stuff like grow *a diploid cell in the gonads replicates all of its DNA/chromatin which is making a copy of themselves *the same also happens just prior to mitosis *same as mitosis

interphase of meiosis

*he suggested a theory known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics. *he believed that characteristics that one acquired during a lifetime could be passed down to the next generation. Thus if you work aug and become really strong then your kids will be born with a propensity toward strength.

jean baptiste lamarck

*a diagram of our 46 chromosomes paired into 23 homologous pairs *scientist can create a karyotype of an individual by isolating the chromosomes from a cell in metaphase and lining then up pair by pair *homologous pairs are assigned a particular number name from 1-23

karyotype

*in mitochondria *both AcetylCoA now go through the Kreb's cycle which is a series of chemical reactions *the cycle runs twice one time per AcetylCoA *in two turns of the krebs cycle these are produced: 4 CO.2+2 ATP+2 FADH.2+6 NADH *the NADH and FADH.2 are energy molecules and electron carriers

kreb's cycle

1) plasma membrane 2)DNA 3)ribosomes 4)pili 5)flagellum 6)cell wall

label this picture of e coli

*the strand being replicated in the opposite direction of the unzipping *it is replicated in short pieces called okazaki fragments that will later be stitched together

lagging strand

genes for different traits are inherited independently

law of independent assortment

mendel learned that genes for different traits are inherited separately of each other (just because its (a pea) something (yellow) does not mean it is something else (round)

law of independent assortment

by performing these these crosses- crossing a TT with tt to get 4 Tt's and then crossing 2 of the Tt's to have tt come back again- mendel learned that it takes two factors- today known as genes- to give an offspring trait. Mendel learned that offspring receive one of these factors from each parent. He hypothesized that the 2 factors an individual has must separate from each other before being passed to the offspring... today we know this process as meiosis in what separates one's alleles into different gametes

law of segregation

each individual has 2 factors for a trait that separate/ segregate into different gametes when being passed to offspring in this way offspring receive one factor today known as a gene

law of segregation

*imprinting, habitual, trial and error learning, classical conditioning, insight learning/ reasoning *behaviors that animals learn how to do, behaviors that are acquired thru experience such as watching or hearing, and thru practice *they rely on underlying genetic components

learned behaviors

*they take in light and carbon dioxide in order to perform photosynthesis and gas exchange *they use the phloem to transport food made in these mature leaves to the roots and parts of the shoot system that don't photosynthesize such as developing fruits *they are an organ

leaves

1) light hits photosystem 2 2) excited electrons are stripped from chlorophyll and transferred to the first electron transport chain (ETC) protein 3)water splits to replace missing electrons (photolysis) 4)Also liberated from water: O atom (which will be released from he cell as O.2) and 2H+ which will remain inside the thylakoid 5)electrons are passed down the etc losing energy as they bounce from protein to protein 6)this energy is used to pump H+ into the thylakoid space 7)electrons are next passed to photosystem 1 where they are re-energized by light 8)the final electron acceptor is NADP+ creating NADPH and energy carrier 9)the high concentration of H+ in the thylakoid next diffuses outward through a membrane protein called ATP synthase 10) the outflow releases energy to produce ATP from ADP and P

light reaction steps: (there are 10 steps)

*factors in the environment that can limit the size and distribution of a poulation *these factors can be either abiotic (hurricanes, soil nutrients, etc.) or biotic (predators, competition, etc.) *limit a populations size and change the J shaped exponential shape to an S shape

limiting factors

Patterns of lineage-splitting can be identified by constructing and examining a phylogeny. and it can examine how it has split, constant/same time or in an unusual and frequent way

lineage-splitting aka speciation

*made from phospholipids and proteins * the hydrophilic part of the phospholipid orients themselves so they are in contact with the water both inside and outside the cell (polar likes polar) *and the hydrophobic tails/non polar tails, are together in the middle away from the water *the hydrophobic part tries to decrease contact with water as much as possible

lipid bilayer

fats, oils, and waxes

lipids are also known as:

lipids are hydrophobic/ non-polar and do not dissolve in water

lipids are____ and therefore they ____ dissolve in _____

-because it was thought that they were more likely to transmit hereditary information. due to that it seemed that it (DNA) was assembled in a monotonous patten and that it had no specific function/ no importance had been found for dna at the time. ALso protein had a more complex way of encoding things

list 2 reasons why proteins instead of dna were thought to molecules of hereditary information

*DNA replication is for cell division *transcription is for proteins synthesis

list a difference between dna replication and transcription

*the evolution of different mating location, mating time, or mating rituals: example:bowerbirds construct elaborate bowers and decorate them with different colors in order to woo females. If two incipient species evolved differences in this mating ritual, it might permanently isolate them and complete the process of speciation. *lack of fit between sexual organisms * if the flies find mates by hanging out on preferred foods, then if they return to the mainland, they will not end up mating with mainland flies because of this different food preference.Gene flow would be greatly reduced; and once gene flow between the two species is stopped or reduced, larger genetic differences between the species can accumulate. *offspring inviability or sterility:All that courting and mating is wasted if the offspring of matings between the two groups do not survive or cannot reproduce.

list some of the barriers to gene flow that may contribute to speciation.

*adenine-A *guanine-G *cytosine-C *Thymine-T

list the 4 nitrogen bases for DNA

these fish have muscular fins which they can use to walk across sea bottoms. most lobe finned fish are extinct today only one example still exists- the coelacanth

lobe finned fish

logistic growth shape

1)the virus lands on the host cell and THE VIRUS ATTACHES TO THE HOST CELL 2)INJECTION OF GENETIC MATERIAL/nucleic acids 3)THE VIRAL MATERIAL INCORPORATES ITSELF INTO THE HOST'S MAIN CHROMOSOME WITHOUT HARMING IT IN ANHY WAY... this viral DNA is now called a provirus 4)THE TRANSGENIC CELL REPRODUCES BY BINARY FISSION AND IT CONTINUES DOING NORMAL ACTIVITIES 5) AT SOME UNKNOWN TIME USUALLY WHEN THE HOST IS WEAK OR STRESSED the viral genes are activated and THE PROVIRUS POPS OUT OF THE HOST CHROMOSOME AND GOES INTO STEP 3 OF THE LYTIC CYCLE (where it hacks us to get energy to do transcription and translation to make viral parts and assemble them) 6)RELEASE OF NEW VIRUSES... either by a thing similar to exocytosis of by lysis which involves breaking the cell -new viruses dil the cell and burst out to infect more cells; the host cell dies

lysogenic cycle

1) the virus lands on the host cell and it attaches to it 2)Either :Injection of genetic material or the virus is "absorbed" into the host cell sort of like endocytosis 3)viral genes and proteins are made: to do this the host cell DNA is destroyed and the host cells organelles are used to make copies of viral genes and proteins -the viral nucleic acid of the bacteria is replicated and then transcription and translation occur... for transcription and translation the viruses are hacking us to get energy to build their protein 4) assembly go viral parts 5)release of new viruses... either by a thing similar to exocytosis of by lysis which involves breaking the cell -new viruses kill the cell and burst out to infect more cells; the host cell dies

lytic Cycle

*lytic viruses are viruses that immediately begin to kill the host cell thus these viruses tend to make a person sick right away like the cold or the flue *lysogenic viruses go into hiding as a dormant proviruses. These viruses tend to have a latency period or tend to be reoccurring like HIV, herpes, chicken pox/ shingles

lytic viruses vs lysogenic viruses

*changes above the level of species over a very large period of time *Macroevolution refers to evolution of groups larger than an individual species. *mutation/gene flow/genetic drift/natural selection + 3.8 billion years =macro evolution *Macroevolution is evolution on a grand scale — what we see when we look at the over-arching history of life: stability, change, lineages arising, and extinction.

macroevolution

*10,000 years ago: beginnings of agriculture lead to a slight increase in the birth rate *1650+: improvements in sanitation and medicine lead to a large decrease in the death rate *20th century: more improvements in medicine such as antibiotics and agriculture such as the green revolution

major events in human population growth

*ciliates *zooflagellates *sarcodina *sporozoans

major protozoan phyla

*put the recombinant plasmid into a host bacteria

making a transgenic bacteria by using plasmids as vectors step three

*splice /insert/join 2 loose ends of a desired foreign DNA into the cut plasmid using the enzyme ligase to seal the sugar/phosphate backbone

making a transgenic bacteria by using plasmids as vectors step two

mamals evolved from therapsid reptiles in the early mesozoic era close to the time when dinosaurs evolved from a different group of reptiles. after the extinction of dinosaurs, mammals underwent adaptive radiation evolving to fill the major land niches during the cenozoic era

mammalia background

*have fur or hair and subcutaneous/under the skim fat both can be used for insulation *almost all give birth to live young *glands: mammals derive their name from the mamary glands which produce milk to nourish young after birth, mammals also have other glands such as sweet glands for cooling off, oil glands, and saliva glands

mammalia major characteristics

all mammals are endotherms like birds. maintaining a constant body temperature through metabolic actions requires a large amount of food energy. endothermy allows mammals to inhabit ecosystems throughout the world including some of the worlds coldest regions

mammalian body temperature regulation

all mammals have a double loop circulatory system and a four chambered heart with complete separation of the right and left sides. circulation is highly efficient ands strong for delivering oxygen and nutrients to body cells.

mammalian circulation

may be herbivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous. teeth-the shape of mmalian teed varies depending on diet. herbivores have large teeth, carnivores have long sharp teeth, and omnivores have some of each. the digestive system varies with the animals diet. herbivores tend to have longer digestive tracts filled with microorganisms such as bacteria that can digest cellulose

mammalian feeding

most primitive:monotremes are oviparous. the offspring develop in reptilian like amniotic eggs.placental mammals are viviparous. unlike marsupials placentals have a longer period of development inside their mothers uterus. they are able to do this due to an organ called the placenta. tissues from the embryo fuse to the mother's uterus from the placenta. it is through this organ that oxygen, nutrients, and waste diffuse between the developing offspring's blood and the mothers blood.marsupials are viviparous meaning they give birth to live young. however the young are born very early and must complete development inside the mother's pouch. most mammals care for their young after birth

mammalian reproduction

all mammals have lungs with a large number of alveoli which provide a large surface area for gas exchange. all mammals have a diaphragm- a muscle below the lungs that draws air into the lungs

mammalian respiration

mammals have the most highly developed brains of any animal. mammals depend on their highly developed senses and complex behaviors for survival

mammalian response

*marsupials are viviparous meaning they give birth to live young. however the young are born very early and must complete development inside the mother's pouch *most liven in australia or south america *examples include koalas, kangaroos, opossums

marsupials

*tools such as: -a gene gun used for plants -micropipettes used for animals

mechanical vectors

*golden rice: -scientist genetically engineered rice planes with a gene to produce beta-carotene and vitamin A -It would help people in developing countries get vitamin A-> and as a result the people could avoid going blind *sheep and cows: -scientist genetically engineered a gene for human blood clotting factor #9 in sheep and cows -this would have cows and sheep produce the protein in their milk to sell it to people with HIV and Hemophilia *chickens: -transgenic chickens that interfere with viral replication -this prevents chickens from spreading bird flue-> less "leaping " from birds to humans

medical examples of GMO/Genetic Engineering

*meiosis is the process in which diploid cells undergo cell division to produce haploid cells *the process of meiosis halves the number of chromosomes starting with a cell with 2 sets of chromosomes and ending up with daughter cells that only have one set of chromosomes

meiosis

*the cll division process that makes gametes *one diploid body cell-> divides twice to become->4 haploid cells *occurs in the gonads- ovaries and testes *halfs the numer *makes gametes

meiosis

*it consist of - prophase II -metaphase II -anaphase II -telophase II -cytokinesis *it is basically the stages of mitosis *the daughter cells created are haploid

meiosis II

meiosis halves the number and mitosis keeps the number the same

meiosis ____ the number and mitosis _____ the number _______

membranes are made out of lipids that is why they repel water

membranes are made out of ______ that is why they ____ ____

a change in gene frequency. A change in gene frequency over time means that the population has evolved.

microevolutionary pattern:

they are protein fivers that help give a cell some shape and form, together they form the cell's cytoskeleton, these fibers are also involved in cell motility.

microfilaments and microtubules

*moving from place to place *examples:monarchs and whales *is part of social behaviors which are part of the biological clock behavior which is part of instinct

migration

*in the 1950's they conducted a series of experiments based on the hypothesis that the atmosphere on earth was filled with reducing gases (molecules with a tendency to give away electrons) like ammonia, methane, water, and hydrogen gas *miller and urey set up an enclosed apparatus filled with these gases in an attempt to simulate these hypothesized conditions of the early precambrian era. The results showed the formation of several simple amino acids and a few other organic molecules *it was basically the water cycle of the precambrian era.

miller and urey

*miller and urey set up an enclosed apparatus filled with these gases in an attempt to simulate these hypothesized conditions of the early precambrian era. The results showed the formation of several simple amino acids and a few other organic molecules *it was basically the water cycle of the precambrian era.

miller and ureys experiments

*pill shaped organelle with 2 membranes, the outer membrane defines the edge of the organelle while the inner membrane is highly folded and by having all of the folds it has a lot of extra surface area. And all of this surface area ( provided by the inner folds) allow the mitochondria to produce a lot of ATP * they are considered to be the power plants for eukaryotic cells *made out of membrane *mitochondria manufacture energy for the cell, in other words they convert the energy stored in the food we eat into another form of energy that cells can use called ATP, this process is called celular respiration

mitochondria

*across between two individuals in which only one trait is examined

monohybrid cross

a smaller "link" molecule

monomer

simple sugas such as glucose and fructose

monosaccharides

shape

morph

The study of the form and structure of organisms. For example, comparing the shape of the femur in different grazing mammals is a morphological study.

morphology

most cells contain 2 sets but sperm and egg sells contain 1 set

most cells contain ___ sets but sperm and egg contain ____set

*Water enters a plant through the root hairs, passes through the tissues of the root into the xylem, and travels up through the xylem vessels into the leaves. Transpiration, the evaporation of water from the leaves, is the major factor that pulls the water up through the plant. *When water enters the roots, hydrogen bonds link each water molecule to the next so the molecules of water are pulled up the thin xylem vessels like beads on a string. The water moves up the plant, enters the leaves, moves into air spaces in the leaf, and then evaporates (transpires) through the stomata (singular, stoma).

movement of water in a plant

*A species interaction in which both of the interacting species profit from the interaction. *Many plants and their pollinators are so reliant on one another and their relationships are so exclusive that biologists have good reason to think that the "match" between the two is the result of a coevolutionary process.

mutualism

*a relationship between 2 organisms where both organisms benefit *sea anemone protects clownish from predators and clownfish' wiggle dance among the tentacles helps aerate the anemone with oxygen *aphids are insects that such juices from plants for their nutrition their sugar rich poo aka honeydew is eaten by ants. in return the aphids gain protection from the ants that derive off any potential aphid predators and they even carry them new plants for them to feed on. *e coli lives in our intestinal trac consuming some of our food waste. in return the bacteria help us absorb some needed vitamins that help develop our immune system

mutualism and examples

*it is make up of individual schwan cells . Nain lout does not occur on/under the myelin sheath so signal goes faster with a myelin sheath. Some diseases that get rid or affect the myelin shift can lead to being paralyzed or moving really slow since it takes more time for nain kout *a coat of insulation around the axn of certain neurons-> it allows the nerve impulse to leapfrog over sections of the axon so that the signal is sent more quickly. in this leap frogging action the potential occurs in the gaps in the melin sheath called nodes of Ranvier

myelin sheath

temperature, ph, and high salinity, enzyme concentration, amount of substrates

name factors that can denature an enzyme

a)cuticle b)palisade mesophyll c)spongy mesophyll d)epidermis (lower) e)stomata f)vein g)guard cells

name the parts of the leaf

1)dendrites 2)axon 3)axon endings 4)myelin sheath

name the parts of the nerve cell/neuron

* pyramid of energy *pyramid of numbers *pyramid of biomass

name the types of pyramids

1)coccus aka round 2)bacillis aka rod 3)spirillum aka spiral 4)strepto aka chain 5)diplo aka paired 60 staphylo aka bunch

name these types of bacteria shapes

transpiration andhesion cohesion

name three factors that affect the movement of water up a plant

1) bacteria have evolved resistance to antibiotics 2) pest have evolved a resistance to insecticides

name to examples of organisms evolving resistance to something

* spores can develop into a new organism with ought fussing with another cell while 2 gametes must fuse to form a zygote *spores of some plants have tough coats that enable them to resist harsh environments while gamers are not adapted to resist harsh conditions *gametophyte which is haploid and sporophyte which is diploid

name two differences between spores and gamtes

NADPH and ATP

name two energy molecules that are produced during the light reactions and used during the calvin cycle

*the Leber was injected directly to the retina *it used a safer virus *the eye is enclosed therefore it does not have as many T cells

name two reasons why therapy for Leber congenital amaurosis was more successful than the OTC deficiency trials

*we could make better plants, more resistant to pesticides therefore reducing insecticides; this could lead to more crops/food and eventually to the end of world hunger *putting breast cancer genes into mouse zygotes in order to test drugs on mouse and hopefully find the cure to cancer *growing bacteria with human insulin genes in order to get insulin for diabetics

name uses for transgenic organisms

*thru the placenta and breast milk *body receives antibodies from a natural source *when the body receives antibodies from a natural source (ex. when a baby is still in the mother and gets antibodies across the placenta / a baby getting more antibodies from mother through breastmilk)

natural passive immunity

*a theory explaining how evolution occurs; organisms hat are better adapted to a given environment survive and leave more offspring having those traits beneficial for survival *change in a population that occurs when individuals with favorable variations for a certain environment survive, reproduce and pass on those variations to the next generation *Imagine that green beetles are easier for birds to spot (and hence, eat). Brown beetles are a little more likely to survive to produce offspring. They pass their genes for brown coloration on to their offspring. So in the next generation, brown beetles are more common than in the previous generation.

natural selection

acts like a switch detraining whether or not the RNA polymerase can attach to the promoter

operator

a type of waste that animals have to get rid of, it can come in the form of ammonia

nitrogenous waste

*nodules are bumps on the roots of plants known as legumes that act as a nitrogen fixing areas :N.2→ NH.4+

nodules in the nitrogen cycle

the dan or ran of a virus

nucleic acid core

*the nucleolus is a darker/dense region that lies WITHIN the nucleus *it produces ribosomes due to that the components of ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleolus

nucleolus

*the organelle that most defines eukaryotic cells, it is typically one of the largest structures in a cell. *since it is the central control area of a cell the nucleus determines nearly all of what happens to a cell. *Cell's DNA is located/ stored/ protected inside the nucleus

nucleus

the organelle that most defines eukaryotic cells, it is typically one of the largest structures in a cell.

nucleus

*in DNA replication (after helicase untwist and unzips the double structure of DNA) nucleotides, with help of DNA polymerase, match up with their complementery base to reform the double helix structure along both exposed strands.

nuclotides in DNA replication

*have adaptations for consuming plant material and some adaptations for consuming animal flesh

omnivores

on Not1's cleavage site how many unpaired bases are left on each sticky end

the enzyme DNA ligase

once a human gene has been cleaved and then added to a plasmid, which enzyme would be added to complete the splicing process

they bounce to the final electron acceptor which is NADP+ creating NADPH an energy carrier

once the electrons go to photosystem one

specific name for producing ova, 4 haploid cells are produced but three cells drop out as polar bodies and one ovum remains

oogenesis

gill over that moves to help pull water across their gills

operculum

*some fungi and bacteria also do Lactic Acid fermentation; humans use them to make cheese+yogurt *yeast *lactose--> lactic acid *bacteria --> yogurt

other animals that commit fermentation

*goats: -scientist have genetically engineered goats with a gene from spider to produce spider silk in goats milk -this silk can be used for artificial tenants and ligaments and this could also be used to create bullet proof vests *pigs: -scientist have engineered pigs with genes that will allow them to extract more phosphorous from their food -this would reduce the amount of phosphorous in animal poop-> and this would reduce water pollution

other examples of GMO/ Genetic Engineering

sticky ends

overhanging single strands of DNA left by restriction enzymes

keep eggs inside their body and bear live young

ovoviviparous

*as the NADH and FADH.2 are loosing their electrons on the ETC they also loose their protons into the matrix *this creates a high concentration gradient in this area *ATP synthase found in the inner membrane adjacent to electron transport chains creates ATP by using the hight concentration of protons as an energy source *the H+ diffuse along their gradient through ATP synthase and this energy of flowing protons is used by ATP synthase to attach phosphates to ADP creating 34 more ATP

oxidative phosphorylation

photosynthetic bacteria began pumping oxygen gas into earths atmosphere around 2.9 b.y.a. (cyanobacteria)

oxygen revolution

*pure-breeding green x pure-breeding yellow

p1 generations

1*cambrian explosion of invertebrate life: ~545 million years ago 2*arthropods such as trilobites appear 3*first vertebrates which are fish: ~ 500 million years ago 4*first land plants ~450 million years ago 5*first land animals which are insects and amphibians: ~400 million years ago 6*first reptiles:~300 million years ago

paleozoic era

in the palisade layer the mesophyll cells contain many chloroplast so most of a plants photosynthesis takes place in the is layer

palisade mesophyll

*a relationship between 2 organisms where one organism benefits and the other is harmed *heart worms, fleas, brain worms, tapeworms, lice

parasitism and examples

* passive because no energy is required to cause the substance to move *substances simply move with their concentration gradient (high to low) * diffusion, osmoses, facilitated diffusion

passive transport

bacteria that cause diseases

pathogens

it is a type of antibiotic that kills bacteria by weakening their cell wall. This makes them susceptible to osmotic pressure and eventually the cell lyses aka pops. Penicillen docent harm animal cells because they do not have cell walls. Furthermore it doesn't harm plant or fungi cells because they have a very different type of cell wall

penicillin

they are able to do this because they don't have antibodies therefore no blood is foreign to it so it can receive any type of blood

people with type AB blood are called universal blood recipients because they can receive any blood type in a transfusion. Explain how they are bale to do this

this is possible because O blood has no antigens so other blood types cannot mark it as foreign, therefore there is no clumping in the blood stream

people with type O blood called universal donors because their blood can be transfused into people with other blood types. Explain how this is possible

*small membrane bound sac like structures that contain enzymes but unlike lysosomes peroxisomes contain catalyses a type of enzyme that breaks down destructive hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen

peroxisomes

small membrane bound sac like structures that contain enzymes but unlike lysosomes peroxisomes contain catalyses a type of enzyme that breaks down destructive hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen

peroxisomes

is a logarithmic scale because as you decrease the hydrogen ions increase x 10 H+ (ph2 = 0.01 and Ph5=0.00001). it measures acidity or basicity of a substance (1-14) 1=acid 7= neutral 14= strongly basic/alkaline

ph scale

*cell eating *the ell engulfs solid particles or bits of particles which would be too large to pass through the lipid bilayer

phagocytosis

*it is a triglyceride but instead of 3 fatty acids it has 2 fatty acids and one phosphate group attached to the glycerol back bone. *the fatty acid region is non polar/hydrophobic and the phosphate group is polar and hydrophilic. *have phosphate group, a glycerol back bone, and 2 fatty acid chains

phospholipid

detecting day length actually night length to time seasonal activities, uses pigments called phytochrom. *examples: when two make growers and or let leafs go

photoperiodism

*inorganic CO.2→ C.6H.12O.6 *this glucose produced by plants is then passed down up the food chain due to animals eating the plants and other animals eating the herbivores

photosynthesis in the carbon cycle

a plants response to light which is usually positive but it depends

phototropism

*The evolutionary relationships among organisms; the patterns of lineage branching produced by the true evolutionary history of the organisms being considered. Many of the phylogenies you encounter are the "family trees" of groups of closely related species, but we can also use a phylogeny to depict the relationships between all life forms *We can zoom in on particular branches of the tree to explore the phylogeny of particular lineages, such as Animalia (outlined in red). And then we can zoom in even further to examine some of the major lineages within Vertebrata.

phylogeny

*evolutionary relationship between organisms is known as a phylogeny *scientist often illustrate phylogenic relationships by drawing a phylogenetic tree *an organisms evolutionary history or how closely it is related to other organisms

phylogeny

1)they have three germ layers the endoderm the ecto deem and the mesoderm 2)they were the first to have bilateral symmetry 3)they are protostomes so they formed the mouth first and they are a coelomates so they have no body cavity 4)they respire through diffusion and that makes the flattened shape necessary

phylum Platyhelminthes aka flatworms characteristics

earthworms, leaches, bristle worms aka marine polychaetes

phylum annelida aka segmented worms examples

1)jointed appendages such as legs, anteni, claws,and eyes; artro-pod literraly means jointed feet 2)chitinous segmented exoskeleton 3)molting:shedding of exoskeleton they do this to get larger 4)ventral nerve chord 5)open circulatory system

phylum arthropoda characteristics

1)they are soft bodied 2)radially symmetric 3)they have two germ layers and are neither protosomes nor deutorosomes 4)aquating 5)they sting pray using nematocysts: which injects a paralyzing potion into pray making 6)most are hermaphrodites

phylum cnidaria characteristics

1) body form: a sessile polyp such as an anemone or a motile medusa like form such as a jelly fish 2)no head/no brain but they have a nerve net for reflexes and contractions 3)they have nematocys which sting the prey (usually located on tentacles) on the outer part of the body so not in the digestive cavity side. Usually near the mouth

phylum cnidaria structure

1) spines covering their bodies 2)pentaradial symmetry as adults bilateral symmetry as larvae 3) endoskeleton 4)no head/no brain; nerve ring only 5)breath using gills 6) sexual reproduction (mainly)... also asexual reproduction: many can regenerate body parts 7) water vascular system-a network of tubes that function for transporting nutrients and gases and locomotion since the water vascular system is connected to tube feed which are tiny suction cups for moving

phylum echinodermata spiny skin

1)they use a muscular foot for locomotion 2)have a mantle that secretes their shells this tissue covers their visceral mass which contains all their organs 3)they use gills for breathing 4)phylum means soft bodied 5)have bilateral symmetry 6)coelomates;true body cavity 7)protostomes: mouth developed first 8)breath through gills

phylum mollusca characteristics

1) nematodes are round worms with no descriptor bodies that taper to a pint at both ends 2)they are pseudo coelomates so they have a body cavety not completely lined with a mesoderm 3)they are the first to have a complete digestive tract-mouth to anus and all animals from here forward will have this 4)they ar very common in soil and in the ocean although most like in the ocean 5)some are parasitic and 1 in 4 humans has a nematode parasite 6)they use a fluid file d cavity as a rigid support system called a hydrostatic skeleton for the worms. 7)they obtain oxygen through their skin so they must be moist at all times

phylum nematoda aka roundworms characteristics

*characteristics of ones physical make up *hair color, eye color, height *polygenic inheritance

physical traits

hair-like fibers found on bacteria

pilus/pilli

*cell drinking *the membrane engulfs and takes in bits of liquid

pinocytosis

endocytosis

pinocytosis and phagocytosis are types of

simple plants, ferns (devonian period in the paleozoic), cone bering plants (triassic period in the mesozoic), flowering plants (cretaceous period in the mesozoic)

place these plant groups in order from first to most recent: cone-bearing plants, ferns, flowering plants, simple plants

an organ formed from the tissues of the embryo which fuse into the mother's uterus in the form of plassenta. it is through this organ that oxygen nutrients and waste diffuse between the developing offspring and the mother's blood

placenta

*placental mammals are viviparous. unlike marsupials placentals have a longer period of development inside their mothers uterus. they are able to do this due to an organ called the placenta. tissues from the embryo fuse to the mother's uterus from the placenta. it is through this organ that oxygen, nutrients, and waste diffuse between the developing offspring's blood and the mothers blood *examples include humans, mice, bats, whales, deer, and manatees

placentals

*multicellular *photosynthetic *develop in mom *land dwelling *autotrophic

plant

*plasmids can be used as vectors-but they are considered non viral vectors *in nature bacteria use plasmids to transfer and share genes with one another *they can carry larger ends than viruses and most don't trigger an immune response but they are less efficient in getting the genes into the cells *an extra piece of circular DNA found in bacteria separate from the main circular chromosome *they are bad at reproducing within cells, they can be rejected by the cell membrane , and they are not as stable with effective gene expression

plasmid

a protective jacket wich contains the plant's gametes, aka they are a protective structure that contains the gymnosperm's sperm. this prevents the sperm from drying out and most importantly it allows the sperm to travel typically by the with.

pollen grains

long polymer carbohydrates; starch, glycogen and cellulose which are all long chains of glucose

polysaccharides

*a group of organisms living close to one another that interbreed with one another and do not breed with other similar groups; a gene pool. Depending on the organism populations may occupy a greater or smaller geographical regions *a group of species that interbreeds

population

is a group made of only 1 species living in the same place and time

population

*bar graphs that shows the number/percent of males and females in different age groups *they include pre-reproductive years, reproductive years, and post reproductive years

population/age structure pyramids

(a group of 1 species) evolve or change over time- this is how organisms become adapted to their environment

populations evolve

are when the plant grows towards or in the same direction as a stimulus. for example positive hydrotropism is when a plants roots grow towards a water source

positive tropisms

a radioactive isotope with a a half-life of 1.3 billion years can be housed to date fossils and rocks that are 100's of millions of years old

potassium-40

*the ability of stem cells to become something -totipotent= can become all type of cells -pluripotent=can turn into many types of cells -multipotent=it can turn into a lot of cells but not into all cells

potency of stem cells

*age of the earth:~4.6 billion years old 1*oldest evidence o life was prokaryotic: between 3.5 and 4 billion years ago 2*cyanobacteria and the start of photosynthesis > 2.5 billion years ago: first autotrophs are not plants 3*first evidence o eukaryotic cells about 1.5 billion years ago Endosymbiotic Theory 4*first multicellular life forms such as sponges and jelly fish ~700 million years ago

precambrian era

*an increased risk of getting certain type of diseases *it is also a trait that can be passed from parent to child *sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, heart disease, cancer, and some mental illnesses can be passed down

predisposition to a medical condition

*limbs and limb girdles are thought to have evolved from the parried pectoral fins of early fish due to the similar bones and joints that are larger and stronger. this helps to support their weight on land *lungs in some in many this is not much than a modified swim bladder * a rib cage to support their internal organs and prevent lungs from collapsing *ears tympanic membranes that better transmit sound in air *ways to prevent waterloos -mucus glands in skin that secrete mucous which coats the skin to slow evaporative water loss -eyelids: prevents eyes from drying out *more efficient circulation

prior adaptations of amphibians that allow them to live on land

make their own food from energy from the sun

producer/autotroph

glucose

products made in the calvin cycle

*are typically smaller than eukaryotic cells *are notable for what kind of cell parts they do not have. *Prokaryotic cells do not have internal structures bordered by a material called membrane. (membrane bound organelles) and they do not have a nucleus *Bacteria are Prokaryotes.

prokaryotic cells

are classified in the kingdom eubacteria which are most bacteria or archaebacteria, some are good some are bad. Yet without bacteria all life on earth would cease

prokaryotic organisms

the site where RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA

promoter

water has cohesion which results in surface tension, water has adhesion which results in cappillary action, high heat vaporization which makes it hard to change temperature (thats why humid places have a constant temp unlike deserts which vary in temp) this also produces sweat, and in its solid form ice expands and this creates soil

properties of water

*the duplicated chromatin now coils up into chromosomes and pairs with its identical copy. this pairing is now called sister chromatids and they are joined by a centromere *the nuclear membrane, nucleolus and the nucleus disappear *the centrioles begin to move towards the opposite ends of the cell *spindle fibers, a network of microtubules, begin to form between the centrioles. Smaller fibers called asters form behind the centrioles

prophase

*during prophase I of meiosis chromosomes pair up in 2 distinct ways *chromosomes coil up and pair up with their twin becoming sister chromatids *centrioles move to poles, spindle forms, nuclear membrane disappears *sister chromatids pair up with their homologous pair forming tetrads (foursome) *then taking advantage that they are near each other they undergo crossing over in which one or more sections of a chromatid from one chromosome can exchange with the corresponding sections of chromatid from its homologous chromosome

prophase I

prophase is the prep time where the cell makes initial preparations

prophase is the ___

1) only inorganic molecules at first on early earth such as early gases 2) formation of organic molecules (demonstrated by miller-urey experiment) 3) formation of self replication information molecules such as RNA and DNA (first RNA) because DNA is needed to be able to pass it down 4)formation of a container (a cell) to house lives chemical reactions (occurring away from the environment)

proposed steps to lives beginnings

molecules made of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and some sulfur. proteins are complex polymers (chains) of smaller molecules called amino acids linked together

proteins

proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by their carboxyl COOH, and amino groups NH2

proteins are chains of ____ linked together by their ____

*they are amoeba, algae, and paramecium *they are eukaryotic organisms that do not have true multicellularity *they are either heterotrophic or autotrophic *they are mostly unicellular, but the ones that are multicellular typically do not contain distinct tissues with specialized function *some do have a cell wall but they vary in composition *they are some of each, some are sessile some are motile *they live in moist/wet/aquatic environments *they are classified as protist because they lack the characteristics of animals plants and fungi

protista

mouth first

protostomes

Animal-like Heterotrophs (ex. amoeba); one of the major groups of Kingdom Protista

protozoa

*they obtain their food by ingesting other organisms *they are animal like protist

protozoans

*in step 3 of the life cycle of lysogenic virus the viral dan that inserts itself into the host cells chromosome with ought harming it in any way is viral dan called a provirus *viral DNA that is integrated into a host cell's chromosome and replicated each time the host cell replicates. Part of the Lysogenic Cycle

provirus

animals with a fluid filled body cavity partly lined with a mesoderm such as a roundworm

pseudocoelomates

it is in the S phase in interphase when the pieces of chromatin replicate making a copy of themselves because thy are getting ready to reproduce but they are not reproducing yet.

puberty of a cell

*the larger double ringed nitrogen bases: a and g are the purines

purines

it provides a rigid structure for plants and helps prevent mechanical injury. Also its thickness and rigidity protect plant cells from swelling and bursting when they are full of water.

purpose of the cell wall

*the smaller single bases: c and t are the pyrimidines

pyrimidines

* a three carbon molecule *2 of them are created in glycolysis out o one glucose molecule *has a lot of energy within it

pyruvate

*has the prey evolved in response to the predator? *has the predator evolved in response to the prey

questions to ask to know if coevolution has happened

dehydration synthesis and condensation

reaction that builds

stimulus and response

reaction to the environment

*growth of multicellular organisms *to repair damage or replace dead cells *reproduction-it is how unicellular organisms asexually reproduce

reasons for cell division

*1-organization/are they made of cells= no... viruses are basically genes inside of a protein coat called a capsid *2-growth and development=no... viruses are particles so they do not grow instead they basically stay the same size *3-Reproduction=no... this is the mayor reason of why viruses are not considered living because they cannot reproduce by themselves instead they require a host cell *reaction to the environment=yes... once they find the type of marker protein they kind latch on to they do this and as a result they infect/ inject a cell *4-Acquire and use energy=no... viruses do not eat and they have no mitochondria to make ATP as a result they have to take ATP from the host... THEY DO NOT PREFORM RESPIRATION OF ANY SORT *evolve=yes... viruses' genetic material can change during the infection process *5-they cannot function autonomously

reasons why viruses are considered non living

*connected pieces of DNA from different sources *transgenic organisms have recombinant DNA *combining different pieces of DNA together, typically from different species

recombinant DNA

marker proteins on red blood cells; either type A or Type B

red blood cell antigens

*pink: motor neuron-moves our body *blue: inter neuron-coordinates signals to different types of nerve cells *gray: spinal chord *touching the hot stove creates an action potential which is a signal that is sensed by a sensory neuron and that then travels up the arm to the spinal cord where the inter neurons send signals to the motor neuron executing a quick reaction. And then the signal that the action has been executed travels to the brain.

reflex arc/ reflex behavior

*simple behaviors that are innate and unchangeable *automatic response to a stimuli mediated by lower brain or spinal chord *the simplicity of the motion, simple and involves no conscious control *fight or flight *taxis

reflexes

*determining whether a fossil is older or newer than another fossil. Example a fossil known to be 100 million years old is found. Scientist dig deeper to find another fossil. You can conclude that the second fossil is greater than 100 million years old. *Law of superposition

relative dating

either sexual or asexual (or both ways for some organisms)

reproduction

*it usually involves the formation of spores which are produced on a fruiting body such as a m

reproduction of fungi

*The environment may impose an external barrier to reproduction, such as a river between two species but that external barrier alone will not make them separate. the evolution of internal (i.e., genetically-based) barriers to gene flow is necessary for speciation to be complete. *Can be caused by:The evolution of different mating location, mating time, or mating rituals in other words genetic material, physiological changes, or even changes in behavior *in other words even if a geographical barrier occurs the different species must evolve so that they cannot longer produce viable offspring together/ so organisms are no longer able to successfully create offspring *when organisms are no longer able to successfully create offspring *organisms may become reproductively isolated due to changes in genetic material, physiological changes or even changes in behavior

reproductive isolation

1) thick, scaly skin: scales are waterproof, reptiles no longer depend on moist skin for gas exchange, scales also provided protection from predators 2) more developed lungs 3)more efficient circulatory system 4)change in limb position from out to the side to underneath the body-this allowed for better support and makes walking and running easier 5)claws for protection and for food getting 6)teeth for protection and for food getting 7)amniotic egg-a waterproof docent dry out egg that provides nourishment for the embryo by the time that organism hatches it looks like a tiny adult, shell is leathery

reptile adaptations to living on land preventing water loss

*first vertebrates to be fully land adapted , no longer need to live near a body of water; can live in hot, dry climates *thought to have evolved from amphibians in the late paleozoic *reptiles were the dominant land vertebrates from 280 may to about 65 may-extinction of the dinosaurs

reptilia

reptiles are better adapted to living and moving around on land. the more they move the more energy they need, and thus, the better the circulation they need. most reptiles like adult amphibians have a double look circulatory system connected to a 3 chambered heart. however in reptiles this third camber is partially divided. this provides reptiles with a primitive version of the efficient and powerful four chambered hearts found in birds and mammals. one group, the cocrodilians evolved a complete separation of the sides of the heart meaning that that actually possess a four chambered heart.

reptilia circulation

as many reptiles live in desert or desert like habitats, reptiles are extremely concerned with water loss. they can't afford to use a lot of water to dilute the toxic nitrogenous wastes that build up in this bodies the way that fish and amphibians do. instead reptiles have developed a different waste removal system. the ammonia that accumulates in their bodies is converted into a substance called uric acid. although uric acid is still toxic it forms a solid white powder which can be safely stored in the body without need for dilution. thus reptiles don't pee the way we think of it at all. rather their pee is a white powder that comes out with their feces. although this process requires a little more energy it is worth it

reptilia excretion

most reptiles are carnivores and some can grow to very large sizes. both teeth and claws allow reptiles to effectively capture and chew food. these structures have the added function of being good defenses against predators as well

reptilia feeding

sisters are identical copies but homologous chromosomes are not identical

sisters are ____ copies, ___ homologous chromosomes are _______

fertilization is internal since gametes would dry out on the land. most reptiles are oviparous meaning that they lay eggs. some snakes are ovoviviparous meaning that they keep their eggs internally and bear like young. the development of the embryo occurs in an amniotic egg. most replies do not care for their hatchlings

reptilian reproduction

* very large population size *no migration of members into or out of the population *random mating (no sexual selection) *no mutation *no natural selection *no evolution

requirements for hardy winberg equilibrium

you can also do background research because someone ay have already investigated parts of this problem before

research

1) gases move in and out of the lungs by bulk flow 2)O.2 and CO.2 are exchanged in the lungs by diffusion 3)aveoli / air sacs 4) gases dissolved in blood are transported by bulk flow 5) right atrium 6) right ventricle 7)left atrium 8)left ventricle 9)O.2 and CO.2 are exchanged in the tissues by diffusion

respiration and circulation in the 4 chambered human (mammal) heart

an organisms reaction to a stimulus

response

* no signal going down the nerve cell *an axon at rest -more Na+ out -more K+ inside the neuron -outside positive charge and inside a negative charge -has membrane proteins some of which are passive ion transporters and some are active pumps *when a neuron is not receiving or transmuting a signal

resting potential

*proteins that can cleave/cut DNA at certain places *they were originally found in bacteria and their original use was to kill viruses within the bacteria or at least preventing the bacterial virus from reproducing within the bacteria *an enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of bases

restriction enzymes

*if any recessive offspring are bon then the unknown parent was heterozygous *if all the offspring have the dominant trait then the unknown genotype is probably homozygous dominant *the more tests/offspring the more accurate

results of a test cross

*once a retrovirus infects a cell its RNA travels to the cells nucleus-> as a result the viruses RNA must be converted to DNA before the genes are activated: the virus contains enzymes to do this job *the Human Immunodefency virus which causes aids is a retrovirus *it is a viral vector *retroviruses only infect dividing cells so they cannot target cells tat have stopped dividing. It is possible to target specific cell types by engineering proteins not he virus surface *THe DNA made from the virus' RNA integrates the host cell's genome in random locations -> this lead to a chance that the retro virus' RNA integrates into a place were it disrupts another gnu resulting in possible side affects such as tumors

retrovirus

*a tiny ball made out of ribosomal RNA or rRNA *it attaches to mRNA and it reads the codons and tells tRNA to make the protein

ribosome

*in translation it is attached to mRNA and the ribosome reads and directs protein synthesis

ribosome

*they are tiny cell parts made out of RNA and some proteins *they produce proteins through protein synthesis for no organism can function without proteins/ enzymes.

ribosomes

the rough er creates proteins through its ribosomes and then those proteins are packaged and labeled then some are packaged and sent out through exocytosis

rough er and ga

have all single bonds between carbon atoms, they tend to be solid at room temp, and they are animal fats such as butter and the white stuff on meat

saturated fats

*regular back and forth movement of animals between two geographical areas tat particular times of the year --whales:using land, coastal landmarks -butterflies:sun -birds:stars, magnetic field *are part of the biological clock behaviors that are part of instinct *changes in temperature and amour of light are often the initiating cause *includes migration, hibernation, and estivation

seasonal migration

* CO.2→CaCO.3 *CO.2 in shelled organisms: mukluks use carbon to make shells

secretion by mantle tissue in the carbon cycle

*is a structure that contains a plant embryo along with a food source called endosperm the seed is surrounded by a protective coat called a seed coat when a seed germinates the plant embryo begins to grow absorbing the nutrition stored in the endosperm to fuel the development. *reproducteve structures containing a plant embryo and a food apple called endosperm encased in a hard outer shell. Because seeds include a food source (endosperm) with the embryo, seeds can survive much longer than spores and they allow the embryonic plant to put down roots before it must emerge from the ground for photosynthesis

seed

*when dan replication is completed, each new double helix of dna is composed of one old strand and one new strand. *because the old halves served as a template, or pattern four building new halves

semi-conservative

*the neuron that forms a connection with a censor cell *examples: the one on your eardrum or skin (places of our 5 sences) *the sensory neuron's dendrites are positioned at the sensory cell in order to quickly pick up any information coming from the sensory cell *the sensory neuron is a reporter who is waiting to get a story right at the front lines *after the sensory neuron rescieves the signal it sends it to the inter neuron

sensory neuron

electrophoresis

separation of DNA fragments by size

cytoplasm

serves as a medium for other organelles; site of many reactions

*2 out of 46 chromosomes in our body *they determine the gender of an individual

sex chromosomes

*in humans: the 23rd pair *they are known as X & Y, or as sex chromosomes, or as the 23rd pair *they determine gender

sex chromosomes

sexual reproduction is usually slower than asexual reproduction

sexual reproduction is usually ____ than asexual reproduction

*a male and a female for 2 gametes

sexual reproduction requires

sexual reproduction requires meiosis to make gametes which join together during fertilization which creates the diploid zygote

sexual reproduction requires what and what for

*sexual selection acts on an organisms ability to obtain or successfully copulate with a mate * it is often powerful enough to produce features that are harmful to the individuals survival * male competition: try to get female,amount of time with female, who's sperm fertilizes her egg *female choice: chooses who to make with, how long to make, who's sperm will fertilize her eggs

sexual selection

codominance

sickled cells are an example of what

an enviromental cue that causes the behavior such as an instinct to occur

sign stimulus

*clawed toes *scales on feet *internal fertilization *amniotic eggs *excretion of waste in the form of uric acid

similarities between birds and reptiles that indicate he that they are closely related

rare traits influenced by just one gene

single gene traits

peroxisomes

single membraned: contains catalase

short

size of pieces that move to the bottom of a gel in electrophoresis

*small scale evolution: changes in gene frequency in a population of one gene to the next *large scale evolution: the decent of different species from a common ancestor over many generations

small scale evolution vs large scale evolution

increase the number of copies of a gene common to a group regardless of which individual passes on the gene

social behaviors

*un addition to the ion channels there are also active transport proteins in the neurons called sodium potassium pump. *this protein uses ATP to continually pump sodium out and potassium inward to maintain the original concentration gradates needed for the next action potential

sodium potassium pump

*body cells *diploid (2n) cells *cells with two sets

somatic

*-somatic cell: cell from the body -nuclear: having to do with the cells nucleus -transfer: movement of one thing to a different place *1st isolate the somatic cel, then remove the nucleus and all DNA from an egg cell, then transfer the DNA from the isolated somatic cell into the now DNA free egg cell, now you let the cell become a blastocyst and from here the blastocyst can be used fro therapeutic cloning or for reproductive cloning *this creates a clone and it starts by using a diploid cell... while natural reproduction starts with a haploid cell and it creates genetically unique organisms.

somatic cell nuclear transfer

*mutations that occur in non-reproductive cells and won't be passed onto offspring

somatic mutations

*tapeworm, planarian, fluke *they all use their sensory abilities to detect food

some parasitic Platyhelminthes:

genetically predisposed

some people are more ____ than others to developing disease

*the emergence of a new species that can no longer interbreed with its ancestral group *Speciation requires that the two incipient species be unable to produce viable offspring together or that they avoid mating with members of the other group. *the evolution of a new species

speciation

can reproduce together and have fertile/viable offspring

species

the male gamete

sperm cells

the specific name for producing sperm. meiosis yields four haploid cells and all four mature and are modified to become sperm cells

spermatogenesis

are hard and glassy skeletal needles that give protection to the sponge

spicules

spiral like shape of bacteria

spirillum

1)they are hermaphrodites 2)asexual reproduction: fragmentation or budding 3)sexual reproduction: they inject the sperm out the osculum and then this sperm would hopefully fertilize another sponge as it draws the spern in through its collar cells

sponge reproduction

a branching protein that gives the sponge support and makes them absorbant

spongin

this layer of the mesophyll cells contain some chloroplast for photosynthesis but not as many as the palisade layer. the cells in the spongy layer are loosely packed with many air spaces. these air spaces between these cells facilitate the movement of gases involved in photosynthesis

spongy mesophyll

*a type of protozoan phyla -they do not move -these protozoans may seem harmless since they can't move far on their own but they use vectors such as insects to take them where they want to go -example:plasmodium is a protozoan that causes malaria with the help of mosquitos as vectors

sporozoans

bunch

staphylo-

*undefined cells with the ability to develop into a number of different types of cells *stem cells play an important role from embryo to adult hood: -development begins with a zygote which is the only totipotent stem cells , and the first few divisions after that are still totipotent stem cells until some genes begin differentiation... this differentiation begins after then pluripotent blastocyst *stem cells are very powerful because they can lead to regeneration of body parts such as in salamanders and in starfish, as a result stem cells have a potency in cloning

stem cells

polination: transferring of pollen from the anther which is a make part to the top of the stigma where the pistil is which is the female part. Wind, water or animals can help pollinate

step one in angiosperm reproduction

*the seeds are released from the fruit and germination aka beginning to grow occurs

step six in angiosperm reproduction

*the pollen grain from germination germinates and grows a pollen tube down thru the pistil in order to get sperm and egg close together. The pollen tube will stop growing when it reaches the ovules.

step two in angiosperm reproduction

*uses 2 ATP to begin *glucose is split into 2 pyruvic acids with a phosphate which are 3 carbon molecules with a phosphate attached *another phosphorous joins and 2NAHD are created *the phosphates break of of each almost pyruvate creating 4 ATP with 2 ATP each *though uses 2 ATPs it creates 4 for a net gain of 2ATPs

steps of glycolysis

*as an Acetyl CoA enters a krebs cycle it joins up with a 4 carbon molecule and turns into a 6 carbon molecule called citric acid: 2C+4C+=6C *once in the cycle the citrate quickly becomes transformed into something else and undergoes a bunch of further REACTIONS to release and store remaining energy *this energy is stored as several energy products *2 turns of the krebs cycle creates 6 high energy NADH, 2 high energy FADH.2 and 2 more ATP *as a waste product 4 more CO.2 are formed and released *at the end of the cycle the starting 4C molecule is formed again

steps of krebs cycle

*the first part of meiosis has -prophase I -metaphase I -anaphase I -telophase I

steps of meiosis I

1) 3CO.2 are added to 3RuBP 2)this new 6-carbon molecule breaks immediately into 6 3-carbon molecules called PGA 3)6 ATPs and 6NADPH are used as energy to change the 6 PGAs into 6PGAL also known as G3P 4)one PGAL leaves the cycle and goes into the cytoplasm 5) 5PGALs continue in the cycle 6)3ATP are spent to turn 5PGAL into 3RuBP 7)the calvin cycle can now run again 8)after 2 runs of the calvin cycle to create 2PGAL the 2PGALs are combined to form one glucose

steps of the calvin cycle

1) donated egg cell from a different type of sheep than the nucleus donor 2) the donated egg cell is enucleated aka the nucleus ifs removed 1) donor skin cell taken from a the mammary gland of the nucleus donor... a different type of sheep that the egg cell donor 2) the donor cells are starved: the scientist simulated the cells death without killing the cells in order to try to reset the genes into making them believe they they are a zygote 3) the enucleated egg cell and the donor cell (arrested growth cycle) are fused together... this is the Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer step .... aka this is the fusion of the adult cell DNA and the empty egg 4) electrical pulses 5) cell division 6) the embryo is then implanted into the surrogate mother which will give birth to Dolly *THIS WAS SCNT *DOlly was the wrist successfully cloned mammal from an adults sheep cell

steps to clone dolly

1. Potassium ions move out of the vacuole and out of the cells. 2. Water moves out of the vacuoles, following potassium ions. 3. The guard cells shrink in size. 4. The stoma closes.

stomatal closing steps

chained/twist

strepto-

*a series of orderly, natural changes that can take place among the communities of an ecosystem *sequential replacement of populations in an ecosystem

succession

table sugar, and it is one molecule of glucose bonded to one molecule of fructose

sucrose

*in meiosis you started with one cell and you end up with four cells *in meiosis you started with a diploid (2n) cell and you end up with a haploid (1n) cells *in meiosis due to the crossing over and the independent separation of the chromosomes to the 2 poles you end up with cells that are not genetically identical *due to meiosis we always create genetically unique gametes *no 2 sperm or eggs from the same person are ever exactly the same!

summarize facts of meiosis

I would use the same type of restriction enzyme so that the two sticky ends will be a perfect match and easy to splice

suppose you wanted to splice a human gene into a bacterial plasmid. When cutting both the human gene and the plasmid you use the same type of restriction enzyme on both or 2 different restriction enzymes?

cells need a large surface area- like the cell membrane/ where materials go in and out- and a small volume -cytoplasm-

surface area to volume ration and cell size

an air filled chamber that below the backbone that gives the fish buoyancy control allowing it to float or sink

swim bladder

("living together") refers to a close and usually permanent relationship between 2 organisms of different species

symbiosis

*show the 23rd pair of chromosomes by using xx for females and xy for males *attach the genes to the x only with superscript letters

symbols used in punnett squares

*in order to get a signal across the synapse the axon releases hmicalses called neurotransmitters via exocytosis into the space. these chemicals cross the space and bind to receptor proteins on the adjacent dendrites. If enough neurotransmitters are relased then a anew action potential is generated in the next neuron and the signal continues its jurney *chemicals released into the syapse

synapse

in a bacterium when the baceria is in an environment with no lactose the active repressor protein is able to attach to the operator not allowing RNA polymerase to attach to the promoter but if it does attach to the promoter because it has been deactivated/and its shape has changed due to the inactivation by the pretense of lactose then the RNA polymerase can attach to the operon and form 3 enzymes/proteins for lactose processing ... one per each lactose- processing genes

tell the story of the lac operon to discuss on way that cells in this case prokaryotic cells can regulate gene expression

*each set of 23 chromosomes is located at 2 opposite poles of the cells * chromosomes still paired with their sister uncoil *spindle fiber is gone *cytokinesis occurs producing two cells *we are now ready for meiosis II

telophase I

northeast and middle atlantic us, for example. trees from their leaves in winter. these areas experience a decent amount of precipitation (rain and snow), warm summers, cold winters, animal life includes deer, wolves, bear, and small mammals, and birds

temperate deciduous forests

the sequence of growth and division of a cell

the cell cycle

it is unique to plan cells and it surrounds the cell membrane. Plant cell walls are made of cellulose

the cell wall

*most predator prey relation ships are more complex due to the multiple limiting factors that affect populations. Many predators can switch to a different food source if one particular pray population decreases. studies haver revealed that when populations reach large sizes limiting factors caused by over crowding can lead to decrease in parental care, fertility, and resistance to disease leading to population size

the complexity behind a predator pray relationship

are passed down the etc losing energy as they bounce from protein to protein

the electrons in the etc (after the water splits)

In one study the populations of brown anole/lizzards, were introduced onto small islands from a nearby source. After 10-14 years the lizard groups began to change in their morphology (they evolved distinct physical differences) developing adaptations to there new environment such s leg length.

the example of natural selection of the caribbean born anole populations

the population of bottom feeding fish in the hudson river developed the favorable variation of being able to resist PBCs. Due to this the bottom feeding fish that became resistant to PCBs where able to survive and reproduce. As a result the surviving favorable bottom feeding fish were able to pass on their genetic variation to the next generation.

the example of natural selection of the tomcods

*it is non-polar *it is within the cell membrane/hiding within the phosphate part of the membrane *hydrophobic

the fatty acid region of a phospholipid

*as the cell reproduces all of its offspring will have a clone or identical copy of the recombinant DNA *as a result you only have to make a few transgenic bacteria and reproduction will create thousands/millions for you *ALL THE BACTERIA WILL TRANSLATE THE DNA INTO THE DESIRED PROTEINS... the transgenic bacteria will make the protein

the results of making transgenic bacteria

state or identify the problem, research or do the background research, form a hypothesis, design an experiment, record and organize your data, make conclusions

the scientific method

human genome project

the sequencing of the entire genome

organization, growth and development,reproduction, reaction to the environment, all organisms must acquire and use energy, populations evolve

the sic characteristics of life

the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics

*it is the business end of the atp molecule: it is the source of the energy used for most cellular work

the triphosphate tail

* gymnosperms and angiosperms *since sperm=seed the two plant divisions with sperm in their name are the two groups with seeds

the two groups with seeds

one glycerol molecule as a backbone connected to 3 fatty acid chains

the typical lipid molecule is;

hypothesis that has been tested repeatedly and supported by a large amount of evidence

theory

hormones or neurotransmitters

these may be secreted by the golgi and detected by receptor proteins

cystic fibrosis

thick mucus creates difficulty breathing

a plant response to touch, so when a plant touches something for example ivi growing on a plant, a bean stalk, or a vine

thigmotropism

cellulose=what makes the cell wall

tightly bonded glucose

*any organism that has its own DNA plus working genes from another species *the genes must be working/functioning so they can make proteins *transgenic organisms have recombinant DNA *an organism that has been engineered to carry functional genes from another organism

transgenic organisms

Fossils or organisms that show the transformation from an ancestral form to descendant species' form. For example, there is a well-documented fossil record of transitional forms for the evolution of whales from their amphibious ancestor.

transitional forms

*the mRNA attaches to a ribosome which reads and directs protein synthesis

translation

*it helps the water travel against the pull of water, apart from cohesion and adhesion. *it is the movement/evaporation of water out of plants through the openings on leaves called stomata *since molecules of water stick to each other by cohesion when one water molecule evaporates out of the plant the next is pulled closer to the stomata. there that molecule pulls on the one behind and so on and so forth all the way though the plant *transpiration is the evaporation of water out of plants through stomata by water molecules sticking to each other by cohesion and then pulling each other out of the stomata. *it is the major mechanism that drives water through a plant

transpiration

facilitated diffusion by acting as pumps to move ions or certain substances in or out of cell

transport proteins help with...

*a form of learning in which animal associates an action with a reward or punishment-this is how we train animals *an animal learns to behave a certain way either to receive a reward or avoiding punishment

trial and error learning

where an animal gets its nutrition

trophic level

the amazon. these areas are filled the highest biodiversity of plant and animal life. they experience lots of rainfall and lots of heat. while plant life is luxuriant soil quality is poor. diverse animal life including sloths, monkeys, brilliantly collored birds, leopards, tons of insects

tropical rain forest

*growth responses that cause parts of a plant to grow toward or in the same direction of the stimulus aka positive tropism, OR away from a stimulus or in the opposite direction of the stimulus aka negative tropism *a plants growth response to the a certain stimulus

tropisms

way, way up north. few if any trees. one layer of the soil is per manly frozen aka permafrost. there is a short growing season and grasses and wildflowers are about the only vegetation in this reagin. animal life includes lemmings, arctic foxes, snowy owls, caribou, and raindeer

tundra

*osmotic pressure *cells that have gained water through osmosis are said to have high turgor pressure *(non woody plants rely on turgor pressure to help them stand up tall and straight/ this happens when the central vacuole is full of water)

turgor pressure

*birth rate and death rate *

two factors that affect the growth rate of a population

*flowers and their pollinators *parasites and their hosts *predator and prey -toxic newt and the gardener snake -birds and pinecones=shape -insects and bats=behavior/echolocation -fish and crab=tooth and claw -jaguar and antelope=jumping -zebra and lion *mutualistic= ++ *mutalistic exclusivity = relationship with each other -shrimp and fish= the shrimp eat food and the fish get cleaned -leaf cutter ants and fungus

types and examples of coevolution

*radiometric dating *c-14 dating *potassium-40 dating

types of Absolute Dating

hydrogen bonds

types of bonds that hold together nitrogenous bases

deletion, duplication or insertion, inversion, translocation

types of chromosomal mutations

sucrose and lactose

types of disaccharides

*passive immunity -artificial -natural *active immunity -humoral -cell meditated

types of immunity

saturated and unsaturated made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids

types of lipids and what they are made of

marker, structural, enzymatic, receptor, transport

types of membrane proteins

glucose and fructose

types of monosaccharides

starch, glycogen, and cellulose

types of polysaccharides

* body parts that are reduced in size/function and/or no longer have their original function *example: huam appendix ,chicken teeth, pelvic bones on whittles

vestigial structures

all cells come from other cells

virchow

1)choanocytes:line sponge walls and are also called collar cells. They function of these flagellated cells is to move water in a nd out the sponge while trapping food particles or things such as a sperm 2)amoebocytes:they wander between sponge walls and they function in the disjoin of food and in the distribution of nutrients 3)incurrent pores:small openings penetrating sponge walls and they function by allowing water to flow through them

types of specialized cells on a sponge

*assymetry= no symmetry *radial symmetry=may half in an infinite number of ways *bilateral symmetry=two sided simetry

types of symmetry

*retroviruses-use RNA *Adenovirus-uses RNA *bacteriophage virus-uses DNA and it only infects bacteria and it eats them *tabacco mosaic virus

types of viruses

*producing copies for DNA finger printing *studying ancient DNA samples *identifying diseases and mutations *Detecting bacteria and viruses *finding out who the daddy is *solving a crime *to detect mutations *to recombine

uses for PCR

preparation of weakened or killed pathogens used to produce immunity to a disease

vaccine

is simply a membrane bound sac that can be used to store different materials

vacuole

1)decomposers 2)pathogens -some bacteria cause diseases such as tetanus, botulism aka food poisoning, cholera and strept throat 3)aiding digestion -breaking up cellulose in herbivore guts such as cows 4)changing nitrogen gas into fertilizer 5)food industry -cheese, yogurt, vinegar 6)biotech applications 7)cyanobacteria are responsible for a great deal of the oxygen in the air

various roles of bacteria in the environment

*plants transport materials between their roots and shoots within this system of tube shaped cells that prance out through out the plant *contains the xylem and the phloem

vascular tissue

*a vehicle that can transport the DNA piece into a host cell *there are mechanical vectors and biological vectors *A short piece of DNA capable of replicating on its own when inside a bacterial cell *any tool used to insert foreign DNA into a cell this includes plasmids, viruses, gene guns, micropipettes, etc.

vectors (overview)

are sandwiched among the mesophyll cells. xylem and phloem are contained in each vein the xylem here function to deliver water for photosynthesis while the phloem transports newly synthesized sugars to other parts of the plant

veins

*small membrane-bound sacs that divide some materials from the rest of the cytoplasm and transport these materials within to the cell to different parts. *vesicles lives are short and are formed and recycled as needed *they are used to move chemicals to other locations in the cell where they might be needed *the golgi secretes the cell *contain products packaged by the golgi such as proteins, enzymes, peptide hormones, and plasma proteins *the structure of the vesicle is just like that of a vacuole but smaller *the contents of the vesicle are surrounded by a membrane

vesicle

are typically smaller than vacuole and are typically involved in transporting materials through out the cell

vesicles

yes

was the lysate from heat-killed bacteria able to transform the R bacteria into the killer strain?

water is the solvent and the dissolved substances they contain are the solutes

water is the ____ and the dissolved substances they contain are the ______

are famous for discovering the shape of the DNA molecule in 1953

watson and crick

*in vivo: by injecting the vector directly into the patient, aiming to target the affected cells *ex vivo: is to deliver the gene to cells that have been removed from the body and are growing in culture. After the gene is delivered, integration and activation are confirmed and the cells are put back into the patient. (is an alternative to bone marrow transplants, and are less likely to trigger an immune response because no viruses are put into the patients)

ways in which genes can be put into a patients body

*differences in their cell wall *nutrition -heterotrophs:most bacteria -photoautotrophs:cyanobacteria -chemoautotrophs *respiration -either aerobic or anaerobic

ways to classify bacteria

sugars and phosphates

what 2 molecules make up the back bone for dna

*sugar-which connects to the base *phosphate

what 2 parts of nucleotides make up the backbone (sides) of the DNA molecule

Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins

what 2 scientist working nearby watson and crick produced important x-rays of DNA

*coil up - chromatin becomes chromosomes *pair up into sister chromatids

what 2 things does the DNA do in prophase

cilia, flagella, centrioles, cytoskeleton

what 4 cell parts are microtubules used to make

*they are classified in the kingdoms eubacteria which are most bacteria or archaebacteria *in both of these groups some bacteria are good and some are bad

what are prokaryotic organisms classified in

tetanus, botulism aka foood poisoning, cholera, and strept throat

what are some diseases that bacteria can cause

they are a network of microtubules that begin to form between the centrioles

what are spindle fibers and where do they occur

saturated and unsaturated

what are the 2 types of fatty acid chains

interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

what are the 5 phases of cell reproduction in order

glucose,fructose, sucrose, lactose, glycogen, starch, cellulose

what are the 7 types of carbohydrates

*it has type A antigens *it has type B antibodies *it can receive type A and Type O blood

what are the antigens, antibodies, and blood types of blood type A

*it has type B antigens *it has type A antibodies *it can receive type B and type O blood

what are the antigens, antibodies, and blood types of blood type B

*it has no antigens *it has type A and B antibodies *it can receive only type o blood

what are the antigens, antibodies, and blood types of blood type O

carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol aka ethanol

what are the by products of alcoholic fermentation

1)aquatic filter feeders feeding mostly on bacteria 2)adults are sessile 3)larvae are motile and have flagella 4)usually asymmetrical although some are radially symmetrical 5)they come in different shapes colors and sizes and they often live in colonies on the ocean floor

what are the characteristics of the phylum porifera

the difference between macroevolution and microevolution is that microevolution is changes in a species over a short period of time and macroevolution is changes over a long/large period of time

what are the difference between macroevolution and microevolution

CO.2 and ethanol/alcohol

what are the final products of alcohol fermentation

*gene delivery is the hardest thing in gene therapy because -the vector must AVOID getting attacked by the immune system -the vector must be able to TARGET the right cells -the vector must be able to INTEGRATE its "message" into the host cells genome -the vector must ACTIVATE the genes it codes for *also not all diseases can be treated with gene therapy, they must be single gene diseases, the genes must be known, we must understand the disease, and adding a correct copy of the missing gene must be able to cure the disease

what are the main issues with gene therapy?

nucleic acids

what are the monomer/sub-units of ATP?

carbon dioxide, water, 38 ATP

what are the products of cellular respiration

*protozoa:animal like ingestive heterotrophs such as amoeba *algae: plant like photosynthetic autotrophs such as multicellular algae ex seaweed or unicellular algae *fungi-like protist/ slime molds: heterotrohic decomposers

what are the three major groups in the kingdom protista

* can only diffuse from high concentration (an area crowded with the substance) to low concentration (where the substance is less crowded). * the cell membrane must be permeable to whatever molecule is trying to pass through

what are the two conditions for diffusion to occur

xylem and phloem

what are the two vascular tissues that are found in the vein

gastropods, bialves and cephalopods

what are the3 main classes of mollusks

*they are unstable DA aka moving DNA that jumps from one chromosome location to another chromosome location *they are jumping elements in the genome which have the abnormality of reproducing weird activities in the genes near their new position to which they move -for example the jumping of these gene elements that have integrated in a gene involved in corn pigmentation results in a mosaic pattern phenotype on corn *the transposons have potential as vectors because they are effective in achieving stable gene expression of ends introduced into animal cells, and by using enzymes we can eliminate tho problem of the jumping of the transposons *transposons can move through -replicative transposition: a new copy of transposons appears at a new site and the original element stays at the old location -conservative transposition: it does not have a copy, therefore it is the original one that moves around

what are transposons

wind humidity and heat

what are two things that might affect the rate of transpiration

*a protein coat called a capsid *genetic material either DNA or RNA/ a nucleic acid core either DNA or RNA

what are viruses made out of

*some types of bacteria by converting sugars like glucose and lactose into lactic acids *humans use these bacteria to produce yogurt, cheese,sour cream, pickles, and sauerkraut

what can also perform lactic acid fermentation apart from humans

*they may make too much of a certain enzyme or have failure to produce a certain enzyme *they can use up all of the resources or space, they can due this due to their uncontrollable mitosis/spread

what can mutated cells/ cancer cells do

you can do that by adding sub and super such as subphylum

what can you do to insert additional taxa

hypotonic solutions

what causes an increase in trugor pressure to increase

nondisjunction

what causes aneuploidies

*avery proved first that the transforming principle was first, not the bacteria's sugar coat and second, that it was not protein and lastly that it was not the nucleic acid RNA *finally showing that the transforming principle was DNA

what did avery prove not to be the transforming principle and what was

*plant height - short or long *seed texture- smooth or wrinkled *flower position-axial or terminal *pod color-green or yellow *pod appearance-constricted of smooth *seed color-green or yellow *flower color-purpole or white

what did mendel look for

*he spent years studying pea plants *studies heredity

what did mendel study

1)what are the behaviors -a scientist notices that a black headed seagulls removes broken shells from the newt after each chick hatches 2)how do animals perform the behavior: is it innate or learned -scientist found that the bird will remove anything with a ragged edge or that is whiny white like inside of the egg... this is innate behavior that can be triggered by any shinny object 3)why does the behavior exist -scientist found that nest without flashy white eggshells attract fewer predators

what do people who study ethology want to know

*sees provide a protective coat for the embryo *seeds have a food supply for the embryo called the endosperm this energy is needed for germination and growth until the plant develops its first leaves for photosynthesis *seds often have adaptations that aid their dispersal *seed plants do not need water for fertilization aka getting egg and sperm together

what do seeds do/ advantages of seeds

they determine gender

what do sex chromosomes do

cancer

what do we call uncontrolled cell division

*anatomy *development *biochemistry aka DNA/proteins *behavior which is especially important in determining species/subspecies

what do we use to determine phylogenies

cytokinesis

what do you call the division of the cytoplasm

adenosine triphosphate

what does ATP stand for?

it is the inorganic phosphate or loose phosphate

what does PO.4 or P.i stand for

*RFLP= restriction fragments length polymorphism *restriction fragments: the fragments of DNA that were cut by restriction enzymes *length: the length of the restriction fragments *polymorphism: this refers to the different shapes/lengths of the fragments

what does RFLP stand for

an e (1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids)

what does a lipid molecule look like

glucose/hexagon-O-glucose/hexagon-O-glucose/hexagon

what does a polysaccharide look like (draw)

adenosine diphosphate

what does adp stand for

a pentagon

what does fructose look like

a hexagon

what does glucose look like

that it does not use oxygen

what does it mean if a process is anaerobic

haploid cells/gametes

what does meiosis produce

it keeps the chromosomes number exactly the same in the daughter cells 46-46 & 46

what does mitosis do

it is a normal cell division that creates all of our somatic body cells

what does mitosis do for us

*in DNA it pairs up with T *in RNA it pairs up with U

what does nitrogen base A pair up with

*in both DNA and RNA it pairs up with G

what does nitrogen base C pair up with

*in both RNA and DNA it pairs up with c

what does nitrogen base G pair up with

a chain of hexagons/glucose

what does starch look like

a glucose/hexagon-O-fructose/pentagon

what does table sugar look like (draw)

taxa means categories

what does taxa mean

*amino acids

what is #6

since it is the central control area of a cell the nucleus determines nearly all of what happens to a cell, it is able to do this due to that DNA is located within the nucleus

what does the nucleus do?

that enzymes are very specific in their function due to that each enzyme only has one reaction it can help

what does the term enzyme specificity mean

the zygote and the DCC become the embryo (the zygote) and the endosperm (the DCC) (embryo and endosperm->sEEd)

what does the zygote and the DCC become

carrier female

what does this mean on a pedigree

carrier male

what does this mean on a pedigree

female with the trait

what does this mean on a pedigree

male with out the trait

what does this mean on a pedigree

male with the trait

what does this mean on a pedigree

*diet high in monosaccharides and lipids *very little exercise

what environmental factors can lead to people developing diabetes

Our DNA in our genes on our chromosomes codes for how to make all of our antigens and antibodies

what gives our cells instructions for how to make all of our antigens and antibodies

*the enzyme helicase unzips and untwist the double structure of DNA

what happened first in dna replication

the ribosome detaches itself from mRNA

what happens after all the amino acids are delivered in translation and the polypeptide bonds are formed

free floating rna nucleotides float in and base pair along the strand with help of the enzyme RNA polymerase

what happens after dna unzips itself in in transcription

*then with the help of the enzyme DNA polymerase, free floating nucleotides in the nucleus match up with their complementery base to reform the double helix structure along both exposed strands. *DNa polymerase operates in one direction along the dan strands

what happens after helicase unzips and untwists

*the tRNA with the anticodon delivers the amino aside that it has

what happens after the tRNA worker approaches the ribosome in translation

*when the action potential arrives to the end of the axon it causes little vesicles carrying neurotransmitters to move to the edge and out into the synapse through exosytosis. Dumping out the neurotransmitters into the synapse. then the neurotransmitters bind to receptor proteins on the dendrites of the next neuron causing an anion potential and the cycle begin again *many neurons line up axon to dendrite so that a message can be picked up by the dendrite , sent along he axon then transmitted across a synapse, then on to the next dendrite *in order to get a signal across the synapse the axon releases hmicalses called neurotransmitters via exocytosis into the space. these chemicals cross the space and bind to receptor proteins on the adjacent dendrites. If enough neurotransmitters are relased then a anew action potential is generated in the next neuron and the signal continues its jurney

what happens at the synapse

*short pieces of sections called genes hod infer for making a polipeptide/protein. But genes are part of chromosomes, and chromosomes are to to big to leave a nucleus...

what happens before transcription

introns are removed from RNA and the remaining eons are spliced/joined together to produce mRNA molecule with a continuous coding sequence

what happens during RNA processing

DNA unzip itself exposing it bases

what happens first in transcription

some of it is shipped to the plants mitochondria where it is broken down to make ATP energy the plant cells can use, some of it is stitched to manufacture the cell walls to provide structure for the plant, excess glucose is either stored in simple sugar or in starch

what happens in plants after glucose is created

the RNA nucleotides then join together to form a molecule called messanger RNA or mRNA

what happens in transcription after free floating rna nucleotides base pair along the strand with help of RNA polymerase

*mRNA detaches from the DNA and begins swiming to the construction cite/cytoplasm to build the protein in translation by going out through a nuclear pore

what happens in transcription after mRNA is formed

zygotes dont last very long they split into 2 cells then 4 etc, etc through mitosis

what happens to a zygote

electrons are next passed to photosystem 1 where they are re-energized by light

what happens to electrons after going through etc in light reactions

since it is unstable it immediately splits into 6 3-carbon molecules called pga

what happens to the 6 carbon molecule created by the 3CO.2 and the 3 RuBP's

the atp turns into 6ADP and 6P and the NADPH turns into 6NADP+

what happens to the 6ATP's and 6NADPH after turning the 6PGAs into 6PGal aka G3P

one of them leaves the cycle and goes to the cytoplasm

what happens to the PGAL after created

it is produced after oxygen accepts electrons and H+

what happens to water during aerobic respiration

the outflow releases energy to produce ATP from ADP and P

what happens when the H+ diffuses through ATP synthase

centromere

what holds two sister chromatids together

auxins

what hormone causes plants to grow towards light

*four nitrogen bases *there is one nitrogen base per nucleotide

what is #3

*mRNA

what is #3

*polypeptide/protein/chain of amino acids

what is #4

*codon

what is #5

*deoxyribose sugar *5 carbon sugar *there is one per nucleotide

what is #5

*genomics is discovering the amount of genes and type of genes there are in our body/all the DNA in our body *proteomics is the study of all the proteins in our body *proteomics also involves 1,000 times more data

what is the difference between genomics and proteomics

it pumps hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane

what is the energy generated in the etc chain used to do

this energy is used to pump H+ into the thylakoid space

what is the energy that electrons give off while bouncing used for

endosperm

what is the food source for a developing plant embryo

to produce proteins through protein synthesis for no organism can function without proteins/ enzymes.

what is the function of a ribosome

to separate the sister chromatids from anaphase I

what is the goal of meiosis II

mitochondria manufacture energy for the cell, in other words they convert the energy stored in the food we eat into another form of energy that cells can use called ATP, this process is called celular respiration

what is the job of a mitochondria/

to produce lipids and proteins and transport both of these through the cytoplasm

what is the job of the endoplasmic reticulum

glycolysis

what is the name of the first step for all types of respiration

nucleus:central core of the atom and it is made from protons (have + charge and are the atomic #) and neutrons (have negative charge and are atomic mass-protons) the electron cloud:possible location for electrons (have - charge and are the # of protons), it is outside of the nucleus

what is the nucleus and electron cloud

gametophyte is dominant

what is the opposite of having a sporophyte be dominant

water moves through plants by diffusion only

what is the opposite of having vascular tissue

having water be required for fertilization

what is the opposite of producing pollen

ATP Synthase

what is the protein that helps transport H+ outward

to replicate cells

what is the purpose of cell division

one cell

what is the smallest fundamental unit of life

induced fit theory

what is the theory when enzymes slightly change their shape to fit a substrate

telophase

what is the undoing of prophase

type AB blood

what is the universal acceptor

a pedigree

what is this

Adenosine Triphosphate: it is a energy source, like a battery in which energy is stored. *The energy that i It has is stored in the phosphate bonds *3 phosphates in a tale, bonds between phosphates, ribose, adenine

what is this? What does it have? What does it due?

6ATP's and 6NADPH

what is used to change the 6PGAs into 6PGal aka G3P

water (h20), oxygen (02), carbon dioxide (CO2)

what kinds of molecules can diffuse across the cell membrane

chromatin and chromosomes

what makes dna

Oxygen

what molecule is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration

water

what molecule results from the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration

water, carbon dioxide, oxygen

what molecules can freely diffuse across the membrane

it is the results of mitosis where there are 2 identical sets

what stage is this in

it is in prophase 1) centriole 2)centromere 3)spindle fiber 4)one of the sister chromatids 5)aster

what stage is this in and label all the parts

replication

what step involves all of the DNA

cuticle and stomata

what structures prevent water loss from a leaf

*x ray christlography *this showed that alternating deoxyribose and phosphate molecules form the twisted uprights of dna and that rungs of lader are from through complementary pairs of nitrogen bases

what technique helped provide the final clue to the structure

the s colonies seem to have a smooth appearance do to a capsule-like coat made of sugars, R bacteria look rough because they are not coated. And this coat protects the s bacteria from the host's immune system, and as a result the s strain is infectious

what were 2 differences between the S and R strains of Pneumococcus bacteria which with avery worked

*air temperature fluctuate a lot more than water temperatures *bodies are heavier on land-requires more energy to move when fitting against gravity and lung/gills tend to collapse due to gravity *there is a tendency to dry out aka all cells must be constantly bathed in water to survive

what were some of the disadvantages to the first amphibians living on the land

some of the results of the miller urey experiment was the formation of amino acids such s ribose/ sugar and adenine

what were some of the results of the miller urey experiment?

*decomposition would cease therefore atoms would remain locked up in dead bodies and they would not be a able to cycle to other living things in the ecosystem mushroom or on structures called sporangia *when spores are released they travel on t he wind and if they land in a favorable environment the spots will germinate and being to grow new hyphae *spores can be made sexually or a sexually

what would happen without bacteria and fungi

*males only have 1 x chromosomes so just one gene on their x gives them the trait

whats so funky about sex linked traits

transcription

when DNA makes RNA

*the pulling away of the chromatids splits the centromeres in anaphase

when and what causes the centromeres to split

Notice that in figure A the guard cells are turgid, or swollen, and the stomatal opening is large. This turgidity is caused by the accumulation of K+ (potassium ions) in the guard cells. As K+ levels increase in the guard cells, the water potential of the guard cells drops, and water enters the guard cells. In figure B, the guard cells have lost water, which causes the cells to become flaccid and the stomatal opening to close. This may occur when the plant has lost an excessive amount of water. In addition, it generally occurs daily as light levels drop and the use of CO2 in photosynthesis decreases.

when are stomata open/closed

*they are open when in plenty of water humidity guard cells are turgid *closed when theres low H.2O guard cells droopy together

when are the guard cells open

during replication

when can random DNA errors occur

it begun in 4.0 b.y.a. to 3.5 b.y.a.

when did simple life begin on earth

during prophase

when do centrioles begin to move to opposite ends of the cell

*they occur during cell division when chromosomes break apart and/or rejoin incorrectly *meiosis or crossing over

when do chromosomal mutations occur

in telophase

when do chromosomes begin to uncoil and turn back into chromatin

during prophase

when do chromosomes pair with its identical copy to create sister chromatids

during anaphase

when do sister chromatids split from each other

during metaphase

when do sister chromatids stay as sister chromatids

in telophase

when do spindle fibers break down

during anaphase

when do the spindle fibers shorten and begin pulling on the sister chromatin's

the individual originally received those alleles through his parents through fertilization when it became a zygote

when does an individual receive its alleles

before meiosis

when does dna in the cell replicate

*when the genes are on the same chromosome/ when genes are linked together it is not true in crossing over

when does the law of independent assortment not hod true

RNA splicing

when introns are removed from RNA and the remaining eons are spliced/joined together to produce mRNA molecule with a continuous coding sequence

in the calvin cycle

when is NADPH used in photosynthesis

*1/2 come from our dad and the other 1/2 comes from our mom *2*23=46 *when our parents concieve a child they contribute one complete set to the child, this way the parents pass genes to the child *transfer of chromosomes occurs at conception when father's sperm joins with mothers egg to form a zygote *child can only receive one of each chromosome *chromosomes are contributed at random creating uniqueness

where do our chromosomes come from

in the fallopian tubes

where does fertilization actually happen

in the chloroplast along thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic eukaryotes

where does the light reaction occur

in the cytoplasm

where does translation occur

RuBP

which molecule is reformed at the end of the calvin cycle and can then start the whole process again by combining with incoming CO.2

both RNA and DNA

which nucleic acid(s) backbone is made up of sugars and phosphates

both RNA and DNA

which nucleic acid(s) is/are made of nucleotides

RNA

which nucleic acid(s) is/are single stranded

no nucleotide component may vary

which nucleotide component may vary

*eubacteria=either *archaebacteria=either *protista=either *fungi=heterotrophic *plantae=autotrophic *animalia=heterotrophic

which of the six kingdoms are autotrophic, which are heterotrophic, which are both?

*eubacteria=mostly sessile *archaebacteria=mostly sessile *protista=some of each *fungi=all sessile *plantae=all sessile *animalia=mostly motile

which of the six kingdoms are motile, and which are sessile

*eubacteria=prokaryotic *archaebacteria=prokaryotic *protista=eukaryotic *fungi=eukaryotic *plantae=eukaryotic *animalia=eukaryotic

which of the six kingdoms are prokaryotic and which are eukaryotic

*eubacteria=mostly unicellular *archaebacteria=mostly unicellular *protista=mostly unicellular *fungi=mostly multicellular *plantae=all multicellular *animalia=all multicellular

which of the six kingdoms are unicellular which are multicellular

*eubacteria=yes *archaebacteria=yes *protista=some do-may vary in composition *fungi=yes-they are made of chitin *plantae=yes-they are made of cellulose *animalia=no

which of the six kingdoms have a cell wall and if so what is it made out of

the krebs cycle

which part of aerobic respiration process 6 NADH and 2 FADH.2

gymnospems and angiosperms

which plant groups have cotyledons

bryophytes and pterophytes

which plant groups have no cones or flower

6O.2 the oxygen

which product of photosynthesis is made during the light reactions

ATP synthase

which protein creates energy by allowing hydrogen ions to pass through it

6CO.2 the carbon dioxide

which reactant of photosynthesis is used during the calvin cycle

etc, it creates 34 ATP

which step of the cellular respiration creates the most ATP?

one that makes a jagged cut because the base paring would hold the sticky ends together ... that is if the same enzyme is used. And because trying to joint two blunt cuts is hard since there is no base paring involved to make them stick to each other

which type of restriction enzyme would work best for gene splicing one that makes a blunt cut or one that makes a jagged cut

some types of bacteria

who performs chemosynthesis

because of diffusion, amount of DNA, and surface to volume ratio

why are cells small

because homologous chromosomes are the 2 sets inherited from our parents they have the same types of genes in them but those genes are not perfectly identical

why are homologous pairs not identical

because people with type AB blood have no antibodies so they are able to receive blood from anyone because neither the A or the B antigens are foreign to people with AB blood

why are people with type AB blood the Universal Recipients

because they have a polar and a non polar part

why are phospholipids amphipathic

viruses are specific. this means that a virus can usually only affect one or sometimes a limited number of hosts. In multicellular organism, viruses are even specific to a particular type of cell that they can infect... example a cell that is dividing or a cell that is not dividing. This is because of the construction of their protein coat. If the protein coat does not fit perfectly with a receptor protein on the plasma membrane of the host cell, the virus cannot infect that cell

why are viruses specific

due to the fact that life shares the same dna code biochemistry is used as evidence for evolution. This is possible because species with a close common ancestor will have a lot more similar proteins and/or DNA.

why can biochemistry be used as evidence for evolution

*because blood has proteins and plasma antibodies

why can certain blood types only receive certain things

because their shape does not change (unless it is denatured)

why can enzymes be used again

charge and size

why cant ions freely cross the lipid bilayer

because it helps disable the bacterium's ability to construct its cell wall so eventually the cell ruptures and dies.

why do antibiotics work?

*because they grow quickly meaning they'll make a lot of protein, and they reproduce quickly meaning that soon you'll have lots of them making the desired protein

why do bacteria make good transgenic organisms

cells are not closed off so that they can move nutrients around and as a result sometimes cells can be multi nucleate

why do cells in the mycelium made of hype of fungus not have cell walls

to reform the double helix structure along both exposed strands in dna replication

why do free floating nucleotides in the nucleus match up with their complementery base?

*because we receive on set of 23 from our mother and another corresponding set of 23 from our father *most human cells have 2 sets of chromosomes

why do humans have 2 of every chromosome

*because the hydrophilic part of the phospholipids orients themselves so that they are in contact with the water inside and outside the cell *polar likes polar *the hydrophobic orient themselves away from the water in the middle part of the membrane

why do the phospholipids arrange themselves in the way that they do

it is located near the top of the leaf where the sun is

why does it make sense that the palisade layer would be the main site for photosynthesis

*because it controls what enters and leaves a cell *it only lets some stuff pass through * small molecules like water carbon dioxide and oxygen can freely diffuse across the membrane at any point

why is a cell membrane selectively permeable or semipermeable

*its more likely for males to have these traits since they only need to inherit one gene from their mom whereas males would need to genes from both of their parents

why is it more common for men to get sex linked traits

all of the cell's organelles are suspended in this fluid environment and it is here that all the cell's chemical reactions occur

why is the cytoplasm important?

*most organisms are diploid organisms; they have 2 sets of chromosomes in every cell *2 cells (sperm and egg) are required to create an offspring in sexual reproduction

why must gametes be haploid

because they live in a hypotonic environment so they need pumps to constantly be pumping out water

why must paramecia have many contractile vacuoles

carbon dioxidde in through stomata. air spaces in sponge layer allow it to easily reach the palisade mesophyll which is the primary site for photosynthesis also helps oxygen diffuse out of leaf

why would it be important to the cells in the palisade mesophyll that the cells in the spongy layer are loosely packed together

prevents water loss

why would plants in dryer areas have a thicker cutilce

*geographic and reproductive isolation both reduce the amount of gene flow between a species. And as a result of this in the "sections" of the specie that are able to mate, a positive mutation might spur. And over time,as a result of mating, this mutation will eventually be in all of that section of the specie. And so when the specie are able to come to contact with each other, they will be different enough to not mate and/or to not produce fertile chidden. Making the different sections of the specie different species

write about how geographic and reproductive isolation can lead to speciation

3 carbon atoms enter and each join up with 3 RuBP's which are a five carbon molecule. This creates 3 unstable 6carbon molecule which immediately turns into 6 stable 3 carbon molecules (PGA) then the carbon molecules are energized remaining as 6 stable 3 carbon molecules. After on of these stable molecules splits from the others and in two turns of the calvin cycle the two stable molecules that split join up to create glucose. then the remaining 5 stable 3 carbon molecules are energized again to turn into 3 RuBPs which are 5 carbon atoms.

write about the calvin cycle discussing how carbon atoms enter, flow through, and exit the cycle to create glucose.

1) in nature organisms tend to produce more offspring than will survive: sea turtles 2)as populations grow larger there is increased competition for resources such as food: if a pack of wolf grows then there will be more competition for deers and other animals 3)through sexual reproduction, no 2 offspring are identical there is always genetic variation within a population: humans are made with genetic variation through crossing over and independent separation of the chromosomes etc 4)due to these variations, some organisms within a population are better able to survive and these will pass on their genes to their offspring; Natural selection

write about the observations made by darwin and examples

*a system of cells that transports water and dissolved minerals upward to the rest of the plant/ aka to the shoots, it goes upward from the roots into the shoots *transports water and nutrient/minerals from the roots

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