coms quiz 2
value
(toulmin's claim type) good/bad, appeals to the inherent moral values of the audience, how bad is it, how good, what is worst/best
fact
(toulmin's claim type) is/is not, must be proven, did it happen, is it true/false, does it exist/not
policy
(toulmin's claim type) should/should not, advocates a specific course of action
speaker
(toulmin's data type) expertise/experience
external
(toulmin's data type) experts, data/statistics, examples, etc.
audience
(toulmin's data type) knowledge/opinions
backing
(toulmin's) additional support/justification for warrant
rebuttal
(toulmin's) addresses potential objections to claim, exception to the claim, something that would stop someone from listening to you
claim
(toulmin's) assertion/proposition, 3 types- fact, value, policy
data
(toulmin's) evidence, how you prove the claim, 3 types- external, speaker, audience
qualifier
(toulmin's) modifies/limits claim, makes a statement about the strength of the claim
warrant
(toulmin's) reasoning, linking data to claim, it's the *rational link* between the evidence and the claim in the argument, it connects the step arguers make when they connect an arguments evidence to its claim
vocal fillers
(verbal delivery) "uhhh, hmm, you know, I mean, like" make you seem unprepared and caused the audience to become distracted from what you're saying
Pauses
(verbal delivery) 2 types- vocalized & dramatic we want dramatic pauses, they grab the audiences attention
vocalics- rate
(verbal delivery) Avg. 120-150 words/min., Slow down: serious, Speed up: enthusiasm / nervous/frantic
vocalics- volume
(verbal delivery) attention/focus if you get loud
vocalics- articulation
(verbal delivery) emphasis on words
vocalics- pitch/intonation
(verbal delivery) mood, emotion, and enthusiasm, concern/commitment
pitch
(verbal delivery) range of sounds from high to low or vise versa
volume
(verbal delivery) relative loudness of speakers voice while delivering a speech, usually the most obvious vocal element we notice about a speaker
intonation
(verbal delivery) rising and falling of sound across phrases and sentences
speaking rate
(verbal delivery) the pace at which you convey the speech
vocal variety
(verbal delivery) using volume, pitch, speaking rate and pauses congruently
vocalics- pronunciation
(verbal delivery) wrong- lowers credibility
Demosthenes
the best orator in Ancient Greece Parents died when we was super young, it was tragic. Born wealthy but too young to manage finances, people in charge of his wealth wasted and spent all of his wealth before he was 18. wanted to be in the senate and the first time he went, he stuttered and embarrassed himself. So, he went to the ocean and spoke very loudly and projected to build up endurance and put pebbles in his mouth so he could talk around the pebbles and clearly say the words.
ELM- Motivation to process
low involvement- little familiarity with, or care about, topic
faulty sample
(synthetic fallacies) Identifies population, indicates statistics based upon sampling, fails to acct for all the groups "Dewey wins!"; didn't account for non-telephone households
ethos
"character", according to Aristotle audiences listen to and trust speakers if they exhibit competence and good moral character, credibility of the speaker as trustworthy, knowledge/practical wisdom, goodwill, virtue
fallacies
"errors in logic", they can diminish your credibility, harmful to civil discourse
central route
(ELM) focus on the argument and use it to elaborate upon our position
peripheral route
(ELM) use other aspects to make decisions
action/actualization
(MMS) What is it that you want your audience to take part in, or do, as a response of your persuasion? Asks audience members to act according to their acceptance of the message, may involve reconsidering their present way of thinking about something, continuing to believe as they do but with greater commitment, or implementing a new set of behaviors
satisfaction
(MMS) What is the solution you are proposing? (only one), what do you want your audience to do as a result of your persuasion? Offers the audience a proposal to reinforce/change their attitudes, beliefs, and values regarding the need at hand
attention
(MMS) addresses listeners' core concerns making the speech highly relevant to them, get the attention of your audience (story, statistic, question, any attention getters) - Audience analysis: appeal to their needs, wants, and desires
visualization
(MMS) of benefits), what will life be like if your audience participates in your solution? Purpose of this step is to carry the audience beyond accepting the feasibility of your proposal to seeing how it will actually benefit them
need
(MMS) what is the problem that you are trying to solve? If you can show audience that they have an important need that must be satisfied or problem that must be solved they will have a reason to listen
enthymeme
(arguments from dedication) Typically a syllogism that's missing a part, "piece of reasoning", They reach probable, but not necessary, conclusions.
post hoc, ergo prompter hoc
(causal fallacies) "After the fact, therefore because of the fact." "90% of heroin uses first used marijuana."
reductio ad absurdum
(causal fallacies) "Reduction to the absurd" "My opponent has claimed that smoking marijuana leads to heroin addition. He says that 98% of heroin addicts once smoked pot. I believe that. I'll bet they also smoked cigarettes. Better yet, I'll be they all drank coffee—and every one of them tasted mother's milk. Freud missed something: if you suckle your mother, you'll become a heroin addict!"
multiple causation
(causal fallacies) Assert a single cause achieves the result; ignoring multiple causes "Delinquent children come from fatherless households."
insufficient cause
(causal fallacies) Cause not substantial enough to lead to effect "The legalization of prostitution led to the end of morality."
substitution of a sign for a cause
(causal fallacies) correlation is not causation "If you graduate from the Ivy League you will make a higher salary."
the fallacy of composition
(circumstantial fallacies) Assume what is true of the part, is true of the whole "Since every player on the team is talented, the team will be excellent."
hasty generalization
(circumstantial fallacies) Draws conclusion from 1 or few signs w/o additional corroboration "Sam is riding her bike in her home town in Maine, minding her own business. A station wagon comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As he goes by, the driver yells 'get on the sidewalk where you belong!' Sam sees that the car has Ohio plates and concludes that all Ohio drivers are jerks."
mystic sign
(circumstantial fallacies) can think A is related to B b/c of value system, personal beliefs, / faith "The American flag is the symbol of our greatness as a nation. Anyone who burns it, for whatever personal reason, is a traitor and probably a subversive."
fallacy of division
(circumstantial fallacies) opposite of the above, whole is good, then the parts are good "Because the team won the national championship, all the players are gifted."
constant sign
(circumstantial fallacies) relationships are time & culture bound (don't assume they will continue in the future b/c of relations in the past) "Russians are communists."
equivocal sign
(circumstantial fallacies) signs have multiple causes "A student continually yawns. Such clear evidence of boredom is disconcerting."
confident
(effective audience-centered delivery) composed, passionate about message, a focus on the idea
enthusiastic
(effective audience-centered delivery) covers a multitude of delivery sins, it adds to ethos, is contagious
Natural
(effective audience-centered delivery) genuine, relaxed, feels spontaneous
direct
(effective audience-centered delivery) making the message relevant & by demonstrating your interest and concern (eye contact, body orientation)
ad populam
(ethical appeals fallacies) Appeal to the people / emotions "Do you want this murder to come to your house and threaten your family?"
ad hominem
(ethical appeals fallacies) Attacking character of opponent directly instead of opponent's argument "George Bush is an idiot."
ignoratio elenchi
(ethical appeals fallacies) Misinterpret what person says & advocate for the misinterpretation; ignorance of logic "The 52 former hostages are seen as national heroes. I consider them survivors. A hero is one who is admired for his achievements and qualities. Therefore, the true heroes are those servicemen who volunteered for the failed rescue mission."
tu quoque (you're another)
(ethical appeals fallacies) b/c someone else did something, you should be allowed to do it as well "Betty was able to take the test late."
denying the antecedent
(formal fallacies) "If ...then" when advocate denies the "if" cause, then reasons that that denies the then "Since good education has given us good technology, it follows that bad education will give us bad technology."
non sequitur
(formal fallacies) "It does not follow." Drawing a conclusion unrelated to evidence which precedes it Drawing a conclusion not related to premises of argument "Steve Johnson grew up in poverty. Therefore Steve will become the President of the United States."
affirming the consequent
(formal fallacies) If...then "The teacher said to get an 'A' I must work hard. I worked hard, so I should get an A."
faulty definition
(formal fallacies) Key terms not defined / using different definitions Pro-choice
faulty dilemma (either/or)
(formal fallacies) Limits logical arguments to 2, instead of considering all possibilities "Either you support the United States or you support terrorists."
unstated assumption/faulty enthymeme
(formal fallacies) Reasons from a premise not named What is the underlying assumption? (Above: that technology is a "good.")
Petitio Principi ("Begging the Question")
(formal fallacies) Uses circular reasoning God exists. How do you know?
behaviors/actions
(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) adoption (start), discontinuation (stop), deterrence (avoid certain behaviors), continuation (continue)
values
(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) concern what we consider good or bad, important or unimportant, worthwhile or worthless, enduring!
attitudes
(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) evaluation of a person, situation, action, or institution that helps explain individual variation in social conduct; applies to a variety of context (saving $, honoring social responsibilities, buying on credit, cheating on tests, community service, etc)
beliefs
(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) judgements about what is true/probably (believe about/in)
appearance
(nonverbal delivery) Be professional, sloppy appearance, messy hair, wrinkled clothes= you do not care
postures/gestures
(nonverbal delivery) Do's: head up, shoulders back, use open expansive natural gestures, signpost with your body, move and plant, avoid adaptors/self-soothing behaviors Don'ts: no gestures, holding notes close to chest, too robotic/rehearsed, cross arms, hands in pockets, t-rex arms, hands on hips/in pockets, turn your back on audience, hands behind back, point index finger, "steeple"/wringing hands, shift weight
breathing
(nonverbal delivery) Fast & heavy: nervousness, fear, excitement, arousal, joy Slow & steady: relaxed, comfortable, bored, sad
eye contact
(nonverbal delivery) more intimate and persuasive Common problems: look down/away too much, head bobbing, looking over heads, looking at same person Do's: scan room, engage each member for 3 seconds Triangle method: business/professional, social, intimate
plain folks
(propaganda devices fallacies) Argument should be accepted b/c of arguer's affiliation w/ crowd "I am one of you."
bandwagon
(propaganda devices fallacies) Everyone else accepts reasoning "Everyone is doing it."
card stacking
(propaganda devices fallacies) Quote from recognized source, then add other well known sources "Milton Friedman, and other well known economists, believe this."
glittering generality
(propaganda devices fallacies) Unproven proposition given in emotional, evaluative terms "Our boys in Asia, fighting and dying for you, for me, for all of us, for this great country—these boys need and deserve your support. Don't let them down. Don't let them die in vain. Let's stick out this dirty little war until we've run every last one of those atheistic communists into the sea." (About Vietnam, could be about Iraq.)
red herring
(strategic fallacies) Argument diverts attn to irrelevant issue 9/11 Terrorism & Immigration
groundshift
(strategic fallacies) One has lost an argument sequence, so shift to defending another assertion Nixon & Watergate...he shifts into a defense of Vietnam.
evidence trap
(strategic fallacies) Will provide little evidence for stronger arguments "The United States is experiencing difficult economic times." (Then provides no evidence of these difficult economic times.)
slippery slope
(strategic fallacies) a certain decision will set in motion a series of increasingly severe consequences "If we allow same-sex couples to marry we will have to allow incest and bestiality."
ad ignorantum
(strategic fallacies) mistakes lack of evidence for evidence of the contrary "No weapons of mass destruction were found, therefore none existed."
part-whole composition
(strategic fallacies) refuse to look at overall effects of program, focusing on workability of individual parts Recent tax code plan
unnamed base
(synthetic fallacies) Do not identify the population from which % are drawn Nixon and his "great silent majority"
inadequate sample
(synthetic fallacies) Give impression of taken a survey, when really just looked at a sample Survey your roommates / people immediately around you
strategic fallacies
advocate knowingly uses
type of induction: argument by cause
Attempts to establish that two incidents are related in a meaningful way. Effect-to-cause: "Violent crime is at an all time high because our borders are not secure." Cause-to-effect: "The lack of border security allows millions of dangerous illegal immigrants to flood into America."
Monroes Motivated Sequence
Begins with arousing listeners attention and ends with calling for action, specifically effective when you want the audience to do something, 5 steps- attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action/actualization
causal pitfalls of argument induction
Do not confuse correlation with causation- FALLACIES
argument from induction
Examples to conclusion Grades & Attendance: "Adam had perfect attendance and earned an A." "Beth had perfect attendance and earned an A." "Stephen skipped class a lot and earned a D." "Katie never came to class and earned an F." Therefore, the more you come to class the better you will perform.
induction pitfalls
Hasty Generalization: Jump to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence Use unfair / biased examples to support conclusion
enthymeme- "The glove doesn't fit, so you must acquit!"
Major premise (assumed): If evidence does not fit the defendant, then acquittal is required Minor premise (stated): The glove doesn't fit the defendant. Minor premise (assumed): The glove is evidence. Conclusion: Therefore, you must acquit the defendant.
type of induction: argument by authority
Power of the argument is in the ethos of the authority. Examples: God / Religion Experts Celebrities Family Community Leaders
Cialdini's Principals of Persuasion
Reciprocity: based on past experience Scarcity: message has a time limit Authority: the speaker has power Consistency: relying on past thoughts Liking: the speaker is likeable Consensus: peer pressure
visual tics
Shifting weight, Fidgeting, Posture, Body, Direction, Hands, Hair, Eye Contact
verbal tics
Sounds: ummm Words: like, you know, and
type of induction: argument by analogy
Two unfamiliar things are similar, Something will be accurate for one case if it is true for another similar case. Example: Prohibition of alcohol failed in the U.S. (claim of fact) Similarly, prohibition of marijuana will eventually fail (claim of fact) Therefore, we should decriminalize marijuana use in the United States. (claim of policy/conclusion)
causal fallacies
determining causes
Aristotle's Topoi/Commonplaces
Way to create the speech, method for inventing arguments, specific to each genre used to characterize the "places" where a speaker may "locate" arguments that are appropriate to a given subject, tools or strategies of invention
analogy pitfalls of induction argument
assumption of more similarities than differences, failure to acknowledge limits of analogy
social judgement theory
attitude change is mediated by judgmental processes and effects used to persuade people - latitude of acceptance: the concept is acceptable by the listener - latitude of rejection: the concept is not acceptable - anchor position: where the listener stands on the position
inoculation theory
can help resist persuasion, before the other side presents information, 2 parts- Part 1: explicit warning (ex trial opening statements) Part 2: counter argument/refutation Every argument has a weak point- don't hide it, it will make you appear credible
types of fallacies
casual, circumstantial, synthetic, formal, propaganda, ethical, strategic
5 key principles of social judgement theory
categories new information: locate it on our categories of judgement "ego involvement": affects the size of our latitudes we distort incoming information to fit: ex- selective hearing small to moderate discrepancies lead to change, large do not
Toulmin's Model
claim, data, warrant, backing, qualifier, rebuttal
mythos
cultural appeal languages, stories, values, norms, heroes, artifacts, rituals, customs, technology
persuasion....
deals in matters of judgement, not certainty
Mehrabians Rule
elements of personal communication 7% spoken words 38% voice/tone 55% body language
using pauses
enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a thought or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said
authority pitfalls of argument induction
experts need to prove credentials, too. Bias, No relevance to claim, Audience might dislike
arguments from dedication
formal logic, syllogism, have major premise, minor premise, and conclusion Major Premise: "All men are mortal." Minor Premise: "Socrates is a man. Conclusion: "Therefore Socrates is mortal."
ELM- Motivation to process
high involvement- high degree of personal experience with topic
elaboration likelihood model
how receivers process messages, 2 ways- central route and peripheral route
goal of persuasion....
influence audience members attitudes, values, beliefs, behaviors/actions
characteristics of ethical influence
intentionality- of persuader conscious of awareness- of receiver free choice/free will- of receiver language and symbolic action
for persuasion to occur....
new information must fall in the latitude of acceptance, must be different from the anchor position, can't be assimilated or contrasted - thus, change is likely to be small and difficult to obtain, watch out for ego involvement
Bad strategies to overcome speaking anxiety
o Picture the audience naked o Practice in front of a mirror o Start with a joke o Look at the forehead o Tell the audience you're nervous
pathos
persuasive appeals to emotion, emotional appeals
logos
persuasive appeals to reason and logic, logical appeal
nonverbal delivery
postures/gestures, eye contact, breathing, appearance, qualities of voice, verbal strategies, arms and hands
circumstantial fallacies
reasoning from sign
synthetic fallacies
using statistics irresponsibly; survey, population, sample (random/stratified)
why do we do dramatic pauses?
we pause to regroup and for effect! (Focuses attention,Communicates info is important,Creates tension/anticipation,Let's information sink in)