Comm 210 Exam 2

Reliability (CRAP)

What kind of info is included in the resource? Supported elsewhere?; Is content of the resource primarily opinion? Is it balanced?; Does the creator provide references or sources for data or quotations

Detail and Brevity

What two competing interests exist when using supporting materials?

Accuracy of word choice

When we avoid the words "thing" or "stuff" in our speeches, we are practicing...

Allegations against Alabama Senate nominee Roy Moore are abusive.

Which of the following is a statement of value?

Reenforcing existing beliefs

Which of the following is the easiest to persuade?

Authority (CRAP)

Who is the creator; Author credentials?; Who is the publisher or sponsor; Are they reputable; What is the publisher's interest (if any) in this information

Real (Type of support)

are more meaningful to the audience than hypothetical

Stories (example of support)

extended examples, illustrations, and narratives; one of the most involving, enjoyable, and memorable ways to support speech; provides an effective contrast to the scientific nature of numbers and statistics; may be hypothetical

Key Concept of Cognitive Dissonance

is the work we do to negotiate when conflict arises between our beliefs and our actions

Well-constructed (Type of support)

make abstract ideas more concrete, understandable, persuasive, and memorable.

Indirect quotations (Type of testimony)

paraphrased quotations

Hypothetical (Type of support)

provides the specific support called for in a given situations

Proverb

short familiar sentence that expresses an accepted truth or moral

Brief (Type of support)

specific examples

Specific Instances (example of support)

use brief examples to clarify an idea; one specific example after another to make their point

Developing your ideas

According to lecture, you should keep in mind the need to balance the two competing ideas of brevity and detail when...

Detail

Accuracy

Theory of Planned Behavior

Adds in perceived behavioral control; need to make sure the audience understand that they CAN do something; Attitude toward act or behavior/Subjective Norm (what I may believe)/Perceived behavioral Control (*push them to be persuaded to call them to action and helping them believe and know they can) - (leads to) intention to use (if we think we are actually going to do what the speaker says - (leads to) use of behavior (going on further to explore it)

Theory of Reasoned Action: Very basic

All about how attitudes may influence our behavior. There are two factors that influence our decisions. These factors also influence our behaviors.

Types of sources

Databases; interviews; surveys; newspapers; scholarly articles (quarterly/written by experts reporting the findings from their research); magazine articles; articles in professional and/or trade publications (seeking info on a professional topic or field); government publications; web sources; textbooks; world book/encyclopedia (reference center); dictionaries; atlases; interlibrary loans

Currency (CRAP)

How recent is the info; How recently has the website been updated; Is it current enough for you topic

Murphy's Law

If anything can go wrong IT WILL

Social Judgement Theory: Rejection Audiences

We think things are more different/discrepant than they are; won't change at all - too far.

Social Judgement Theory: Acceptance Audiences

We think things are more in line than they are; reinforces beliefs

Consistency Principle

We're also less likely to believe arguments that don't line up. That's why we tell you not to touch abortion or political topics. (Example: you are less likely to believe negative things about your crush.

Consistency Principle

We're more likely to believe things that line up with our BAV (Example: I think "Sally" is violent/bad/mean, so I believe the rumor that he punched Dr. Denker during large lecture.

Gradual Change Approach

We're more likely to change our BAV when the change called for is this. ( Example: It seems WAY more reasonable to smoke one less cigarette or drink one less soda per day than to quit both cold turkey) Audiences are more likely to be favorable to small changes; Think of how this will effect the audience; Example: The evolution of the Batman symbol; "Anything you can give will contribute to the cause" vs. "we need $500 from each of you"

Relevant, on trend, vivid, identifiable, and personal

What comprises effective examples?

Currency, Reliability, Authority, Purpose/Point of View

What does CRAP stand for?

Neat, Interesting, Clear, Effective

What does NICE stand for (visual aids)

YOU are the most primary visual aid

Presentation of self is primary visual aid; How are you being put out there; Choices adding to credibility; Can alter self-presentation for effect; Presentation of self will last long after the presentation; Image impacts perception... INITIAL CREDIBILITY... which will lead to derived credibility

Cognitive Dissonance Example

"I support murder on Reign/The Last Kingdom/Peaky Blinders, even though I don't support murder in real life."

Non Sequitur (Type of Fallacy)

"It does not follow"; Conclusion does not strictly follow from the claim; CLAIM, DATA and WARRANT; Toulmin; Keep in mind that the claims are not necessarily false, but the process of inference is invalid; (Example: A. Humans are mammals, B. Pandas are mammals, C. Therefore, pandas are humans (*INVALID)); (Example: "Racism is wrong; therefore, we need affirmative action." "Racism is common. Affirmative action would reduce racism. There are no superior alternative to affirmative action, etc.)

Cognitive Dissonance: when our beliefs and actions don't align/strategies we use to fix that error

1. Attacking source credibility 2. Focusing on certain parts of the message we want to hear 3. Seeking new information 4. Ceasing to listen 5. Changing our minds

How to use statistics effectively

1. Avoid overusing the measurements and statistics 2. Round off your statistics 3. Consider ways to make important statistics meaningful to the audience

Benefits of presentational aids

1. Increase audience comprehension; 2. More memorable; 3. Create interest Makes presentation more memorable, Provides focus and tells us where to look, Creates interest, Convey messages in quick bursts, Leads to better audience comprehension)

Theory of Reasoned Action: Two factors that influence our decisions:

1. Your attitudes 2. Subjective norms (what is considered socially acceptable; this is why bandwagon appeals work)

Orwell (Dystopia)

1984; we will be overcome by an externally imposed oppression; feared those who would ban books; feared of those who would deprive us of information; the truth would be concealed from us

Hasty Generalization (Type of Fallacy)

An argument that takes a characteristic from a sample population and attributes it to an entire population; Stereotypes and assumptions; "There's never been a bad black basketball player"; Some are true, but they aren't true for all in the group

Appeal to Authority (Type of Fallacy)

Appeal to a popular figure or authority; Might not be authority on topic; "Death of Expertise

Bandwagon Fallacies (Type of Fallacy)

Appeals to whatever is popular at the time; "Just because a majority of people accept it, doesn't make it right, point no good"

How we deal with Cognitive Dissonance

Attack the source; Focus on certain parts of the message(Ignoring parts of the message and putting your own understanding to it) Seek new information (The non-commitment may go here to learn more); Ceasing to listen (Mentally (It doesn't concern me/it doesn't benefit me)); Changing our mind

Theory of Reasoned Action

Attitude toward act or behavior/Subjective Norm (what I may believe) - (leads to) behavioral Intention - (leads to) behavior (going on further to explore it)

Cognitive Dissonance

Audiences are most likely: Receptive to messages that line up with their beliefs and values; Unreceptive to those that challenge them; Key Concept: We're more likely to believe things that line up with our beliefs and values

Elements to make an effective in-speech citation

Author (or source), title, and year

Detail and Brevity

Balance between these two things when using supporting materials.

Ad Populum (Type of Fallacy)

Because the majority of people do or believe this you should do it or believe it too. (Example: Teenagers wanting to do things their friends want to do)

Fallacy

Believable arguments or premises that are based on invalid reasoning

Huxley (Dystopia)

Brave New world; No Big Brother is required to deprive people of their autonomy, maturity, and history. People will come to love their oppression, to adore the technologies that undo their capacities to think; feared there would be no reason to ban a book, for there would be no one who wanted to read; feared those that would give us so much that we would be reduced to passivity and egoism; feared that truth would be drowned in a sea of irrelevance

Denotation and Connotation

Characteristics of Language

NICE aids

Common errors of visual aid use

Avoid overusing the measurements and statistics (How to use statistics effectively)

Consider using a visual aid in the form of a chart or graph to avoid losing your listeners in a series of hard-to-follow

How to cite sources verbally

Create elegant ways to cite your sources (flow them with the sentence); give credit to the source and add to your own image of competence in the eyes of your audience; don't give complete citations during speech

Cognitive Dissonance

We always want our BAV to line up with our actions, but sometimes they don't. This refers to the internal work we have to do to make our BAV line up again.

Supporting Material (SET)

Definition: Developing our ideas with forms of support is a process of choosing and using techniques that help us better accomplish our goals.

Connotation

Feelings and attitude associated with or implied by a word; Depending upon experiences, a particular word may evoke positive, negative, or neutral thoughts, and feelings you associate with the word

Ad Hominem (Type of Fallacy)

Devalues or discredit the statement or individual without actually addressing statement; Usually when we don't like what they said or did; "Personal Foul, attacked the opponent instead of his argument"

Denotation

Dictionary definition of a word; Refers to specific, generally agreed upon definition of a word

Red Herring (Type of Fallacy)

Distraction; Topic A is under discussion; Topic Be is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A; Topic A is then abandoned; Usually in back and forth conversations or debates

Examples (SET)

Effective Examples: Stories and anecdotes; "On Trend"; Isolated cases?; Personal; The WHO (faces); Relatable (hypothetical or real); Applicable, versatile (universal); Concrete, vivid, specific & memorable; Told WELL! Be a story teller!; Make sure they are on track with what you're talking about and it's not an isolated case

False Dilemma-Bifurcation (Type of Fallacy)

Either X is true/best or Y is true/best; Black or white; Only two ways to solve this; Choose one... when in reality, there are a variety of possible answers/sides to an argument (Examples: "You're either a patriot or a terrorist", "Kneeling at NFL game is either...")

Types of Testimony

Expert, Lay/Peer/Personal, Prestige, Indirect quotations, Direct quotation, proverb

Testimonies (SET)

Expert; Up-to-date (currency); Avoid extremums; Holocaust deniers; Qualifications; Lay/Peer/Personal; Helps build in universal need; Building a persona that a lot of people relate to; (a 30 year old single mother...); Prestige; Opinions as big "T" and not little "t"; Celebrities

Appeal to Tradition (Type of Fallacy)

Good or right because it is old; "We've always supported Israel therefore..."; Can't say just because we always have

Consider ways to make important statistics meaningful to the audience (How to use statistics effectively)

Help audience visualize the importance of the statistic; (emotional appeal) Ask audience member to participate in a demo that illustrates the meaning of the statistic; Show the way a statistic will affect the listener

Create interest (benefit of presentational aids)

Help gain and direct the listeners' attention; help establish appropriate mood for presentation; adds variety of your speech

Lay/Peer/Personal (Type of testimony)

Helps build in universal need, Building a persona that a lot of people relate to, (a 30 year old single mother...)

Purpose/Point of View (CRAP)

Is this fact or opinion; Is it biased; Who is the audience

Social Judgement Theory

Links to consistency; we're always comparing our BAV to what we hear. Those comparisons lie in three latitudes: acceptance, rejection, and non-committed. (Try to tie this in to the three types of audiences)

Brief, extended, real, and hypothetical

List types of support

Increase audience comprehension (Benefit of presentational aids)

Make the material more understandable; give audience concrete representation of abstract concept; help clarify content; help listeners are trying to imagine objects that they are unfamiliar with

Straw Man (Type of Fallacy)

Manufactures an argument the other side "supposedly" makes (an argument that wasn't actually advanced) while never addressing the actual argument put forth; You say that someone said something when they didn't; Be careful of assuming, when pulling a quote or citation, don't paraphrase in a way that it's misleading or twisted in meaning. (Example: Claim: Senator Smith Says that the nation should not add to the defense budget/Straw Man claim: Senator Jones says that she cannot believe that Senator Smith wants to leave the nation defenseless.)

Persuasive Goals

Motivate your audience; To do something it has never desired to do before; Tod do something it has wanted to do but never has; Create in your audience one or more new beliefs or attitutdes; Reinforce or strengthen belies and attitudes that already exist in your audiencnce; are on a continuum; Reinforcing existing beliefs - Motivated based on existing beliefs - Change Beliefs - Create Action

Fake News

Narrowly defined: Made-up messages with an intention to deceive; But has become a battering ram for information "I don't agree with"

When to use handouts

Never during the speech; handout after speech; could take away from the attention of the speaker

Types of fallacies

Non Sequitur; Post Hoc; Ad Hominem; Straw Man; Ad Populum; False Dilema-Bifurcation; Hasty Generalization; Bandwagon; Slippery Slope; Red Herring; Appeal to Tradition; Appeal to Authority; Circular argument

Prestige (Type of Testimony)

Opinions as "T" and no little "t"; Celebrities

Key Concept of Theory of Reasoned Action

Our attitudes and the norms of the context influence our behavior

Secondary Presentational Aids

Power points, prezis, objects, etc. The Fundamentals (Don't be "a horder"), Not the main attraction; Cannot/should not function without you, Hence, why I do not write out all info for lecture; A bad aid is worse than no aid; Should never have to apologize for aid; Use less words and more pictures; Prompts you to know what to says; Layout impacts visual appeal... and understanding; Color impacts understanding; Colors invoke different emotions and messages

Post Hoc (Type of Fallacy)

Post hoc ergo propter hoc (After this, therefore, because of this) Because one event follows another, the first event is assumed to be the cause of the second; A occurs before B; therefore, A is the cause of B; Lucky charms or rituals; Doing something will cause an outcome; it's not a one stop job/it could take more than one time

Statistics (SET)

Power of numbers; Don't be manipulative to get the audience to understand; Be more detailed to actually what we need and want them to say

Brevity

Simplicity

Types of support

Specific, Stories, Hypothetical, Well-constructed, real, brief, extended, and typical

What does SET stand for

Statistics, Examples, and testimonies

Details (supporting material)

Stimulate the audience sense

Extended (Type of support)

Stories

SET

Supporting Materials

Language

System of symbols used to convey meaning

Slippery Slope (Type of Fallacy)

The "Dooms day fallacy"; If X happens, Y will follow; Z will then happen and so on...; It goes on, and on, and on

Key Concept of theory of planned behavior

The audience must feel as if they have the power to perform task

Social Judgement Theory: Non-commitment Audiences

The greatest attitude and value change happens when we're in this range because we're unbiased and haven't made up our minds (think undecided voters)

YOU

The most primary visual aid

Persuasion

The process of changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors

Typical (Type of support)

Typical: Backing up your examples with a statistic or testimony

Expert (Type of testimony)

Used to build credibility, up-to-date, avoid extremum (holocaust deniers/things that have been attacked by other authorities), qualifications

Characteristics of visual aids to keep in mind

Useful, visible/audible, comprehensible, professional; Too many pictures turn the attention away from them; Don't use too few or too many; Simple; Look professional as possible; Not too complex; Appropriate for the situation; Must be large enough, not too small, audience should not spend too much time reading; Sloppy aids could lose credibility; Should reflect good taste and sensitivity to the audience; avoid potentially insulting content; be accessible to all audience members; Enhance the presentation; The audience should be able to see and/or hear your presentational aids; A good visual aid: Enhances the presentation, Is able to be seen and/or heard by all audience members, Is simple enough for you audience to understand, Looks professional

Direct Quotation (Type of Testimony)

Using the exact words

Circular Argument (Type of Fallacy)

Using what you are trying to prove as part of the proof; You can't state a claim, state it again, and then use it to validate what you're saying; "The Bible is the word of God because God says it is. The word of God is true so you should not doubt the word of God."; "Women should be able to choose to terminate a pregnancy, so abortion should be legal."; This is why I'm hot.. (Song); Again... the reasoning is invalid... not WRONG (necessarily)... but make better arguments!; "Marijuana is currently illegal. And we all know that you shouldn't violate the law. Since smoking pot is illegal, you shouldn't smoke pot. And since you shouldn't smoke pot, it is the duty of the government to stop people from smoking it, which is why marijuana is illegal." (In a cycle) Is illegal-don't violate-don't smoke-Duty-Repeat

More memorable (benefit of presentational aids)

Visual restatement of the spoken word; audience remember more of what they see than of what they hear

Hypothetical Examples (Type of support)

emphasize conjecture, possibility, and probability-not certainty; can illustrate what might have happened in the past, may be happening now, or could happenin the future.