coms quiz 2

value

(toulmin's claim type) good/bad, appeals to the inherent moral values of the audience, how bad is it, how good, what is worst/best

fact

(toulmin's claim type) is/is not, must be proven, did it happen, is it true/false, does it exist/not

policy

(toulmin's claim type) should/should not, advocates a specific course of action

speaker

(toulmin's data type) expertise/experience

external

(toulmin's data type) experts, data/statistics, examples, etc.

audience

(toulmin's data type) knowledge/opinions

backing

(toulmin's) additional support/justification for warrant

rebuttal

(toulmin's) addresses potential objections to claim, exception to the claim, something that would stop someone from listening to you

claim

(toulmin's) assertion/proposition, 3 types- fact, value, policy

data

(toulmin's) evidence, how you prove the claim, 3 types- external, speaker, audience

qualifier

(toulmin's) modifies/limits claim, makes a statement about the strength of the claim

warrant

(toulmin's) reasoning, linking data to claim, it's the *rational link* between the evidence and the claim in the argument, it connects the step arguers make when they connect an arguments evidence to its claim

vocal fillers

(verbal delivery) "uhhh, hmm, you know, I mean, like" make you seem unprepared and caused the audience to become distracted from what you're saying

Pauses

(verbal delivery) 2 types- vocalized & dramatic we want dramatic pauses, they grab the audiences attention

vocalics- rate

(verbal delivery) Avg. 120-150 words/min., Slow down: serious, Speed up: enthusiasm / nervous/frantic

vocalics- volume

(verbal delivery) attention/focus if you get loud

vocalics- articulation

(verbal delivery) emphasis on words

vocalics- pitch/intonation

(verbal delivery) mood, emotion, and enthusiasm, concern/commitment

pitch

(verbal delivery) range of sounds from high to low or vise versa

volume

(verbal delivery) relative loudness of speakers voice while delivering a speech, usually the most obvious vocal element we notice about a speaker

intonation

(verbal delivery) rising and falling of sound across phrases and sentences

speaking rate

(verbal delivery) the pace at which you convey the speech

vocal variety

(verbal delivery) using volume, pitch, speaking rate and pauses congruently

vocalics- pronunciation

(verbal delivery) wrong- lowers credibility

Demosthenes

the best orator in Ancient Greece Parents died when we was super young, it was tragic. Born wealthy but too young to manage finances, people in charge of his wealth wasted and spent all of his wealth before he was 18. wanted to be in the senate and the first time he went, he stuttered and embarrassed himself. So, he went to the ocean and spoke very loudly and projected to build up endurance and put pebbles in his mouth so he could talk around the pebbles and clearly say the words.

ELM- Motivation to process

low involvement- little familiarity with, or care about, topic

faulty sample

(synthetic fallacies) Identifies population, indicates statistics based upon sampling, fails to acct for all the groups "Dewey wins!"; didn't account for non-telephone households

ethos

"character", according to Aristotle audiences listen to and trust speakers if they exhibit competence and good moral character, credibility of the speaker as trustworthy, knowledge/practical wisdom, goodwill, virtue

fallacies

"errors in logic", they can diminish your credibility, harmful to civil discourse

central route

(ELM) focus on the argument and use it to elaborate upon our position

peripheral route

(ELM) use other aspects to make decisions

action/actualization

(MMS) What is it that you want your audience to take part in, or do, as a response of your persuasion? Asks audience members to act according to their acceptance of the message, may involve reconsidering their present way of thinking about something, continuing to believe as they do but with greater commitment, or implementing a new set of behaviors

satisfaction

(MMS) What is the solution you are proposing? (only one), what do you want your audience to do as a result of your persuasion? Offers the audience a proposal to reinforce/change their attitudes, beliefs, and values regarding the need at hand

attention

(MMS) addresses listeners' core concerns making the speech highly relevant to them, get the attention of your audience (story, statistic, question, any attention getters) - Audience analysis: appeal to their needs, wants, and desires

visualization

(MMS) of benefits), what will life be like if your audience participates in your solution? Purpose of this step is to carry the audience beyond accepting the feasibility of your proposal to seeing how it will actually benefit them

need

(MMS) what is the problem that you are trying to solve? If you can show audience that they have an important need that must be satisfied or problem that must be solved they will have a reason to listen

enthymeme

(arguments from dedication) Typically a syllogism that's missing a part, "piece of reasoning", They reach probable, but not necessary, conclusions.

post hoc, ergo prompter hoc

(causal fallacies) "After the fact, therefore because of the fact." "90% of heroin uses first used marijuana."

reductio ad absurdum

(causal fallacies) "Reduction to the absurd" "My opponent has claimed that smoking marijuana leads to heroin addition. He says that 98% of heroin addicts once smoked pot. I believe that. I'll bet they also smoked cigarettes. Better yet, I'll be they all drank coffee—and every one of them tasted mother's milk. Freud missed something: if you suckle your mother, you'll become a heroin addict!"

multiple causation

(causal fallacies) Assert a single cause achieves the result; ignoring multiple causes "Delinquent children come from fatherless households."

insufficient cause

(causal fallacies) Cause not substantial enough to lead to effect "The legalization of prostitution led to the end of morality."

substitution of a sign for a cause

(causal fallacies) correlation is not causation "If you graduate from the Ivy League you will make a higher salary."

the fallacy of composition

(circumstantial fallacies) Assume what is true of the part, is true of the whole "Since every player on the team is talented, the team will be excellent."

hasty generalization

(circumstantial fallacies) Draws conclusion from 1 or few signs w/o additional corroboration "Sam is riding her bike in her home town in Maine, minding her own business. A station wagon comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As he goes by, the driver yells 'get on the sidewalk where you belong!' Sam sees that the car has Ohio plates and concludes that all Ohio drivers are jerks."

mystic sign

(circumstantial fallacies) can think A is related to B b/c of value system, personal beliefs, / faith "The American flag is the symbol of our greatness as a nation. Anyone who burns it, for whatever personal reason, is a traitor and probably a subversive."

fallacy of division

(circumstantial fallacies) opposite of the above, whole is good, then the parts are good "Because the team won the national championship, all the players are gifted."

constant sign

(circumstantial fallacies) relationships are time & culture bound (don't assume they will continue in the future b/c of relations in the past) "Russians are communists."

equivocal sign

(circumstantial fallacies) signs have multiple causes "A student continually yawns. Such clear evidence of boredom is disconcerting."

confident

(effective audience-centered delivery) composed, passionate about message, a focus on the idea

enthusiastic

(effective audience-centered delivery) covers a multitude of delivery sins, it adds to ethos, is contagious

Natural

(effective audience-centered delivery) genuine, relaxed, feels spontaneous

direct

(effective audience-centered delivery) making the message relevant & by demonstrating your interest and concern (eye contact, body orientation)

ad populam

(ethical appeals fallacies) Appeal to the people / emotions "Do you want this murder to come to your house and threaten your family?"

ad hominem

(ethical appeals fallacies) Attacking character of opponent directly instead of opponent's argument "George Bush is an idiot."

ignoratio elenchi

(ethical appeals fallacies) Misinterpret what person says & advocate for the misinterpretation; ignorance of logic "The 52 former hostages are seen as national heroes. I consider them survivors. A hero is one who is admired for his achievements and qualities. Therefore, the true heroes are those servicemen who volunteered for the failed rescue mission."

tu quoque (you're another)

(ethical appeals fallacies) b/c someone else did something, you should be allowed to do it as well "Betty was able to take the test late."

denying the antecedent

(formal fallacies) "If ...then" when advocate denies the "if" cause, then reasons that that denies the then "Since good education has given us good technology, it follows that bad education will give us bad technology."

non sequitur

(formal fallacies) "It does not follow." Drawing a conclusion unrelated to evidence which precedes it Drawing a conclusion not related to premises of argument "Steve Johnson grew up in poverty. Therefore Steve will become the President of the United States."

affirming the consequent

(formal fallacies) If...then "The teacher said to get an 'A' I must work hard. I worked hard, so I should get an A."

faulty definition

(formal fallacies) Key terms not defined / using different definitions Pro-choice

faulty dilemma (either/or)

(formal fallacies) Limits logical arguments to 2, instead of considering all possibilities "Either you support the United States or you support terrorists."

unstated assumption/faulty enthymeme

(formal fallacies) Reasons from a premise not named What is the underlying assumption? (Above: that technology is a "good.")

Petitio Principi ("Begging the Question")

(formal fallacies) Uses circular reasoning God exists. How do you know?

behaviors/actions

(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) adoption (start), discontinuation (stop), deterrence (avoid certain behaviors), continuation (continue)

values

(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) concern what we consider good or bad, important or unimportant, worthwhile or worthless, enduring!

attitudes

(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) evaluation of a person, situation, action, or institution that helps explain individual variation in social conduct; applies to a variety of context (saving $, honoring social responsibilities, buying on credit, cheating on tests, community service, etc)

beliefs

(goal of persuasion to influence audience members) judgements about what is true/probably (believe about/in)

appearance

(nonverbal delivery) Be professional, sloppy appearance, messy hair, wrinkled clothes= you do not care

postures/gestures

(nonverbal delivery) Do's: head up, shoulders back, use open expansive natural gestures, signpost with your body, move and plant, avoid adaptors/self-soothing behaviors Don'ts: no gestures, holding notes close to chest, too robotic/rehearsed, cross arms, hands in pockets, t-rex arms, hands on hips/in pockets, turn your back on audience, hands behind back, point index finger, "steeple"/wringing hands, shift weight

breathing

(nonverbal delivery) Fast & heavy: nervousness, fear, excitement, arousal, joy Slow & steady: relaxed, comfortable, bored, sad

eye contact

(nonverbal delivery) more intimate and persuasive Common problems: look down/away too much, head bobbing, looking over heads, looking at same person Do's: scan room, engage each member for 3 seconds Triangle method: business/professional, social, intimate

plain folks

(propaganda devices fallacies) Argument should be accepted b/c of arguer's affiliation w/ crowd "I am one of you."

bandwagon

(propaganda devices fallacies) Everyone else accepts reasoning "Everyone is doing it."

card stacking

(propaganda devices fallacies) Quote from recognized source, then add other well known sources "Milton Friedman, and other well known economists, believe this."

glittering generality

(propaganda devices fallacies) Unproven proposition given in emotional, evaluative terms "Our boys in Asia, fighting and dying for you, for me, for all of us, for this great country—these boys need and deserve your support. Don't let them down. Don't let them die in vain. Let's stick out this dirty little war until we've run every last one of those atheistic communists into the sea." (About Vietnam, could be about Iraq.)

red herring

(strategic fallacies) Argument diverts attn to irrelevant issue 9/11 Terrorism & Immigration

groundshift

(strategic fallacies) One has lost an argument sequence, so shift to defending another assertion Nixon & Watergate...he shifts into a defense of Vietnam.

evidence trap

(strategic fallacies) Will provide little evidence for stronger arguments "The United States is experiencing difficult economic times." (Then provides no evidence of these difficult economic times.)

slippery slope

(strategic fallacies) a certain decision will set in motion a series of increasingly severe consequences "If we allow same-sex couples to marry we will have to allow incest and bestiality."

ad ignorantum

(strategic fallacies) mistakes lack of evidence for evidence of the contrary "No weapons of mass destruction were found, therefore none existed."

part-whole composition

(strategic fallacies) refuse to look at overall effects of program, focusing on workability of individual parts Recent tax code plan

unnamed base

(synthetic fallacies) Do not identify the population from which % are drawn Nixon and his "great silent majority"

inadequate sample

(synthetic fallacies) Give impression of taken a survey, when really just looked at a sample Survey your roommates / people immediately around you

strategic fallacies

advocate knowingly uses

type of induction: argument by cause

Attempts to establish that two incidents are related in a meaningful way. Effect-to-cause: "Violent crime is at an all time high because our borders are not secure." Cause-to-effect: "The lack of border security allows millions of dangerous illegal immigrants to flood into America."

Monroes Motivated Sequence

Begins with arousing listeners attention and ends with calling for action, specifically effective when you want the audience to do something, 5 steps- attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action/actualization

causal pitfalls of argument induction

Do not confuse correlation with causation- FALLACIES

argument from induction

Examples to conclusion Grades & Attendance: "Adam had perfect attendance and earned an A." "Beth had perfect attendance and earned an A." "Stephen skipped class a lot and earned a D." "Katie never came to class and earned an F." Therefore, the more you come to class the better you will perform.

induction pitfalls

Hasty Generalization: Jump to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence Use unfair / biased examples to support conclusion

enthymeme- "The glove doesn't fit, so you must acquit!"

Major premise (assumed): If evidence does not fit the defendant, then acquittal is required Minor premise (stated): The glove doesn't fit the defendant. Minor premise (assumed): The glove is evidence. Conclusion: Therefore, you must acquit the defendant.

type of induction: argument by authority

Power of the argument is in the ethos of the authority. Examples: God / Religion Experts Celebrities Family Community Leaders

Cialdini's Principals of Persuasion

Reciprocity: based on past experience Scarcity: message has a time limit Authority: the speaker has power Consistency: relying on past thoughts Liking: the speaker is likeable Consensus: peer pressure

visual tics

Shifting weight, Fidgeting, Posture, Body, Direction, Hands, Hair, Eye Contact

verbal tics

Sounds: ummm Words: like, you know, and

type of induction: argument by analogy

Two unfamiliar things are similar, Something will be accurate for one case if it is true for another similar case. Example: Prohibition of alcohol failed in the U.S. (claim of fact) Similarly, prohibition of marijuana will eventually fail (claim of fact) Therefore, we should decriminalize marijuana use in the United States. (claim of policy/conclusion)

causal fallacies

determining causes

Aristotle's Topoi/Commonplaces

Way to create the speech, method for inventing arguments, specific to each genre used to characterize the "places" where a speaker may "locate" arguments that are appropriate to a given subject, tools or strategies of invention

analogy pitfalls of induction argument

assumption of more similarities than differences, failure to acknowledge limits of analogy

social judgement theory

attitude change is mediated by judgmental processes and effects used to persuade people - latitude of acceptance: the concept is acceptable by the listener - latitude of rejection: the concept is not acceptable - anchor position: where the listener stands on the position

inoculation theory

can help resist persuasion, before the other side presents information, 2 parts- Part 1: explicit warning (ex trial opening statements) Part 2: counter argument/refutation Every argument has a weak point- don't hide it, it will make you appear credible

types of fallacies

casual, circumstantial, synthetic, formal, propaganda, ethical, strategic

5 key principles of social judgement theory

categories new information: locate it on our categories of judgement "ego involvement": affects the size of our latitudes we distort incoming information to fit: ex- selective hearing small to moderate discrepancies lead to change, large do not

Toulmin's Model

claim, data, warrant, backing, qualifier, rebuttal

mythos

cultural appeal languages, stories, values, norms, heroes, artifacts, rituals, customs, technology

persuasion....

deals in matters of judgement, not certainty

Mehrabians Rule

elements of personal communication 7% spoken words 38% voice/tone 55% body language

using pauses

enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a thought or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said

authority pitfalls of argument induction

experts need to prove credentials, too. Bias, No relevance to claim, Audience might dislike

arguments from dedication

formal logic, syllogism, have major premise, minor premise, and conclusion Major Premise: "All men are mortal." Minor Premise: "Socrates is a man. Conclusion: "Therefore Socrates is mortal."

ELM- Motivation to process

high involvement- high degree of personal experience with topic

elaboration likelihood model

how receivers process messages, 2 ways- central route and peripheral route

goal of persuasion....

influence audience members attitudes, values, beliefs, behaviors/actions

characteristics of ethical influence

intentionality- of persuader conscious of awareness- of receiver free choice/free will- of receiver language and symbolic action

for persuasion to occur....

new information must fall in the latitude of acceptance, must be different from the anchor position, can't be assimilated or contrasted - thus, change is likely to be small and difficult to obtain, watch out for ego involvement

Bad strategies to overcome speaking anxiety

o Picture the audience naked o Practice in front of a mirror o Start with a joke o Look at the forehead o Tell the audience you're nervous

pathos

persuasive appeals to emotion, emotional appeals

logos

persuasive appeals to reason and logic, logical appeal

nonverbal delivery

postures/gestures, eye contact, breathing, appearance, qualities of voice, verbal strategies, arms and hands

circumstantial fallacies

reasoning from sign

synthetic fallacies

using statistics irresponsibly; survey, population, sample (random/stratified)

why do we do dramatic pauses?

we pause to regroup and for effect! (Focuses attention,Communicates info is important,Creates tension/anticipation,Let's information sink in)