Communication Arts 100 Final Exam *
Using Inclusive Language Guidelines
-avoid generic "He" -avoid generic "man" (when referring to men and women) - avoid stereotyping jobs & social roles by gender - use names that groups use to identify themselves
Use Language Clearly
-concrete words over abstract words -use familiar words -choose concrete words -eliminate clutter -avoid abstract words
Imagery & Types
use vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas -simile metaphor
Factors of credibility
-Competence: how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject -Character: how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience
attitude
-a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.
creating common ground
-a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience
Use Language Appropriately Guidelines
-appropriateness of occasion - appropriateness to the audience - appropriateness of topic - appropriateness to the speaker
statistics reliability
-are the statistics representative? -are statistical measures used correctly? -are the statistics from a reliable source?
similie
uses "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common
Enhancing your credibility
-explain your competence: expertise on the subject -establish common ground with your audience -deliver your speeches fluently, expressively and with conviction
Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances
-fair, unbiased, representative -avoid FALLACY hasty generalization -be careful with wording -reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony
Emotional Appeals
-fear: serious illness, natural disasters, sexual assault, rejection, economic hardship -compassion: disabled, battered women, neglected animals, starving children... -pride: in ones country, family, school, ethnic heritage, accomplishments -anger: terrorists and their supporters, members of congress who abuse the public trust, landlords who exploit student tenants, thieves -guilt: about not helping people less fortunate than us, not doing whats best -reverence: (respect) for an admired person, traditions, institutions
Disposition toward the topic
-interest -knowledge -attitude
audience-centeredness
-keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation
Guidelines for reasoning from principle
-pay special attention to general principle -support your minor premise with evidence
identification
-process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences
Monroe's motivated sequence: satisfaction
-providing a solution to a problem -present a plan and show how it will work -offer enough details about he plan and give listeners a clear understanding of it
open ended questions
-questions that allow respondents to answer however they want
fixed alternative questions
-questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives: yes, no, not sure
scale questions
-questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answer
Tips for using testimony
-quote or paraphrase accurately -use testimony from qualified sources -use testimony from unbiased sources -identify the people you quote or paraphrase
Analogical Reasoning
-reasoning in which the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second -avoid FALLACY invalid analogy: an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong
Reasoning from principle
-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion example) all people are mortal-->socrates is a person-->socrates is mortal -go from general statement to a minor premise
Monroe's motivated sequence: attention
-relating to the audience, showing importance of the topic, making a startling statement, arousing curiosity or suspense, posing a question, telling a dramatic story, using a visual aid
Monroe's motivated sequence: action
-say exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it -conclude with a final stirring appeal that reinforces their commitments to act
Monroe's motivated sequence: need
-show there is a serious problem with the existing situation -illustrate it with strong supporting materials -listeners should be concerned about the problem they are psychologically primed to hear your solution
citing sources orally
-the book, mag, newspaper, or web document you are citing -the author or sponsoring organization of the document -the author's qualifications with regard to the topic -the date on which the document was published, posted, or updated
egocentrism
-the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well being
Tips for using statistics
-use statistics to quantify your ideas -use statistics sparingly -identify the sources of your statistics -explain your statistics -round off complicated statistics -use visual aids to clarify statistical trends
Monroe's motivated sequence: visualization
-visualizing its benefits -vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy -make audience see how much better conditions will be once your plan is adopted
Methods of organization for questions of policy
1) Problem solution 2) problem cause solution 3) comparative advantages order 4) Monroe's Motivated Sequence
Tips for using testimony
1) accurately 2) qualified 3) unbiased sources 4) identify sources
3 questions to ask in determining reliability
1) are stats representative 2) Measures used correctly 3) reliable source
What four pieces of information do you usually need to provide when making oral source citations in a speech?
1) document 2) date of publication 3) author's credentials 4) Author or sponsoring organization
3 ways to enhance credibility
1) explain your competence 2) establish common ground 3) deliver speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction
3 types of credibility
1) initial credibility 2) derived credibility 3) terminal credibility
Guidelines of questionnaires
1) plan questionnaire carefully to elicit precisely the info you need 2) use all 3 types 3) make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous 4) keep the questionnaire relatively brief
Tips for using testimony
1) quote/paraphrase accurately 2) use qualified sources 3) use biased sources 4) identify the people you quote/paraphrase
3 questions you should ask on the reliability of statistics?
1) representative 2) used correctly 3) reliable source
4 tips for using evidence effectively
1) specific evidence, novel evidence, credible sources, point of evidence
Four reasonings listeners are persuaded by speakers
1) the perceive the speaker as having high credibility 2) they are won over by the speaker's evidence 3) they are convinced by the speaker's reasoning 4) the are moved by the speaker's emotional appeals
3 Emotional appeal methods
1) use emotional language 2) vivid examples 3) sincerity
accurate statements
1. make sure you don't misquote someone 2. make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase 3. make sure you don't quote out of context
Generating emotional appeal
1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction
Tips for using examples
1. use examples to clarify your ideas 2. use examples to reinforce your ideas 3. use examples to personalize your ideas 4. make your examples vivid and richly textured 5. practice delivery to enhance your extended examples
Tips for using evidence
1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence
Bandwagon
A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable example) the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60% of people support him
Slippery Slope
A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented example) if they waist money building a gym they will then waist money on a library and then a memorial park...
Ad Hominem
A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the real issue in dispute example)the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family
Either-Or
A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist example) the government must either raise taxes or reduces services for the poor
Question of Fact
A question about the truth or falsify of an assertion/ can not be answered absolutely Informative speech: nonpartisan Persuasive: partisan
Question of Policy
A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken
5 steps of Monroe's Motivated Sequence
attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action
Demographic Audience analysis
Age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background
False cause
Also known by latin name post hoc, ergo propter hoc. speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.
ethos
Aristotle's term for what modern day students call credibility
pathos
Aristotle's term for what modern students call emotional appeal
Appeal to tradition
Assumes something old is automatically better than something new
Bandwagon
Assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable
Appeal to Novelty
Assumes that something new is automatically better than something old
Slippery Slope
Assumes that taking the first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented
Ad hominem
Attacks a person rathe than dealing with the real issue in dispute
Mean
Average
How to assess reasoning?
Avoid jumping to conclusions, make sure sample is large enough to justify, make sure fair, unbiased sources, give evidence, avoid assumptions, show parallel situation
Tips for using evidence
use specific evidence, use novel evidence, evidence from credible sources, make clear the point of your evidence
Adapt to the audience
Before speech: asses how your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech and adjust what you say to make it clear, appropriate and convincing During delivery: keep an eye out for audience feedback and adjust your remarks in response
Examples
Brief example, extended example, hypothetical example
2 major factors of credibility
Competence and character
metaphor
DOES NOT USE "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common
Reasoning
Drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
Fallacy
Error in reasoning
Types of supporting materials
Examples, statistics, testimonies
Red Herring
Introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion
Speeches of Introduction & Guidelines
Introducing another speaker -Be brief -accurate remarks -adapt remarks to occasion, speaker, and audience -create sense of anticipation
Types of Special Occasion Speeches
Introduction, Presentation, Acceptance, Commemmorative
Mental Dialogue
Give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech; must anticipate possible objections
Difference between persuasive speech and informative speech
Informative: a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding Persuasion: the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions
Audience centered
Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation
Audience analysis questionnaires
Knowledge and attitudes on a specific topic
What is good about Monroe's Motivated Sequence?
More detailed and spurs listeners to action
Need
Need for a change, serious problem with existing situation
Basic needs of a question of policy
Need for change, specific plan, practicality
Why is speaking to persuade challenging?
Objective more ambitious; audience analysis and adaption become demanding; controversial topics
Question of policy seeks either...
Passive agreement or immediate action
Emotional appeals
Pathos: intended to make audience feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic
Satisfaction
Provide a solution to the problem
Question of Value
Question about the worth, rightness, morality and so forth of an idea or action
Why is it so easy to lie with statistics?
Statistics can be manipulated and distorted
Action
Ready to call for action
4 Reasonings
Reasoning from specific instances, reasoning from principle, causal reasoning, analogical reasoning
Situational audience analysis
Size of the audience, physical setting for the speech, disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion
Hasty Generalization
Speaker jumps to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence
False cause
Speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second
Immediate action
Speakers goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy
Evidence
Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
Egocentrism
Tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own beliefs, values, and well being
Peer testimony
Testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic
logos
The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning
Target audience
The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade (can tailor audience to fit their values and concerns)
Why do you need supporting materials in your speech?
To bolster the speaker's point of view
Specific purpose of a question of Fact
To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 will hit California in the next 10 years.
Methods to generate emotional appeal (3)
Use emotional language, develop vivid examples, speak with sincerity and conviction
How to use examples effectively?
Use examples to clarify ideas, reinforce your ideas, personalize your ideas, make examples vivid and richly textured, practice delivery to enhance extended example
Use of supporting materials in a speech
Used to support speaker's ideas; vivid, concrete examples have strong impact on listeners beliefs and actions; statistics clarify and support ideas; audiences tend to respect opinions of other people; quoting has a greater strength/impact
Visualization
Visualize benefits
Red Herring
a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion example) how dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the US
comparative advantages order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions
problem solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point represents a solution to the problem
problem cause solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second point analyzes the cause of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
Monroe's motivated sequence
a method or organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
speech to gain passive agreement
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
speech to gain immediate action
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy
question of fact
a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion
question of value
a question about the worth, rightness, morality, ad so forth of an idea or action
question of policy
a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken
brief example
a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point
example
a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.
extended example
a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point
Open-ended questions
allow respondents to answer however they want
invalid analogy
an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong
fallacy
an error in reasoning
hypothetical example
an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation
appeal to novelty
assumes that something new is automatically better than something old
appeal to tradition
assumes that something old is automatically better than new
demographic audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background
situational audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical settings for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion
5 tips for using examples in your speech?
clarify ideas, vivid and rich, personalize your ideas, reinforce ideas, enhance extended examples
stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
Either-or
forces listeners to choose between 2 alternatives when more than 2 exist
Attention
gain attention of the audience
Types of Vivid Language
imagery and rhythm
Antithesis
juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel to structure example: Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.
Using Inclusive Language
language that doesn't stereotype or patronize, people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, etc.
Denotative Meaning of Word
literal/ dictionary meaning of a word or phrase
Connotative Meaning of Word
meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word/phrase
Median
middle
statistics
numerical data
Mode
occurs most often
Fixed alternative questions
offer fixed choice between 2 or more alternatives
Rhythm & Types
pattern of sound in speech created by choice & arrangement of words -parallelism -repetition -alliteration -antithesis
6 tips for using statistics in your speech
quantify ideas, sparingly, identify sources, explain, round off, visual aids
testimony
quotations or paraphrases used to support a point
quoting out of context
quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from words and phrases surrounding it
reasoning from specific instances
reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion
Causal Reasoning
reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -avoid FALLACY of false cause
abstract words
refer to ideas/topics
concrete words
refer to tangible objects. call up mental sights, sounds, touches, smells, or tastes
repitition
reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clause or sentence
Scale questions
require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers
parallelism
similair arrangement of a pair/series of related words, phrases, sentences
Hasty Generalization
speaker jumps to general conclusion without enough sufficient evidence
Passive Agreement
speakers goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
Speeches of Acceptance
speech that gives thanks for gift, award, or public recognition
Commemorative Speeches
speeches of praise or celebration -examples: 4th of july, eulogies, dedications
Speeches of Presentation
speeches that present someone a gift, award, or public recognition -tell audience why they are receiving award
evidence
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
peer testimony
testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic
Expert testimony
testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields
expert testimony
testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields
direct quotation
testimony that is presented word for word
Credibility
the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic
Credibility
the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.
mean
the average value of a group of numbers
initial credibility
the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak
derived credibility
the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech
terminal credibility
the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech
need
the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from the current policy?
supporting materials
the materials used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony
mental dialogue with the audience
the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech
median
the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest
Pathos
the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communications refer to emotional appeals
mode
the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers
burden of proof
the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary
Burden of proof
the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that change from current policy is necessary
target audience
the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade
persuasion
the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions
reasoning
the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
plan
the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
practicality
the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?
paraphrase
to restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words
Invalid analogy
two cases being compared are not necessarily alike
Use Language Accurately
words have shades of meaning
