Comparative Politics

democratic transition

A period in which an authoritarian regime fell from power and was replaced by a democratically-elected regime through a free and fair election.

Failed State

A state that loses its authority and legitimacy. Unable to control of its territory and provide basic services for its citizens.

Hypothesis

A statement that proposes a relationship between the IV and the DV. Has to be falsifiable through the empirical data.

agency

The capacity of individuals/actors to operate independently of external constraints

reversal of 1st wave

(1920-1939): The rise of Marxist/Communist and Fascist regimes in Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, Japan, Spain, Portugal, and other European nations.

2nd wave of democratization

(1945 -1950s): The collapse of fascist dictatorships and the end of colonial rule in the developing world.

reversal of 2nd wave

(1960-early 1970s): Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, China, Cuba, and Vietnam. Military coups and authoritarian rule in most newly independent colonies in Asia and Africa. Coups/military rule in much of Central and Latin America.

3rd wave of democratization

(1974-mid-1990s): Democratization in Spain, Portugal, Central and Latin America. Collapse of Communist regimes in USSR & Eastern Europe. Democratization in some Asian and African countries.

political freedom

(free & fair elections, right to run as a political candidate, right to join political parties and other organizations, universal suffragate)

civil liberties

(freedom of expression, freedom of belief/religious freedom, rule of law, existence of independent CSOs and media, individual freedom (abortion rights, gays & lesbians, etc)

1st wave of democratization

(late 19th century - 1920): The collapse of absolute monarchies in Western and Eastern Europe and transformation into constitutional monarchy /democratic republic.

reversal of 3rd wave

(late-1990s-2010): Prevalence of illiberal and competitive authoritarian regimes, smaller number of countries that managed to consolidate their democracy.

modernization theory

-1950s-early 1970s -Using insights from 19th century German sociologist Max Weber: Economic growth & technology Political development/institutions. -Real-life lessons of the Industrial Revolution that occurred in the United Kingdom, Western Europe, and the United States in 19th century. -Advocates: Talcott Parsons, Gabriel Almond, Seymour Martin Lipset, Samuel Huntington.

structuralist/neo-marxist theory

-1970s-1980s: Many variants - dependency theory, world systems theory, statist theory. -Western capitalists hinder economic growth and political development in developing countries. Only Western capitalists and their local cronies benefited from modernization, while the rest of the people remained poor. -Division between "core" (developed nations) vs "periphery" (developing nations). -The need for a strong state to promote economic development, redistribute wealth, and political reform. -Advocates: Andre Gunder Frank (dependency theory), Immanuel Wallerstein (world systems theory), Barrington Moore & Theda Skocpol (statist theory).

examples of rational choice theory

-African farmers refused to produce highly valued commodities (e.g., cocoa) because of government monopoly that requires them to sell their products at artificially low price. -State-owned enterprises (utilities, heavy industries) are often run at a loss because of government mandate to produce their goods/ services at artificially low price. -Low-income workers choose to remain unemployed because they would lose their unemployment/welfare benefits if they started to work again.

rational choice theory of democratization

-Assumes all political actors (the ruler and the opposition) wants to seize power/public office and once in power, wants to retain it (either through iron fist/repression or through elections). -Authoritarianism could survive as long as the ruler could buy off potential opponents/interest groups with power or material benefits (e.g., power sharing, provision of "side payments"/patronage, alliances/coalitions). -Democracy occurs once the ruler could no longer buy off potential opponents due to major economic or political breakdown (economic crisis, rebellion/civil war, major political protests) which shifts preference of opposition/interest groups from authoritarianism to democracy.

world systems theory disadvantages

-Assumes little or no agency in the part of the developing countries. -Fixed/static view of developed & developing countries similar to modernization theory.

Characteristics of a state

-Authority: The power to force citizens to comply with govt rules and regulations, using both persuasive (soft) and coercive (hard) means. -Legitimacy: Citizens consent/acceptance toward the state's authority to rule over them.

mixed method study

-Combining both quantitative (statistical analyses) and qualitative (comparative case studies) methods. -Taking the advantages of both approaches: theoretical generalizability (large-n) and the in-depth explanatory causes detailed in case study (small-n) analysis. -More common in comparative politics. -Also has its critiques - some research questions could only used small-n methods due to lack of available datasets.

most different (methods of agreement)

-Compare two units which have different characteristics (UV) but have similar outcome (dependent) variable. -Goal: To explain why two units have similar outcome despite having different characteristics between them. -Example: Econ dev between India and China.

most similar (methods of differences)

-Compare two units which have similar characteristics (IV) and differ only in the outcome (dependent) variable (DV). -Goal: to find the independent variable which explains the differing (outcome) between the two units. -Example: Econ dev between China and Cuba.

new cultural theory/post-modernism advantages

-Culture is not a static variable but instead could be changed based on changing institutional and structural constraints. -Help to explain why some "backward societies" of the past have been transformed to advanced industrial societies (Italy, Japan, China, etc).

new cultural theory/post-modernism

-Culture that promotes poverty/backwardness is not attributed to the values & practices of the poor alone, but to the institutional & power relationship which helps to reproduce poverty. -Culture of poverty exists as both an adaptaton and a reaction of the poor against a class-stratisfied, individualized, capitalist society. -Once the culture is produced, it is self-perpetuating across successive generations, explaining why society/community remains poor. -Culture of poverty can exist with other cultures within the same society.

Why should we study democracy and democratization?

-Democratization has been a major theme in comparative politics ever since the field was started in the late 1940s. -More countries than ever are classified as a democracy (123 out of 192 independent nations as of 2007). -There are many definitions and measurements of democracy and democratization- no consensus on which one is the best. Some countries might have totally different classifications under different measurements. -Debate between structuralists, transitologists, and proceduralists. -Connection between democracy and economic development/growth. -Connection between democracy, globalization, and the spread of liberal (Western??) political values. -What socio-political conditions make new democracies to endure/consolidated and what makes them to collapse/fail.

rational choice theory

-Derived from neo-classical economics. -Humans are self-interested actors who based their actions through rational calculations of costs and benefits. All humans, regardless of time and space, are behaving rationally. -Political actions are based on calculations of costs and benefits of individual actors. -Strategic calculation: The decision actors made based of the calculation of costs and benefits. -Bad/irrational decision comes about due to the lack of information the actor possesses.

New cultural/post modernism

-Different from political culture/modernization theory, no longer views culture as a fixed and static variable. -Culture: a worldview which explains why and how individuals and groups behave as they do (Marc Howard Ross - Bryn Mawr College). -A shared, learned, and symbolic system of values, ideas, beliefs, and practices that shapes and influences our behavior (Lim, p. 90). -Constructivism - Culture is socially constructed, subject to constant (albeit slow) changes, and needs to be learned and reproduced.

structuralist advantages

-Emphasize the state's role to promote econ dev & political institutions. -In many cases the state does play a major role in econ & industrial development from the 1960s to the 1980s.

The to avoid in the study of CP

-Ethnocentrism: the belief that our own political culture and institutions are better than any other societies. -Cultural relativism: the belief that each society's political culture and institutions are equally valid and we could not evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.

procedural theory of democratization

-Existence of free and fair election, where more than one candidate contests the election. -All citizens have freedom of speech and expression. -All citizens regardless of race/ethnicity, social class, or gender, have the right to vote (universal suffragate). -All citizens are eligible to run for elected office. -All political candidates can compete for electoral support and vote without any restrictions. -Alternative sources of information (a free press) are available for citizens to make up their decisions.

Developing countries

-Had a lower level of economic development and a higher number of population living in poverty (earning less than $2/day). -Weak political & governmental institutions and the prevalence of authoritarian regimes. -High prevalence of ethno-religious conflicts.

Characteristics of adv. industrialized countries

-High level of economic development (GNP per capita of $7,500 or higher). -High technological achievement & infrastructure. -Higher amount of investment in education, infrastructure, and social services. -Most (but not all) have adopted democratic political systems & institutions.

new institutionalism advantages

-Highlight the role of institutions in generating certain outcomes in politics. -Has broad policy implications: World Bank and other international donors use institutionalism to promote democratization & political reform in numerous developing countries (e.g., reform of parliament, court system, political parties, etc).

the comparative method (procedures)

-Hypothesis: A statement that proposes a relationship between the IV and the DV. Has to be falsifiable through the empirical data. -Independent (explanatory) variable (IV): the variable that explains or causes a given outcome to occur. -Dependent (outcome) variable (DV): the variable that is explained by one or more independent variable(s). -Intervening variable (Int Var): Variables that might affect the DV/outcome but are not primary causes of it.

causes of democratization during the "third wave"

-Illnesses/death of long-term dictator: Spain (1974), Portugal (1974), Croatia (1999), Egypt (2011). -Brutal repression of the military: Argentina (1983), Chile (1989), Guatemala, El Salvador, Thailand (1992). -Middle class demanding more political rights/freedom: South Korea, Taiwan, Brazil, Mexico. -Deep economic crisis: Indonesia (1998). -Widespread repudiation of an ideology: former USSR and Eastern European countries (1989-1992). -International Intervention: Iraq (2003), Afghanistan (2001), Rwanda, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone.

results of structural adjustment/neo-liberalism

-In the 1990s, state-led development largely disappeared from much of the developing world, replaced by neo-liberal development strategy where the private sector plays a leading role. -However, SALs were implemented inconsistently, many governments were unable or unwilling to implement them due to fear of losing political support as well as to their weak state capacity. -State capacity and authority declined significantly, some countries (esp. in Africa) became ridden in civil war/ethnic conflict. -Poverty increased due to the retreat of the state from social services sector.

the comparative method

-Invented by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) and modernized by Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune. -Comparative politics scholars utilize the comparative method to compare & contrast the domestic politics of two or more countries. -Comparative method allows us to trace the history and culture of each countries which help shape their economic & political institutions. -To evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different political systems and institutions. -To confirm or falsify our theoretical propositions and hypotheses by comparing two similar or different countries, political systems, or political groups.

disadvantages of modernization/cultural theory

-Monolithic assumption - theory takes US & Western European experience and assumes it will be applicable in non-Western societies. -Culture is assumed to be static/unchanging However, countries that were assumed to have "traditional/backward culture" under mod theory later became economic power houses (Japan, Korea, China and India).

Why do we study political economy?

-Much of the dev world remains poor, 25% of world's population (1.4 billion) still live in extreme poverty (earning < $ 1.25/day), most of them live in sub-Saharan Africa. -Poverty remains an issue in much of the developing world, even in newly emerging BRICSA countries. -High levels of inequality could hinder poverty reduction efforts. -Relationship between economic and political inequality.

comparative method disadvantages

-Not all the potential independent or intervening variables can be identified. Researchers can only identify a small number (sometimes just one) of IVs and intervene vars. -"Too many variables, to few cases" (Lipjhart).

Reactions Against Neo-Liberal Economic Development

-Open criticism against neo-liberal economic reforms began more prevalent during the late 1990s and much of 2000s, first from international NGO community, but then became widespread in many countries. -Second oil boom in the mid to late 2000s increased state revenues and econ resources of some countries that have resisted neo-liberal policy reforms (e.g., Russia, Iran). -The Doha trade negotiations have been stalled due to unwillingness of advanced industrial nations to open their agriculture and labor markets to competition from developing countries. -The financial crisis of 2008/09 and its aftermath weakens the credibility of neo-liberal policies further and create calls for greater state intervention and regulation of the global economy.

rational choice disadvantages

-Origins of human assumption is not investigated, emphasize costs & benefits. -Assume material interest as the primary explanation for political behavior, ignore the role of ideas, ideologies, culture, etc.

new institutionalism

-Political institutions got a renewed attention in the 1990s as weak institutions derailed economic and political reforms in developing countries (which are ignored by neo-classical economic theory). -Generate a renewed interest in institutional design as policymakers became interested in the creation of stable and effective political institutions (bureaucracy, parliament, judiciary) that meet certain political goals (preventing ethnic conflict, redistribute wealth, etc). -Institutions defined as "the rules of the game in society....[man-made] constraints that shape human interaction" (Douglas North 1990). -Unlike modernization theory, new institutionalism also takes a look at informal as well as legal institutions and has multiple theoretical streams instead of just one.

What is Comparative Politics?

-Politics is the study of power struggle between different societal actors/groups over the control of a state's political institutions & econ resources. -Comparative Politics is the study of domestic political history, culture, and political systems/institutions in countries outside of U.S. -In an increasingly globalized world, CP has incorporated international determinants of domestic politics (e.g., economic shocks, military interventions, etc). -International factors (neo-liberal economic system), democratization) shape domestic politics, but foreign policy is also shaped by domestic politics.

modernization/cultural theory

-Poverty is prevalent in societies with cultural values and practices that prevent entrepreneurship and economic development. -Example: Edward Banfield (1958) study of Southern Italy, which finds that the continued poverty of the region can be attributed to the "communal/family-centric" culture (amoral familism) that discourages work ethic and entrepreneurship while promotes fatalism, distrust, and inability to resolve economic and social problems affecting the community.

rational choice theory

-Poverty/under-development occurs because individuals make decisions that are unintended and socially irrational while they might be rational for the individual. -Socially irrational behavior occurs when individuals have incentives not to maximize their production potential because doing so would not benefit them economically. -Existence of (government-made) rules and regulations that prevent productive economic activities & entrepreneurship.

structuralist disadvantages

-Put too much attention on the state over other societal actors (civil society, business groups/corporations, etc). -Promoting authoritarian rule by the state and repression of any potential dissents/opposition. -Failure to predict the econ success of China and other East Asian countries. -Neo-Marxism was discredited after the rise of neo-liberalism and fall of USSR.

transitological approach to democratization

-Rejects macro-level (sociological/economic/class-based) theories of Lipset, Huntington, and Moore. -Micro-level theorizing: Democratization occurs when there is an elite pact/consensus to make a transition from an authoritarian to a democractic regime. -There is a consensus and a conscious decision among elites that democracy is the best political system compared to any other alternatives. -Father of transitology: Rejection of any grand theory of democratization, each case of democratic transition is unique due to history, culture, and agency/leadership.

BRISCA

-Several countries have successfully generate economic growth and stable political institutions -e.g. East Asian "tigers" -(Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)

rational choice advantages

-Show how economic/material incentives help to promote as well as to end poverty. -Show how individuals could escape from poverty and not rely on cultural and structural constraints. -Show how the state should promote rules and institutions that promote economic incentives of citizens, while reform/discontinue those that curtail these incentives.

rational choice advantages

-Simple and parsimonious explanation for many political phenomena from ethnic conflict ("greed & grievance thesis"), policy/government failure, and corruption. -Easy to be turned into mathematical/economic models (large-n analysis).

problems with the cultural approach

-Since it has no causal power, it is difficult to prove whether culture/ideas really cause political change/action. -Culture, symbols, and ideology is subject to political contestation and manipulation by self-interested political actors/groups. -At best, culture is only an intervening variable, but not an independent variable.

Characteristics of Developing Countries from 1950s-1970s

-State plays a leading role in the planning and implementation of economic development policy. -ISI policy created high tariff barriers for foreign trade as well as artificially high fixed exchange rates. -State-owned enterprises (SOEs) owned much of public utilities, mining companies, and "strategic" industries (steel, fertilizer, banking/finance, etc). -Private enterprises existed, but were subordinated vis-à-vis SOEs and were extensively regulated. -Heavy (but poorly targeted) subsidies for food, education, health care. -Lack of political freedom: authoritarian rule took hold in much of the developing world in the 1950s & 1960s.

structuralist approach to democratization

-Study the historical evolution and sociological (class-based) conditions that contribute to the creation of democracy and dictatorship. -Democracy tend to be successfully institutionalized in countries where large number of middle class (US, Britain) managed to seize power from the monarchy/ landed aristocracy) . -Democracy tends to fail (become a dictatorship) in countries where a landed aristocracy ruled over a large masses of poor farmers/peasants (Russia, China) and no middle class emerges to challenge their rule. -"No bourgeois, no democracy" (1966).

What do we study in political economy?

-The appropriate role between state and market/private enterprises and the appropriate balance between them. -Outward (export promotion) vs. inward-looking (import substitution) development. -The role of foreign aid and donor agencies (bilateral and multilateral). -International trade & investment vs. domestic production/self-sufficiency. -Multi-national corporations - their positive and negative roles in economic development.

history of econ. dev. in dev. nations (1980s)

-The debt crisis affected much of the developing world, esp. Latin American and African countries. East Asian countries were largely unaffected. -Many developing countries received structural adjustment loans (SALs) from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). -Conditionalities: Sets of conditions before SAL loans were disbursed that require recipients to adopt neo-liberal/free market econ reforms and scaled back the role of the state in economic development significantly.

complex casualty

-The outcome of an event is determined from a series of independent and/or intervening variables, not just one

What is political economy?

-The study of wealth and poverty of nations, and how economic policy helps to create them. -The study of interaction between the state and the market and how it creates (or prevents) economic growth and wealth for citizens. -The study of how public policy, political institutions, and economic system (capitalist, socialist/Marxist, or mixed) influence each other.

New Institutionalism (Late 1990s- Present)

-There is a growing recognition that the issue is not whether the state should (or not) play a role in econ development, but whether the state has institutional capabilities to fully implement its policies. -Increased concern against corruption and lack of political participation due to authoritarian rule. Increased focus on improving state capacity and capability (governance) as well as on broadening public participation in econ development policy planning. -Promoted greater participation for affected stakeholders (esp. civil society), greater autonomy for local governments (decentralization), and greater political reform (democratization).

rational choice theory (con.)

-To end socially irrational behavior, government must promote policies that promote enterpreneurship and productivity of individuals, and remove those that curtail them. -Promotes deregulation of the economy and privatization of state enterprises. -Created institutions that promote private ownership and entrepreneurship (e.g., an independent judiciary, giving land titles for farmers, encourage trade and private investment). -Legitimizes structural adjustment policy and neo-liberal economic policy.

Why do we need a theory?

-To provide a framework that enable us to confirm or falsify our hypotheses & analyze the relationship between various factors that contribute to a political phenomena. -To provide an analytical tool to compare why the same phenomena does or does not occur in different societies. -To produce a generalization that determine what factors are most salient at any given time and place to cause (or not cause) that phenomena.

What are the purposes of a theory?

-To simplify the reality that we are observing (although they are inter-related w/one another). -To help us determine the facts/variables that are relevant to our inquiry. -To guide our interpretation of the facts. -To organize the facts and see how they are related to one another. -To develop 'whole' arguments/hypothesis about the relationship b/w these facts.

structural adjustment and Neo-liberal economic model

-Trade liberalization - reduction/elimination of tariffs and other trade restrictions. -Currency devaluation and flexible/free-floating exchange rates. -Privatization of state enterprises (SOEs). -Deregulation of the private sector and promotion of legal reform to safeguard property rights (e.g., Intellectual Property (TRIP) protection). -Massive reduction in public spending, especially in health, education, and other social programs.

developmental state economic model

-While a strong private sector exists and could generate econ planning and investment activities on their own, the state also plays a major role in planning many econ activities and directly invests its capital in various development projects.

post-structuralist

-approach is the leading challenger to the positivists, arguing that general theories are impossible to develop/proof, the best we could do is to deconstruct the forces of domination in politics of a given society. -Examples: Post-colonialism, critical theory.

positivist

-believe that politics can be predicted scientifically, using theories derived from law-like generalizations & deductive logic. -approach is considered as the mainstream view within political science. -Centered on the creation of deductive theories that explains a broad range of phenomena -Examples: Rational choice, Neo-institutionalism

small-n examples

-comparative historical analysis -comparative case studies -ethnography

methodological individualism

-interests-based actions of individuals over political institutions and culture. -Individual actors are utility maximizers who maximizes their benefits/payoffs and minimizes their costs. -Institutions serve as rules and incentives that help to constrain and modify individual behavior. -They emerge and persist because of support from actors who believe that institutions protect their interests instead of constraining them.

freedom house index criteria

-political freedom (multiple parties, free & fair elections, universal suffragate) -civil liberties (human rights, religious freedom, economic freedom, independent media).

Experimental studies (large-n)

-produce law-like and parsimonious theoretical generations, yet lack the in-depth knowledge about the political history, culture, and institutions within a specific country/region.

Comparative case studies (small-n)

-qualitative studies -produce in-depth knowledge about politics of a given country/region, but provides few generalizable propositions across countries/ regions. -only produce middle range theories

agency-based theories

-rational choice -social psychology -constructivism

large-n examples

-statistical analyses (bivariate & multivariate regression), game theory models. -Increasingly used in comparative politics, because traditional comparative method often do not produce generalizable theories/hypotheses.

history of econ dev. in dev. nations (1970s)

-the first oil boom created new sources of revenue for many developing nations, causing further expansion of the state in the economy. -Many states borrowed heavily from bilateral donors as well as from private financiers. -Growing skepticism against conventional development policies, resulting in the popularity of dependency theory and neo-Marxist theories. -Increased focus of development assistance to reduce poverty (investment in education, health, food assistance, etc).

anti-corruption initiatives

-to prevent govt corruption. -Encouraging greater public participation by promoting democratization, free & fair elections, strengthening parliament, the judiciary, political parties & CSOs.

freedom house index score

0 to 3 (Free), 3 to 5 (Partly Free), 5 to 7 (Not Free)

comparative method examples

1) A country with democratic political system (IV) is more likely to generate high economic growth (DV). 2) A country with multiple ethnic groups (IV) are more vulnerable to ethnic conflict (DV).

democratic transition

1st free & fair election which produces a democratically elected government

democratic consolidation

3 consecutive free & fair elections with no reversal of democracy

world systems theory

All countries in the world are part of a capitalist world system, divided into core (developed/Western countries), semi-periphery (intermediaries, e.g., China , Mexico, India) & periphery (poor developing countries).

What is the state?

An institution that rules over a territory and has a monopoly power over the use of force

hard populism

Attempting to scale back neo-liberal policies by re-nationalizing some privatized enterprises. Examples: Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador.

dependency theory

Colonialism and exploitation of Western capitalists by transferring raw materials from the developing world to highly value-added goods produced in the West.

structuralist/neo-marxist theory

Continuing poverty and underdevelopment in the developing world is due to the unequal relationship between developing and developed countries based on a global capitalist system.

resource curse

Countries with abundant oil or other mineral resources tend to be authoritarian.

electoral democracy

Despite free and fair elections and democratically elected government, fewer civil rights for minorities (women, ethnic & religious minorities) and less protection for opposition politicians, civil society activists, and journalists.

democratic consolidation

Democracy endures after three consecutive elections that are judged to be free and fair ("narrow") or after it has been recognized as "the only game in town" by all political actors ("broad") .

deliberative democracy

Democracy where citizens are fully participating in all aspects of government at all levels (national, regional, and local), not just electing public officials (e.g., public referendums, citizens' commissions that approve draft laws, state budget, etc.).

quality of democracy

Does democracy help to promote economic growth/prosperity, increase the accountability of government/elected officials, and promote greater public participation at all levels (national, regional, and local governments).

structure

External constraints which help to shape individual's choices & actions.

How is CP different from IR?

Focus on domestic politics rather than foreign policy and international politics (study of intl. relations).

rational choice disadvantages

Focus on economic/material incentives tend to underplay the role of structural and cultural constraints of econ. development.

world systems theory advantages

Helped to explain the seemingly unequal econ. Relationship between developed and developing world.

modernization disadvantages

Ignore culture, informal institutions, and other variables that help or hinder economic growth and political institutions.

structural-based theories

Political culture Structuralism (Neo-Marxist, institutionalism)

illiberal/hybrid regimes

Political regimes that still have authoritarian features (e.g., one person or one party rule) despite the existence of some democratic rules and institutions (e.g., regular free and fair election). Examples: Malaysia, Singapore, Venezuela, Russia.

role of grassroots/citizen protest movements in promoting democratization

Protest movements have been instrumental in many cases of democratization over the last three decades (Fall of Communist regimes, Arab Spring). Growing number of transnational movements with transnational & global focuses (environment, human rights/democracy, economic and social justice). Causes: anti-dam movements (1980s and 1990s), land reform and titling, anti-globalization (Seattle 2000), fair trade, debt reduction (Jubilee 2000), class inequality (Occupy Wall Street, 2011).

competitive authoritarian regimes

Regimes that still run with an iron fist, despite the existence of some formal democratic institutions (e.g., regular elections). Examples: Russia, Belarus, Zimbabwe, Central Asia.

soft populism

Seeking a balance between neo-liberal economic policies and populism (e.g., greater social welfare for the poor). Examples: Brazil, Argentina.

modernization advantages

Simple and parsimonious, easily generalized to developing world, fits the context of global politics of the 1950s, where the US emerged as a superpower and virtually all developing countries were still poor & under-developed.

dependent development

Some developing countries might be able to industrialize and prosper, but they are still dependent on foreign aid and investment from developed world.

capacity building

Strengthening state institutions, esp. for delivering public goods: education, health, tax collection, and justice/rule of law.

new cultural theory/post-modernism disadvantages

The causal power of culture is difficult to measure; Changing state policy & political institutions help to explain econ. development better than culture alone.

Intervening variable (Int Var)

Variables that might affect the DV/outcome but are not primary causes of it

authoritarian durability

Why some authoritarian regimes managed to survive the Third Wave and managed to stay afloat.

sociological institutionalism

emphasize the role of ideas, values, norms, and rules (both formal and informal) in institutions formation as well as in promoting compliance over rules.

rational choice institutionalism

emphasize the role of individuals' interests and choices, as well as the role of institutions to either constrain or empower them.

new research on democratization

focuses on the following: -democratic consolidation -authoritarian durability -illiberal/hybrid regimes -resource curse -quality of democracy

new populism

in Latin America: politicians with populist platform elected in many countries.

freedom house index

measures degree of democracy or authoritarianism for all nations.

decentralization

of political and fiscal authority from national to state and local governments.

historical institutionalism

political institutions emerges and endures due to the randomness of choices in history rather than a grand design.

import substitution

protection of small ("infant" industries) ad high tariffs for imported goods, also intervention by the state both directly (state ownership) and indirectly (subsidies, regulation).

Independent (explanatory) variable (IV)

the variable that explains or causes a given outcome to occur

Dependent (outcome) variable (DV)

the variable that is explained by one or more independent variable(s)

security/military assistance

to prevent terrorism, outbreak of ethno-religious conflicts, etc.