Comm-Group&Team-Power in Groups-chap10
resistance strategies-Resistance
When faced with a more powerful person or group, it is often safer to use indirect means of noncompliance than direct confrontation. Those who are defiant dig in their heels, but those who resist merely drag their feet. Resistance strategies are sometimes referred to as passive aggression (Wilmot & Hocker, 2017). The passive part is a seeming willingness to comply with an authority's dictates. The aggressive part is the undermining of an authority's power to require obedience. Remember, as previously discussed, there is great power in legitimate authority. You must tread carefully when bucking an authority. Several common passive-aggressive resistance strategies are discussed next (Long et al., 2016).
"Powerful or powerless"
"Powerful or powerless" is a false dichotomy. The interconnectedness of components in a system means that all group members have some degree of influence, even if it is to defy or resist the group. Ever see a child pitch a fit in a grocery store, demanding some desired sweet from exasperated parents, and observe the parents cave to the demand just to stop the obnoxious din? Who's running the show in this little group, the parents or the child? If each person in a group has some degree of power, the appropriate question is not "Is Person A powerful or powerless?" The apt question is "How much power does Person A have compared to Person B?" It is not an all-or-nothing proposition but a matter of relative influence.
"Powerless" language advertises a person's subordinate status.
"Powerless" language advertises a person's subordinate status. Exaggerating to make the point, consider how you would perceive this statement from a group member: "This is probably, um, not very important, because I haven't, uh, thought it out much, and you probably already considered it, and you know best anyway, so I am extremely sorry to bother you, but . . ." Would you even bother to listen to the ensuing message after hearing this abundance of disclaimers, hesitations, and overly polite comment that screams "I'm not worthy"?
United States is a Low PD Culture
(the more powerful are challenged) The United States is a low PD culture (See Figure 10.3). A low PD culture, or what Triandis (2012) calls a horizontal culture, values relatively equal power sharing and discourages attention to status differences and ranking in society. Challenging authority, flattening organizational hierarchies to reduce status differences between management and employees, and using power legitimately are encouraged in a low PD culture. Low PD cultures do not expect power disparities to be eliminated. Nevertheless, in low PD cultures such as the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Austria, Israel, and New Zealand, norms that minimize power distinctions act as guides for appropriate
There are several general indicators of power.
1.those who define power 2.A second general indicator of power is whose decisions are followed. 3.Finally, communication inhibition is a general indicator of power
A legitimate authority
A legitimate authority is someone perceived to have a right to direct others' behavior because of his or her position, title, role, experience, or knowledge. The experimenter was the legitimate authority because of his role, appearance, and position as the person in charge of the study. To have power potential, authority must be viewed as legitimate. Authority that springs from the group (e.g., being voted by membership to represent the group in bargaining talks or earning it by demonstrating competence) has a solid base of legitimacy. When group members respect their team leader, the leader can assert greater influence, especially when conflict arises in the group (Balkundi et al., 2009).
Power Resources-The Raw Materials of Influence
A power resource is anything that enables individuals or groups to achieve their goals, assists others to achieve their goals, or interferes with the goal attainment of others (Folger et al., 1993). This section lays out the primary resources from which power is derived, somewhat modifying French and Raven's (1959) classic types.
A Reward
A reward can be an effective power resource, but there is a difference between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
A second general indicator of power is whose decisions are followed.
A second general indicator of power is whose decisions are followed. The individual with the position of authority in a group (chair, president) may not be exercising the most power. A more respected group member may be calling the shots, as indicated by whom the group follows.
Bias Against Women and Ethic Minorities Leadership Gap
Although more than half of all professional and management positions in the United States are held by women, they hold slightly fewer than 2% of Fortune 1000 CEO positions, historically a high-water mark for female CEOs. This means that in the nation's 1000 largest corporations, there are, at any one time, consistently more than 980 male and fewer than 20 female CEOs ("Catalyst Study," 2017). Slightly fewer than 16% of all corporate officers at Fortune 500 companies are held by women. On boards of directors, only 20% of the seats are held by women (McGregor, 2017).
extrinsic reward
An extrinsic reward is an external inducement, such as money, grades, recognition, awards, or prestige. "Work sucks, but I need the bucks" captures the essence of an extrinsic reward. A survey of 500 professionals reported that 95% considered trusting relationships with upper management (intrinsic reward) as better motivation to remain at their jobs than either pay or benefits (extrinsic rewards) (Shilling, 2000)
intrinsic reward
An intrinsic reward is enjoying what one does for its own sake and because it gives you pleasure, such as acting in a play just because it is fun.
resistance strategies-procrastination
Most people put off doing what they dislike, but there is nothing "purposeful" about this. Purposeful procrastinators, however, pretend that they will pursue a task "soon." While promising imminent results, they deliberately refuse to commit to a specific time or date for task completion. They delay the completion of tasks on purpose. Trying to pin down a purposeful procrastinator is like trying to nail Jell-O to a wall—it won't stick. Really clever resisters can provide an almost endless stream of plausible excuses for not meeting deadlines. If those waiting for the task to be completed express exasperation, they can appear to be excessively compulsive about time constraints. Ethically, resistance strategies are questionable. In most cases, they are not examples of competent communication. Too often, being passive aggressive is a strategic way of being a social loafer. In extreme cases, however, these strategies may be the only feasible option available to fight against ill treatment and a toxic group atmosphere fostered by more powerful group members. From the standpoint of competent communication, however, emphasis must be on how to deal effectively with resistance, since the resistance is only rarely noble. There are three principal ways to combat them. First, confront the strategy directly. Identify your belief that passive-aggressive strategies are being employed by a worker. Describe in detail what behaviors you have observed that lead you to make such a conclusion. Discuss why the strategy has been used and work cooperatively with the resister to find an equitable solution so that resistance strategies are not used. Second, be very clear. Instructions must be precise and easy to understand. If there are several steps necessary to complete tasks, make sure that the steps are clearly outlined and explained. The misunderstanding mirage can operate effectively as a resistance strategy only if task instructions are murky. Third, produce consequences for resistance. We become enablers when we allow ourselves to be ensnared in the resister's net of duplicity. When we continue to wait for the tactically tardy, we encourage the behavior. If, when frustrated by purposeful procrastination, you perform the tasks or assign them to more pliable and responsible group members because it's just easier than cage fighting with a passive-aggressor, you reward the resistance and guarantee that such strategies will persist. You thwart the enabling process by making sure consequences result from resistance. If group members are persistently late for meetings, continue without them, and do not interrupt the meeting to fill them in on missed information. Encourage them to be punctual. Continued tardiness may necessitate exclusion from the meeting or expulsion from the group. Refrain from rescuing those who use strategic stupidity or loss of motor function. Compensation for damage caused by such resistance strategies typically should be the responsibility of the resister. Allow for human failing, however. Sometimes a person just makes a mistake. Look for a pattern of behavior before assessing that it is passive aggression. Despite the negative aspects of resistance strategies, the primary focus should not be on how to combat resistance. Instead, the focus should be on how to reduce power imbalances and dominance-submissiveness transactions that foster a desire to resist. A constructive communication environment, discussed in Chapter 7, can markedly diminish any desire to resist. (Rothwell 253-254) Rothwell, J. D. In Mixed Company, 10th Edition. Oxford University Press, 20180914. VitalBook file.
Define Power cons
As Keltner (2016) explains, "Power defines the waking life of every human being . . . emerges instantaneously when humans interact" and "shapes our every interaction, from those between parent and children to those between work colleagues" (pp. 3; 34). To ignore or give only cursory treatment of power, ignoring its positive potential, would be strikingly inadequate when exploring communication competence in groups and teams. Exercising power can be corrupting or altruistic. Some may use power to bulldoze, bully, and badger others for personal gain at the expense of group goal attainment. Others may use power to achieve group goals, resolve group conflicts, and sustain important member relationships. There is no virtue in exercising little power. Perceptions of powerlessness can induce indifference toward group tasks, diminish task performance, foster member passivity and withdrawal, destroy group cohesiveness, strain members' relationships, trigger stress, erode group members' self-esteem, and ignite destructive group conflict No group can achieve its goals without exercising some power . Your choice is not between using or not using power. "We only have options about whether to use power destructively or productively for ourselves and relationships". This is the essence of this chapter.
Besides cultural differences, verbal indicators of power also show several gender differences.
Besides cultural differences, verbal indicators of power also show several gender differences. Men in general are more verbally aggressive, direct, opinionated, hostile, and judgmental. Women typically use warmer, compassionate, and polite language (Brownlow, 2003; Park et al., 2016). One study found that in conference meetings, men speak 75% of the time; women speak only 25% of the time. Interestingly, when using consensus, not majority rule to make decisions, this gender difference disappears. Giving women greater opportunities to speak also improved decision making (Wrenn, 2012).
A Person does not possess power: A person is granted power by others
Charisma means little in a job interview if a hiring committee prefers diligence, expertise, and efficiency. In this case, charisma might look like flash without follow-through. A reward that nobody wants will influence no one. Information that is irrelevant to the needs of groups has no power potential.
How are Conformity groups more powerful?
Conformity to group norms can sometimes prove to be a more powerful tendency than obeying authority. The defectors created a group norm that opposed shocking victims against their will. This punctuates the power of groups to withstand the unethical or wrong-headed directives of a powerful group leader or member. Although results from obedience studies are disturbing, defiance of all authority is as empty-headed as consistent compliance. What kind of society would you live in if few people obeyed police, teachers, parents, judges, bosses, or physicians? The answer to the excessive influence of legitimate authority rests with your ability to discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate use of authority, not the exercise of indiscriminate rebellion against all authority.
What are the effects of bullying?
Damage from workplace bullying is significant: increases in depression, anxiety, absenteeism, sick days, and turnover rates, as well as decreases in productivity, not only from the targets, but also from witnesses to the bullying ("Workplace Bullying," 2017). Workplace bullying is fundamentally a dominance-prevention power struggle (Young, 2016). Bullying persists primarily because most transgressors are in more powerful positions than victims. Even the far less frequent instances of bullying by coworkers when working in teams exhibits an attempt to dominate the more reticent individuals.
Rewards and Punishments: Pleasure and Pain
Distributing rewards and punishments can be an important source of power. Salaries, bonuses, work schedules, perks, hirings, and firings are typical job-related rewards and punishments. The power potential of punishment depends on the degree of certainty that the punishment will be administered. Idle threats have little influence on behavior. Punishment is a source of power if it can, and likely will, be exercised. Threats without follow-through become impotent bluster. It also needs to be proportional to the offense.
Dominance,
Dominance is the active exercise of power over others. Bosses can interrupt an employee project team without asking permission to bloviate about the wonders of the video replay rule in football, but team members may feel obligated to endure the irrelevant rant in somnolent silence or ingratiating agreement.
Forms of Power:
Dominance, Prevention, and Empowerment
Empowerment
Empowerment, as previously defined, is a proactive form of power derived from enhancing the capabilities, choices, and influence of individuals and groups. It is power to accomplish group goals through processes of group potency, meaningfulness, autonomy, and impact (see Chapter 7). Empowerment promotes power sharing, not power struggles. The group profits from all members gaining the ability to succeed together. For example, group members who improve their speaking skills for a class presentation benefit the entire group. One of the positive aspects of the situational leadership model discussed in Chapter 6 is the emphasis on empowerment rather than dominance. The leader role is not geared toward issuing edicts and monitoring followers. Instead, the goal is to increase the readiness levels of followers, thereby empowering them to accomplish tasks without the leader watching their every move. Those who harbor a negative concept of power are usually responding to dominance and its companion form—prevention, and for good reason. "Dominance works as a tool to gain power, if not respect, but generally douses a group's well-being" ("Dominant Leaders," 2018). Although likely to remain prevalent in our competitive society, the dominance-prevention power struggle is a poor model for small groups. "Social science reveals that one's ability to get or maintain power, even in small group situations, depends on one's ability to understand and advance the goals of other group members" (Keltner, 2007). Dominance-prevention cycles will not end, but empowerment can gain a wider audience and become more broadly applied.
Why is Expertise devalued?
Expertise, however, has become devalued as a power resource, according to Tom Nichols (2017), in his thoughtful book with the somewhat overstated title, The Death of Expertise. He argues persuasively that "a Google-fueled, Wikipedia-based, blog-sodden collapse of any division between professionals and laypeople, students and teachers, knowers and wonderers—in other words, between those of any achievement in an area and those with none at all" (p. 3) underlines the need to recognize the difference between mere access to information and understanding and ability to offer intelligent advice on subjects of critical importance. Group decision making can only be the poorer for eschewing the value of expertise.
Women receive less feedback than Men
Finally, according to one report, women get less access to leaders in organizations. They ask for feedback from managers as often as men but receive far less. When they negotiate for promotion or higher compensation they are 30% more likely than men to receive negative feedback that they are "bossy," "too aggressive," or "intimidating" ("Women in the Workplace," 2016).
communication inhibition is a general indicator of power
Finally, communication inhibition is a general indicator of power (Keltner et al., 2003). The less powerful are more passive and withdrawn and more likely to be quiet and not express ideas, especially if those ideas might be unpopular or challenge more powerful individuals. The more powerful are usually more vocal in groups, more expressive of opinions and ideas, and more assertive or aggressive in pushing those ideas and opinions.
Woman and Sexual Harassment
First, the prevalence of sexual harassment primarily against women certainly has a dampening effect on women remaining in the corporate workplace long enough to advance to group leadership positions (Peck, 2017). A third of women in the workplace have experienced sexual harassment ("Sex Discrimination and Sexual Harassment," 2015). Most women who are harassed never file a formal complaint for fear of losing their job, harming their career, not being believed, or because of embarrassment associated with being harassed ("Sexual Harassment in the Workplace," 2016). Less power incubates abuse by the more powerful.
women and aggression
Fourth, studies of performance reviews of female employees, most often conducted by male supervisors, showed that, compared to male employees, women received 2.5 times as many complaints about "aggressive communication styles" and half as many references to their technical expertise and vision for the company. Women were far more frequently described as having a speaking style that is "off-putting" or "shrill" (Silverman, 2015).
Group members, however, do not have to be the pawns of legitimate authority.
Group members, however, do not have to be the pawns of legitimate authority. One study found that when group members discussed their misgivings about what a legitimate authority told them to do, most defied the authority figure (Gamson et al., 1982). One of the Milgram studies found that in groups of three participants, when two confederates defied the experimenter (authority) and refused to administer shocks beyond 210 volts, 90% of the naïve subjects who didn't know the set-up also refused to comply with the experimenter's commands. Yet in a comparison study where the naïve subject faced the experimenter alone, only 35% refused to comply with the experimenter's command, and refusal never occurred before 300 volts (Milgram, 1974). Conformity to group norms can sometimes prove to be a more powerful tendency than obeying authority. The defectors created a group norm that opposed shocking victims against their will. This punctuates the power of groups to withstand the unethical or wrong-headed directives of a powerful group leader or member. Although results from obedience studies are disturbing, defiance of all authority is as empty-headed as consistent compliance. What kind of society would you live in if few people obeyed police, teachers, parents, judges, bosses, or physicians? The answer to the excessive influence of legitimate authority rests with your ability to discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate use of authority, not the exercise of indiscriminate rebellion against all authority.
selective amnesia:fake forgetfulness
Have you ever noticed that some people are particularly forgetful about those things that they clearly do not want to do? This temporary amnesia is highly selective when used as a resistance strategy because selective amnesiacs rarely forget what is most important to them. No outward signs of resistance are manifested. Resisters agree to perform the task—but conveniently let it slip their minds. "Forgetting" important documents for a critical meeting is one way of striking back at perceived disrespect or indifference shown by managers. In a sophisticated version of this strategy, a person, who considers it demeaning to "run errands," shops for office supplies and purchases all but two key items. Hey, no one's perfect. He or she remembered almost everything. The group project can't be completed, but whatever!
High PD Cultures
High PD cultures, or what Triandis (2012) calls vertical cultures, have a relatively strong emphasis on maintaining power differences. The norms of cultures such as Malaysia, Guatemala, the Philippines, Mexico, India, Singapore, and Hong Kong encourage power distinctions. Authorities are rarely challenged, the most powerful are thought to have a legitimate right to exercise their power, and organizational and social hierarchies are nurtured. Cultural differences on this dimension do not mean that high PD cultures never experience conflict and aggression arising from power imbalances. Members of low PD cultures, however, are more likely to respond to power imbalances with frustration, anger, and hostility than members of high PD cultures. This occurs because low PD cultures subscribe to power balance even though the reality of everyday life in such cultures may reflect significant power disparities. Many groups recognize this disparity between the "ideal" of power balance and the reality of socio-economic disadvantage in the United States. In a low PD culture, the battle to achieve the ideal of balanced power is more compelling, and the denial of power is likely to be viewed as more unjust and intolerable than in a high PD culture, where power balance is seen differently.
What happens to people who report bullying and do the bullying?
Higher-ups who could address the problem constructively often ignore bullying. In many cases, those who complain are reprimanded for making complaints, or they are fired from their jobs. As a study conducted by Zogby Analytics for The Workplace Bullying Institute found, "In 54% of cases, bullying stops only when the target loses her or his job. . . . If one adds the 11% of targets who had to transfer to retain employment, 65% of targets had to leave the job they loved for no cause" (Namie, 2017a). Most bullies suffer no negative consequences; some are even promoted, providing a reward for acting like a loathsome human being (Lutgen-Sandvik & Sypher, 2009).
How should victims address bullying?
How victims should address bullies is a complicated challenge. Confrontation may get you fired, or more abuse may be heaped on you until you quit. Some victims try avoidance, by keeping as much distance as possible between themselves and the bully at work. You can't become invisible, however, and sometimes you end up on groups and teams with a bully as the leader. Other workers quit their jobs, but in tough economic times, this may not be a feasible option. Finally, victims of workplace bullying may file formal grievances with external groups (e.g., unions, courts, governmental agencies). This usually takes years, and it doesn't guarantee a satisfactory outcome for abused workers.
Legitimate Authority -You will Obey
In a series of famous studies by social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1974), participants were told to deliver increasingly painful electric shocks to an innocent victim for every wrong answer on a word-association test. Two-thirds of the participants in some of the studies obeyed the experimenter and delivered the maximum shock to the victim, who in some cases screamed in agony. No shocks, however, were delivered. The experiments were made to seem real, though, and none of the participants suspected trickery. In all, 19 variations of these obedience-to-authority studies were conducted. Others have replicated and updated results of obedience studies with similar findings. One replication required participants to shock a cute, fluffy puppy. The shocks in this case were real, not faked, but surreptitiously reduced some in intensity. Three-fourths of the participants, all college students, were obedient to the end (Sheridan & King, 1972). Recent studies suggest that nothing much has changed since Milgram conducted his experiments Participants in the Milgram studies followed orders, not because they were evil or sadistic, but because they couldn't resist legitimate authority (Milgram, 1974).
Expertise:Information Plus Know -How-Information and Expertise
Information and expertise are closely related, but not identical. An expert understands the information and knows how to use it wisely and skillfully. A person can have critical information without being an expert. You might possess a valuable technical report without being able to decipher any of the information. A team of corporate lawyers presumably know the law, but they may not practice it skillfully in the courtroom. Expertise "maximizes collective intelligence" when group members feel free to share their knowledge in a safe, supportive group environment (Mayo & Woolley, 2016).
Consequences of Power Imbalance
Power can be seductive and tempt anyone to use it unethically and harmfully. Bias Against Women and Ethic Minorities Leadership Gap
The Nature of Power
Power is the ability to influence the attainment of goals sought by you or others. "Power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group and remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together". For example, individuals can be perceived as powerful leaders at work revered by all members of their teams but viewed as bumbling messes at home with their families, branded as irredeemably ineffectual, especially by teenage children. So, are they powerful or powerless?
Powerful forms of language include being direct, fluent, declarative, commanding, and prone to interrupting or overlapping the speech of others.
Powerful forms of language include being direct, fluent, declarative, commanding, and prone to interrupting or overlapping the speech of others. Group members who use more powerful language are perceived to be more credible, attractive, and persuasive than those using less powerful language. These perceptions are particularly strong for virtual groups because language patterns become more influential when nonverbal cues are restricted (Palomares, 2008).
Powerful forms of speech are not always appropriate.
Powerful forms of speech are not always appropriate. Incivility, or verbal abuse, can seem powerful, but it's inappropriate victimization of the less powerful by those with greater power (MacLennan, 2015). Sometimes deferential language is a sign of respect. This is particularly true when cultural differences emerge. When negotiating teams from Japan and the United States meet, for example, misunderstandings triggered by different perceptions of what constitutes powerful or relatively powerless speech easily arise. Japanese negotiators, for example, use expressions such as "I think," "perhaps," and "probably" with great frequency because they strive to preserve harmony and cause no offense that would result in loss of face. This indirect language, however, is viewed as powerless by American negotiators more accustomed to the direct, explicit, "powerful" language of a low-context communication style (Kameda, 2003, 2007).
Prevention
Prevention is the reactive exercise of power used to thwart, take power from those with greater influence. It is the flipside of dominance. When someone tries to dominate us, psychological reactance rears its head. We wish to prevent the dominance. The willingness to say "no" can be formidable in the face of dominating attempts, but defiance comes with consequences, as detailed later. is the reactive exercise of power used to thwart, take power from those with greater influence. It is the flipside of dominance. When someone tries to dominate us, psychological reactance rears its head. We wish to prevent the dominance. The willingness to say "no" can be formidable in the face of dominating attempts, but defiance comes with consequences, as detailed later.
Punishment
Punishment can be used positively to change behavior from antisocial to prosocial, but it also is coercive and reinforces dominance. Consequently, it easily triggers backlash. A sign found in some workplaces—"The beatings will continue until morale improves"—expresses ironically the challenge of using punishment to produce positive outcomes. Individuals on the receiving end of punishment typically rebel. We don't normally like our tormenters.
Woman and Children
Second, equally qualified women who have children are far less likely to be hired for high-power positions than women who are childless. Male applicants have no such parental penalty (Correll et al., 2007). Women far more than men are also expected to quit their jobs, in the absence of reasonable family leave policies at work, to raise children ("Barriers and Bias," 2016). Thus, the expectation is that women with children are not as committed to their jobs, or as reliable in the long term as men.
So what steps need to be taken to help end gender bias?
So what steps need to be taken to help end gender bias? Men especially who are in positions of power, until greater gender equity is achieved, need to assist women (discussed later as alliances). Creating collaborative, supportive group climates also produces greater female leadership emergence in leaderless groups (Lindzon, 2016). A Pew Research study, however, found that 23% of female respondents reported that they "were treated as if they were not competent" compared to only 6% of male respondents making the same claim. Also, 16% of the female respondents "experienced repeated, small slights at work, compared to only 5% of male respondents (Bailey, 2017). These "microaggressions" can create a negative group climate. Women who have cracked the glass ceiling also should act as mentors to less powerful women to assist them in rising to more powerful leadership positions. Finally, women must persist in their desire to gain powerful leadership positions by remaining assertive (discussed later in this chapter) and challenging "hepeating."
So, do these statistics prove gender bias exists with women?
So, do these statistics prove gender bias exists? Perhaps women simply do not seek executive positions as often as men because not as many women are qualified for high-power positions. Not true. Women earn the majority of college degrees—more bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees—and this has been consistent since 1985. "Dramatic changes in women's educational attainment and workforce participation have given millions of women the background and skills they need to become leaders" ("Barriers and Bias," 2016).
Personal Qualities: A Powerful Persona
Some individuals exhibit personal qualities that draw people to them. This constellation of personal qualities that people find attractive is often called charisma (see Chapter 6 on charismatic leadership). Being charismatic is strongly associated with likability (Tousley, 2017). Likable people receive more job offers and promotions and are perceived as more credible (Vozza, 2015). Also, good looks, an attractive personality, dynamism, persuasive skills, warmth, and charm are some of the personal qualities that make an individual charismatic. There is no precise formula for determining charisma, however. What is attractive to you may be unattractive to others (Haslam & Reicher, 2012).
resistance strategy-sluggish effort
Some victims use the minimum effort resistance strategy. They choose to decrease productivity by exercising minimal effort. For example, workers might use the work-to-rule resistance strategy, instead of striking (defiance), where employees perform the absolute minimum amount of work necessary to keep their job according to work rules in place. This could mean resigning from membership on voluntary committees and work teams, leaving work at precisely the end of a shift and never staying longer to finish a job, taking no initiative to increase productivity or engage in creative team problem solving, and refusing to take on any additional duties until better pay and working conditions have been instituted. This is emotionally satisfying because it likely results in lowered productivity for the organization.
woman and Men of color
The dismal statistics on gender inequity in general are bad enough, but for both women and men of color the picture is even worse. African American women held a mere 1.5% of senior level positions in the workforce, and Latinas held 1.3% of senior leadership positions in private industry in 2016 (Zarya, 2016). At the S&P 500 companies, African American women held a dismal 1.2% of executive/senior level positions, Latinas held 1%, and Asian women held 0.2% of senior level positions in 2016 ("Women of Color in the United States," 2016). To make matters even worse, significant pay gaps persist at all levels of employment for women and men of color compared to white employees, larger than they were in 1979 (Wilson & Rodgers, 2016). The number of African American CEOs, both male and female, at Fortune 500 companies hit its zenith at 7 in 2007, and, for Latinos, it peaked at 13 in 2008. When Ken Chenault at American Express retired in 2018, this left only three African American CEOs at these large companies. When Ursula Burns at Xerox stepped down from her position as the first black woman to head a Fortune 500 company, no black women remained in this category (Clouse, 2018). Potential solutions to this problem mirror steps to help women crack the glass ceiling just outlined. In addition, include "voluntary diversity training as opposed to forced sessions, getting managers on board through college recruitment programs targeted to women and people of color, and formal mentoring for underrepresented groups
The way we speak and how listeners evaluate these speech patterns indicate degrees of power.
The way we speak and how listeners evaluate these speech patterns indicate degrees of power. The speech of a less powerful person is often flooded with self-doubt, approval seeking, overqualification, hesitancy, personal diminishment, and deference to authority. Examples of speech patterns commonly viewed as relatively powerless in U.S. culture include the following (Hosman & Siltanen, 2006; Leaper & Robnett, 2011):
General Indicators: Defining, Following, and Inhibiting
There are several general indicators of power. First, those who can define others exercise power. Teachers define students (e.g., smart, slow learner), physicians define patients (hypochondriac, unhealthy), psychiatrists define clients (schizophrenic), parents define children (sweet, incorrigible), and bosses define employees (good worker, loafer).
Power distance(pd)Dimension
These variations in the acceptability of unequal distribution of power in relationships, institutions, and organizations are called the power distance (PD) dimension (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2010).
women stereotypes
Third, when women remain in the sometimes-corporate Hunger Games, quite often gender stereotyping plays a huge role in impeding female job advancement. Such stereotyping is largely unconscious, not intentional, but it is pervasive. For example, men see themselves as better problem solvers than women, and men occupy most of the positions of power that determine job advancement. Men typically perceive women as better "caretakers" than leaders ("Catalyst Study," 2017). Thus, viewing women in this way means they are "more likely to be shunted into support roles rather than landing the core positions that lead to executive jobs" (Silverman, 2015).
resistance strategy-the misunderstanding mirage:confusion allusion
This is the "I thought you meant" or the "I could have sworn you said" strategy. The resistance is expressed with great sincerity. A deadline is "misunderstood" as a mere "target to shoot for," not a critical time table to complete a project. As project requirements become more complex, this strategy can be employed more easily. The implicit message is that since this is a simple misunderstanding, a penalty would be unfair.
loss of motor function
This is the "playing stupid" strategy. Strategic stupidity works exceedingly well when the low-power person claims "not to know how," is forced to attempt the task anyway, and then performs it ineptly. The poor performance becomes "proof" that the stupidity was real. The passive aggressor can assert, "I told you I didn't know how to do this." The strategic stupidity in the workplace is particularly prevalent in the technological realm. Technology changes so rapidly and can be enormously complex. It can seem quite reasonable, at least initially, for team members to exhibit difficulty mastering computer systems, when they just don't want to be forced to assume certain tasks that they perceive are not in their job description.
Why Prevention is far more effective than any other preceding style?
Ultimately, prevention is far more effective than any of the preceding strategies. A zero-tolerance policy in organizations for any acts of bullying is the place to start. Addressing directly the first signs of bullying behavior and providing training for bullies to change their ways is important. Creating a group culture that discourages social dominance is also useful (Khan et al., 2016). When clear policies exist, and are enforced to discourage bullying, the fear of losing one's job if a complaint is filed can dissipate. If the bullying persists, this should be followed by firing the offender. Developing a positive communication climate is also essential.
information:Good and Plenty
Unquestionably, information is power (Spikes & Moyers, 2017). "Group members can turn information into power by providing it to others who need it, by keeping it from others, by organizing it, increasing it, or even falsifying it" (Forsyth, 2014, p. 253). Our society, our world runs increasingly on information, but as Chapter 8 previously explored, information overload is an enormous challenge. Information loses its power potential when overly abundant and unmanageable. Suggestions for addressing information overload were provided.
Defiance
Usually, defiance should be considered an option of last resort because the potential negative consequences can be significant, especially to the less powerful.
Verbal Indicators:
Verbal Indicators: Language Choices The way we speak and how listeners evaluate these speech patterns indicate degrees of power. The speech of a less powerful person is often flooded with self-doubt, approval seeking, overqualification, hesitancy, personal diminishment, and deference to authority. Examples of speech patterns commonly viewed as relatively powerless in U.S. culture include the following (Hosman & Siltanen, 2006; Leaper & Robnett, 2011):
When is intelligent disobedience most likely to occur?
When is intelligent disobedience most likely to occur? When the workplace environment established by group leaders encourages candor, and when those who defy unjust authority are listened to by those with power who are not the actual perpetrators of unethical conduct, intelligent disobedience will occur in appropriate situations.
resistance strategies -tardiness
When you really don't want to attend a meeting, you can show contempt by arriving late. Tactical tardiness irritates and frustrates those who value the event. It can hold an entire group hostage while everyone waits for the late person to arrive. With the pervasiveness of virtual work groups, tactical tardiness has become easier to employ. Assembling group members can be a daunting task in the best of circumstances. It is especially challenging to do so when work groups are virtual. Being late or missing a virtual meeting entirely can easily be excused by arguing scheduling issues across time zones. (Rothwell 253) Rothwell, J. D. In Mixed Company, 10th Edition. Oxford University Press, 20180914. VitalBook file.
Why do numerous well-qualified women not rise to the top of corporate America?
Why do numerous well-qualified women not rise to the top of corporate America? Because of sexual harassment Women who have children get hired less than women who do not. women stereotyped as aggressive Women get stereotyped Women get less feedback than men .
Who does the bullying?
Workplace bullying is fundamentally a dominance-prevention power struggle (Young, 2016). Bullying persists primarily because most transgressors are in more powerful positions than victims. Even the far less frequent instances of bullying by coworkers when working in teams exhibits an attempt to dominate the more reticent individuals.
Horizontal and Vertical cultures
all cultures are stratified—divided into various levels of power that put distance between the haves and the have-nots. The difference on the PD dimension lies in whether the culture tends to accept or reject stratification, even though it is a fact of life. For example, in 2017, the average annual CEO compensation in the United States was $15.6 million, or 271 times the average annual compensation of workers (Mishel & Schieder, 2017). So, how do Americans in general view such pay disparity? A study by the Rock Center for Corporate Governance at Stanford University, in a national survey, found that 74% of respondents believe CEOs are vastly overpaid. Only 16% disagree (Larcker et al., 2016). The United States is a low PD culture (See Figure 10.3). A low PD culture, or what Triandis (2012) calls a horizontal culture, values relatively equal power sharing and discourages attention to status differences and ranking in society. Challenging authority, flattening organizational hierarchies to reduce status differences between management and employees, and using power legitimately are encouraged in a low PD culture. Low PD cultures do not expect power disparities to be eliminated. Nevertheless, in low PD cultures such as the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Austria, Israel, and New Zealand, norms that minimize power distinctions act as guides for appropriate
Communication Power Indicators
are the ways in which relative degrees of power are communicated in groups. You can understand the centrality of power in group transactions by understanding three types of power indicators: general, verbal, and nonverbal.
Power Distance:Cultural Variation
cultures vary widely in their attitudes concerning the appropriateness of power imbalances. These variations in the acceptability of unequal distribution of power in relationships, institutions, and organizations are called the power distance (PD) dimension (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2010). The extent to which members of a culture, both relatively powerful and powerless, endorse the society's overall level of inequality determines its place on the PD dimension (Hofstede, 2012).
Non-Verbal Indicators:Silent Exercise of Power
gazing, head nods, eye brow raises. clothing is a strong indicator of power Touch is another important nonverbal power indicator (tactile Abuse) eye Contact is an indicator of power staring is done more freely by a more powerful person. Less powerful people must monitor their eye contact more closely. Space is a prerogative of the powerful. Parents get the master bedroom while kids get bunkbeds.
What is Workplace Bullying :Blatant Aggression?
is "persistent verbal and nonverbal aggression at work" that "includes public humiliation, constant criticism, ridicule, gossip, insults, and social ostracism—communication that makes work tasks difficult or impossible, and socially isolates, stigmatizes, and discredits those targeted" (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006, pp. 406, 408). It is unethical behavior, egregiously disrespectful, and irresponsible action against others. "Adult bullying at work is shockingly common and enormously destructive" (Lutgen-Sandvik & Sypher, 2009, p. 41) In a survey by the Workplace Bullying Institute and Zogby International, 19% of U.S. employees reported having suffered abusive conduct in the workplace, and an additional 19% witnessed bullying (Namie, 2017b). That's almost 61 million workers affected by bullying. Ultimately, prevention is far more effective than any of the preceding strategies. A zero-tolerance policy in organizations for any acts of bullying is the place to start. Addressing directly the first signs of bullying behavior and providing training for bullies to change their ways is important. Creating a group culture that discourages social dominance is also useful (Khan et al., 2016). When clear policies exist, and are enforced to discourage bullying, the fear of losing one's job if a complaint is filed can dissipate. If the bullying persists, this should be followed by firing the offender. Developing a positive communication climate is also essential.
