Communication Arts 100 Final Exam *

Using Inclusive Language Guidelines

-avoid generic "He" -avoid generic "man" (when referring to men and women) - avoid stereotyping jobs & social roles by gender - use names that groups use to identify themselves

Use Language Clearly

-concrete words over abstract words -use familiar words -choose concrete words -eliminate clutter -avoid abstract words

Imagery & Types

use vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas -simile metaphor

Factors of credibility

-Competence: how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject -Character: how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience

attitude

-a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.

creating common ground

-a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

Use Language Appropriately Guidelines

-appropriateness of occasion - appropriateness to the audience - appropriateness of topic - appropriateness to the speaker

statistics reliability

-are the statistics representative? -are statistical measures used correctly? -are the statistics from a reliable source?

similie

uses "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common

Enhancing your credibility

-explain your competence: expertise on the subject -establish common ground with your audience -deliver your speeches fluently, expressively and with conviction

Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances

-fair, unbiased, representative -avoid FALLACY hasty generalization -be careful with wording -reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

Emotional Appeals

-fear: serious illness, natural disasters, sexual assault, rejection, economic hardship -compassion: disabled, battered women, neglected animals, starving children... -pride: in ones country, family, school, ethnic heritage, accomplishments -anger: terrorists and their supporters, members of congress who abuse the public trust, landlords who exploit student tenants, thieves -guilt: about not helping people less fortunate than us, not doing whats best -reverence: (respect) for an admired person, traditions, institutions

Disposition toward the topic

-interest -knowledge -attitude

audience-centeredness

-keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation

Guidelines for reasoning from principle

-pay special attention to general principle -support your minor premise with evidence

identification

-process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences

Monroe's motivated sequence: satisfaction

-providing a solution to a problem -present a plan and show how it will work -offer enough details about he plan and give listeners a clear understanding of it

open ended questions

-questions that allow respondents to answer however they want

fixed alternative questions

-questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives: yes, no, not sure

scale questions

-questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answer

Tips for using testimony

-quote or paraphrase accurately -use testimony from qualified sources -use testimony from unbiased sources -identify the people you quote or paraphrase

Analogical Reasoning

-reasoning in which the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second -avoid FALLACY invalid analogy: an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong

Reasoning from principle

-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion example) all people are mortal-->socrates is a person-->socrates is mortal -go from general statement to a minor premise

Monroe's motivated sequence: attention

-relating to the audience, showing importance of the topic, making a startling statement, arousing curiosity or suspense, posing a question, telling a dramatic story, using a visual aid

Monroe's motivated sequence: action

-say exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it -conclude with a final stirring appeal that reinforces their commitments to act

Monroe's motivated sequence: need

-show there is a serious problem with the existing situation -illustrate it with strong supporting materials -listeners should be concerned about the problem they are psychologically primed to hear your solution

citing sources orally

-the book, mag, newspaper, or web document you are citing -the author or sponsoring organization of the document -the author's qualifications with regard to the topic -the date on which the document was published, posted, or updated

egocentrism

-the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well being

Tips for using statistics

-use statistics to quantify your ideas -use statistics sparingly -identify the sources of your statistics -explain your statistics -round off complicated statistics -use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

Monroe's motivated sequence: visualization

-visualizing its benefits -vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy -make audience see how much better conditions will be once your plan is adopted

Methods of organization for questions of policy

1) Problem solution 2) problem cause solution 3) comparative advantages order 4) Monroe's Motivated Sequence

Tips for using testimony

1) accurately 2) qualified 3) unbiased sources 4) identify sources

3 questions to ask in determining reliability

1) are stats representative 2) Measures used correctly 3) reliable source

What four pieces of information do you usually need to provide when making oral source citations in a speech?

1) document 2) date of publication 3) author's credentials 4) Author or sponsoring organization

3 ways to enhance credibility

1) explain your competence 2) establish common ground 3) deliver speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

3 types of credibility

1) initial credibility 2) derived credibility 3) terminal credibility

Guidelines of questionnaires

1) plan questionnaire carefully to elicit precisely the info you need 2) use all 3 types 3) make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous 4) keep the questionnaire relatively brief

Tips for using testimony

1) quote/paraphrase accurately 2) use qualified sources 3) use biased sources 4) identify the people you quote/paraphrase

3 questions you should ask on the reliability of statistics?

1) representative 2) used correctly 3) reliable source

4 tips for using evidence effectively

1) specific evidence, novel evidence, credible sources, point of evidence

Four reasonings listeners are persuaded by speakers

1) the perceive the speaker as having high credibility 2) they are won over by the speaker's evidence 3) they are convinced by the speaker's reasoning 4) the are moved by the speaker's emotional appeals

3 Emotional appeal methods

1) use emotional language 2) vivid examples 3) sincerity

accurate statements

1. make sure you don't misquote someone 2. make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase 3. make sure you don't quote out of context

Generating emotional appeal

1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction

Tips for using examples

1. use examples to clarify your ideas 2. use examples to reinforce your ideas 3. use examples to personalize your ideas 4. make your examples vivid and richly textured 5. practice delivery to enhance your extended examples

Tips for using evidence

1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence

Bandwagon

A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable example) the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60% of people support him

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented example) if they waist money building a gym they will then waist money on a library and then a memorial park...

Ad Hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the real issue in dispute example)the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family

Either-Or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist example) the government must either raise taxes or reduces services for the poor

Question of Fact

A question about the truth or falsify of an assertion/ can not be answered absolutely Informative speech: nonpartisan Persuasive: partisan

Question of Policy

A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

5 steps of Monroe's Motivated Sequence

attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action

Demographic Audience analysis

Age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background

False cause

Also known by latin name post hoc, ergo propter hoc. speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

ethos

Aristotle's term for what modern day students call credibility

pathos

Aristotle's term for what modern students call emotional appeal

Appeal to tradition

Assumes something old is automatically better than something new

Bandwagon

Assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

Appeal to Novelty

Assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

Slippery Slope

Assumes that taking the first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Ad hominem

Attacks a person rathe than dealing with the real issue in dispute

Mean

Average

How to assess reasoning?

Avoid jumping to conclusions, make sure sample is large enough to justify, make sure fair, unbiased sources, give evidence, avoid assumptions, show parallel situation

Tips for using evidence

use specific evidence, use novel evidence, evidence from credible sources, make clear the point of your evidence

Adapt to the audience

Before speech: asses how your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech and adjust what you say to make it clear, appropriate and convincing During delivery: keep an eye out for audience feedback and adjust your remarks in response

Examples

Brief example, extended example, hypothetical example

2 major factors of credibility

Competence and character

metaphor

DOES NOT USE "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common

Reasoning

Drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

Fallacy

Error in reasoning

Types of supporting materials

Examples, statistics, testimonies

Red Herring

Introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Speeches of Introduction & Guidelines

Introducing another speaker -Be brief -accurate remarks -adapt remarks to occasion, speaker, and audience -create sense of anticipation

Types of Special Occasion Speeches

Introduction, Presentation, Acceptance, Commemmorative

Mental Dialogue

Give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech; must anticipate possible objections

Difference between persuasive speech and informative speech

Informative: a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding Persuasion: the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

Audience centered

Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation

Audience analysis questionnaires

Knowledge and attitudes on a specific topic

What is good about Monroe's Motivated Sequence?

More detailed and spurs listeners to action

Need

Need for a change, serious problem with existing situation

Basic needs of a question of policy

Need for change, specific plan, practicality

Why is speaking to persuade challenging?

Objective more ambitious; audience analysis and adaption become demanding; controversial topics

Question of policy seeks either...

Passive agreement or immediate action

Emotional appeals

Pathos: intended to make audience feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic

Satisfaction

Provide a solution to the problem

Question of Value

Question about the worth, rightness, morality and so forth of an idea or action

Why is it so easy to lie with statistics?

Statistics can be manipulated and distorted

Action

Ready to call for action

4 Reasonings

Reasoning from specific instances, reasoning from principle, causal reasoning, analogical reasoning

Situational audience analysis

Size of the audience, physical setting for the speech, disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion

Hasty Generalization

Speaker jumps to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence

False cause

Speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second

Immediate action

Speakers goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

Evidence

Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

Egocentrism

Tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own beliefs, values, and well being

Peer testimony

Testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic

logos

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning

Target audience

The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade (can tailor audience to fit their values and concerns)

Why do you need supporting materials in your speech?

To bolster the speaker's point of view

Specific purpose of a question of Fact

To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 will hit California in the next 10 years.

Methods to generate emotional appeal (3)

Use emotional language, develop vivid examples, speak with sincerity and conviction

How to use examples effectively?

Use examples to clarify ideas, reinforce your ideas, personalize your ideas, make examples vivid and richly textured, practice delivery to enhance extended example

Use of supporting materials in a speech

Used to support speaker's ideas; vivid, concrete examples have strong impact on listeners beliefs and actions; statistics clarify and support ideas; audiences tend to respect opinions of other people; quoting has a greater strength/impact

Visualization

Visualize benefits

Red Herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion example) how dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the US

comparative advantages order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

problem solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point represents a solution to the problem

problem cause solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second point analyzes the cause of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem

Monroe's motivated sequence

a method or organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

speech to gain passive agreement

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy

speech to gain immediate action

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

question of fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

question of value

a question about the worth, rightness, morality, ad so forth of an idea or action

question of policy

a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

brief example

a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point

example

a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.

extended example

a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point

Open-ended questions

allow respondents to answer however they want

invalid analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong

fallacy

an error in reasoning

hypothetical example

an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

appeal to novelty

assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

appeal to tradition

assumes that something old is automatically better than new

demographic audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background

situational audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical settings for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion

5 tips for using examples in your speech?

clarify ideas, vivid and rich, personalize your ideas, reinforce ideas, enhance extended examples

stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

Either-or

forces listeners to choose between 2 alternatives when more than 2 exist

Attention

gain attention of the audience

Types of Vivid Language

imagery and rhythm

Antithesis

juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel to structure example: Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.

Using Inclusive Language

language that doesn't stereotype or patronize, people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, etc.

Denotative Meaning of Word

literal/ dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

Connotative Meaning of Word

meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word/phrase

Median

middle

statistics

numerical data

Mode

occurs most often

Fixed alternative questions

offer fixed choice between 2 or more alternatives

Rhythm & Types

pattern of sound in speech created by choice & arrangement of words -parallelism -repetition -alliteration -antithesis

6 tips for using statistics in your speech

quantify ideas, sparingly, identify sources, explain, round off, visual aids

testimony

quotations or paraphrases used to support a point

quoting out of context

quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from words and phrases surrounding it

reasoning from specific instances

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

Causal Reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -avoid FALLACY of false cause

abstract words

refer to ideas/topics

concrete words

refer to tangible objects. call up mental sights, sounds, touches, smells, or tastes

repitition

reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clause or sentence

Scale questions

require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers

parallelism

similair arrangement of a pair/series of related words, phrases, sentences

Hasty Generalization

speaker jumps to general conclusion without enough sufficient evidence

Passive Agreement

speakers goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy

Speeches of Acceptance

speech that gives thanks for gift, award, or public recognition

Commemorative Speeches

speeches of praise or celebration -examples: 4th of july, eulogies, dedications

Speeches of Presentation

speeches that present someone a gift, award, or public recognition -tell audience why they are receiving award

evidence

supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

peer testimony

testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic

Expert testimony

testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields

expert testimony

testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields

direct quotation

testimony that is presented word for word

Credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic

Credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

mean

the average value of a group of numbers

initial credibility

the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak

derived credibility

the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech

terminal credibility

the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech

need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from the current policy?

supporting materials

the materials used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony

mental dialogue with the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

median

the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest

Pathos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communications refer to emotional appeals

mode

the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers

burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

Burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that change from current policy is necessary

target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

plan

the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

practicality

the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?

paraphrase

to restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words

Invalid analogy

two cases being compared are not necessarily alike

Use Language Accurately

words have shades of meaning