Consumer Behavior - Exam 1
refers to how I think I am now
actual self
term used for a marketing approach in which firms attempt to associate their companies with an event like the Olympics without becoming an official sponsor
ambush marketing
the most complex form of cognitive learning, involving individuals' engaging in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new information to form new associations and concepts
analytical reasoning
what type of conflict is when the consumer faces a choice between two attractive alternatives?
approach-approach
what type of conflict is when the consumer faces both positive and negative consequences in the purchase of a particular product?
approach-avoidance
how is an associative network developed?
as links form between nodes
how are concepts stored in memory?
as nodes
the stimulus activates one or more of the sensory receptors and the resulting sensations go into the brain for processing
attention
consumers sometimes hold mixed beliefs and/or feelings about an attitude object; these attitudes are less stable over time and less predictive of behavior
attitude ambivalence
relates to consumers having a need to attribute an underlying cause to a given outcome; used primarily for analyzing consumer reactions to promotional messages
attribution theory
what type of conflict is when the consumer faces two undesirable alternatives?
avoidance-avoidance
how are nodes connected?
by synaptic links
how is info stored in long-term memory?
in associative networks or schemas
how do you appeal to latent motives?
indirectly via symbolism
characteristics of the individual **motivation and ability
individual factors
there is too much information available to be dealt with effectively
information overload
the assignment of meaning to sensations; related to how we comprehend and make sense of incoming information
interpretations
a motivational state caused by consumer perceptions that a product, brand, or advertisement is relevant or interesting
involvement
an individual acquires and assigns meaning to stimuli
perception
_____ of a learned response represents a reduction in marketing effectiveness
retrieval failures or extinction
the self-concept including the possessions one uses to define oneself
the extended self
what do attitudes influence/reflect?
the lifestyle individuals pursue
how to measure the self-concept
through a 15 item semantic differential scale
is exposure self-selected?
yes, we tend to expose ourselves to information we think will help us achieve our goals
involves switching channels when a commercial appears
zapping
occurs when viewers fast-forward through commercials as they play back a previously recorded program
zipping
what four premises is Maslow's hierarchy-of-needs approach based on?
(1) all humans acquire a similar set of motives through genetic endowment and social interaction, (2) some motives are more basic or critical than others, (3) the basic motives must be satisfied to a minimum level before other motives are activated, and (4) after basic motives are satisfied, more advanced motives come into play
assumptions of trait theories of personality (2)
(1) all individuals have internal characteristics or traits related to action tendencies, and (2) there are consistent and measurable differences between individuals on those characteristics
how do you promote voluntary attention?
- connect with consumers' needs - make the message personally relevant - increase arousal - pay people to pay attention
external influences on consumer behavior
- culture - subculture - demographics - social status - reference groups - family - marketing activities
how do you promote involuntary attention?
- increase salience/vividness of message - subliminal advertising
difference between interdependent self-concept and independent self-concept
- independent self-concept is characterized by an emphasis on personal goals, characteristics, achievements, and desires - interdependent self-concept is characterized by and emphasis on familiar, cultural, professional, and social relationships
what is the allocation effort controlled by?
- involuntary attention - voluntary attention - cost-benefit analysis - physiological arousal
internal influences on consumer behavior
- perception - learning - memory - personality - motives - emotions - attitudes
three aspects of interpretation
1. it is generally a relative process rather than absolute, referred to as perceptual relativity. 2. it tends to be subjective and open to a host of psychological biases. 3. it can be a cognitive "thinking" process or an affective "emotional" process.
how are the groups in the VALS system broken down (2 dimensions)?
1. primary motivation - ideals - achievement - self-expression 2. physical, mental, and material resources to pursue one's dominant motivation
determinants of attention (3)
1. stimulus 2. individual 3. situation
theory that states that basic motives must be minimally satisfied before more advanced motives are activated
Maslow's need hierarchy
a detailed set of motives used to account for specific aspects of consumer behavior
McGuire's Psychological Motives
a system that examines demographic and consumption data down to the individual household with 68 lifestyle segments organized around social groupings and life stage
PRIZM
divides the United States into eight groups—Innovators, Thinkers, Believers, Achievers, Strivers, Experiencers, Makers, and Survivors
VALS system
what does the left side of the brain control?
activities related to rational thought
four types of self-concept
actual self-concept, social self-concept, private self-concept, and ideal self-concept
occurs when the consumer selectively avoids exposure to advertising messages
ad avoidance
if a stimulus doesn't change over time we habituate to it and begin to notice it less
adaptation level theory
feelings or emotional reactions to an object
affective component
the emotional or feeling response triggered by a stimulus
affective interpretation
allows consumers to use an existing knowledge base to understand a new situation or object
analogical reasoning
the way people think, feel, and act toward some aspect of their environment
attitudes
how do marketers decrease competitive interference?
avoiding competing advertising, strengthening initial learning, reducing similarity to competing ads, and providing external retrieval cues
why is the self-concept important to marketers?
because consumers purchase and use products to express, maintain, and enhance their self-concept
reflects overt actions and statements of behavioral intentions with respect to specific attributes of the object or the overall object
behavioral component
a segment based on needs or sought benefit
benefit segment
refers to the extent to which an individual includes important brands as part of their self-concepts
brand engagement
the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond any specific functional characteristics of the product
brand equity
a market segment or individual consumer's schematic memory of a brand
brand image
influence persuasion under high involvement but not low involvement
central cues
attempts to create an association between a stimulus and some response; generally low involvement in nature
classical conditioning
when two brands are given to a single product; has been shown to modify attitudes toward the participating brand
co-branding
this approach to learning encompasses the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems, cope with complex situations, or function effectively in their environment
cognitive approach
consists of the individual's beliefs or knowledge about the object
cognitive component
a process whereby stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning
cognitive interpretation
three components of attitudes
cognitive, affective, and behavioral
reflects an individual difference in consumers' propensity to be biased against the purchase of foreign products
consumer ethnocentrism
energizing forces that activate behavior and provide purpose and direction to that behavior
consumer motivations
play a role in the consumer's interpretation independent of the actual stimulus
contextual cues
reinforcement occurs after every behavior; learning and extinction are faster
continuous reinforcement schedule
one that target market believes will provide accurate information; trustworthiness and expertise are key factors in establishing this
credible source
involves placing signage in one area of the store to promote complementary products in another area
cross-promotion retail strategy
how do you appeal to manifest motives?
directly
three strategies where consumers can resist persuasion
discrediting, discounting, and containment
a theory about how attitudes are formed and changed under varying conditions of involvement; suggests different communications strategies depending on involvement
elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
the use of stored experiences, values, attitudes, and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in current memory
elaborative activities
occur when environmental events or our mental processes trigger physiological changes such as increased heart rate; affect consumers' thoughts and behaviors
emotions
information entered in a recognizable way
encoding stage
steps of memory process (3)
encoding, storage, retrieval
specific episodes in one's life
episodic memory
occurs when a stimulus comes within range of one of an individual's primary sensory receptors
exposure
occurs when a stimulus is placed within range of sensory receptor nerves
exposure
three stages of perception
exposure, attention, interpretation
five possible characteristics of an appeal that would influence or change attitudes
fear appeal, humorous appeals, comparative ads, emotional appeals, and value expressive/utilitarian appeals
involves presenting the stimulus in such a way that it is perceived as the focal object to be attended to and all other stimuli are perceived as the background
figure-ground
memories that are vividly detailed and highly enduring over time; they contain specific situational detail; they are held with a high degree of confidence, and are perceived as special and different from other ordinary or mundane experiences
flashbulb memories
- uses activated knowledge from long-term memory - controlled process - uses some cognitive capacity - more likely for concepts of high importance/involvement - more likely for novel, unusually, infrequently encountered concepts
focal attention
based on the premise that individuals with similar lifestyles tend to live near each other
geo-demographic analysis
the object is to stress either the positive consequences of performing an act or the negative consequences of not performing the act; the negative message is generally more effective
goal framing
a consumer context is the emotional appreciation for benefits received
gratitude
activities that take part in each side of the brain
hemispheric lateralization
occurs when an individual is motivated to acquire the information
high-involvement learning
the learning of an association between two concepts in the absence of conditioning
iconic rote learning
refers to how I would like to be
ideal self
what does the right side of the brain control?
images and impressions
what factors does strength of learning depend on (6)?
importance, message involvement, reinforcement, mood, repetition, and dual coding
a series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored
information processing
the minimum amount that one brand can differ from another with the difference still being noticed
just noticeable difference
when consumers are unable or unwilling to admit to the motives that are influencing them; can be determined by motivation research techniques such as word association, sentence completion, and picture response
latent motives
any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior and is the result of information processing
learning
when marketers capitalize on brand equity
leveraging brand equity
a function of a person's inherent individual characteristics that have been shaped through social interaction as the person moves through his or her life cycle
lifestyle
characteristics of attention (3)
limited, selective, divided
information from previous information processing that has been stored for future use; undergoes continual restructuring as new information is acquired
long-term memory
what level of involvement is associated with routine brand buyers?
low involvement
occurs when an individual is paying only limited or indirect attention to an advertisement or other message
low-involvement learning
the continual repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory
maintenance rehearsal
what occurs in short-term memory?
maintenance rehearsal and elaborative activities
when consumers are often aware of and will admit to the motives causing their behavior; can be discovered by standard marketing research techniques such as direct questioning
manifest motives
the total accumulation of prior learning experiences
memory
occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because other related information in memory gets in the way
memory interference
theory that simply presenting a brand to an individual on a large number of occasions might make the individual's attitude toward the brand more positive
mere exposure
refers to presenting one of two equivalent value outcomes either in positive or gain terms or in negative or loss terms
message framing
what level of involvement is associated with information seekers?
message-response/advertising involvement
aspects of a consumer's possessions that serve as a form of external memory which prompts the retrieval of episodic memories
mnemonic qualities
relates to how consumers do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly to learn
modeling/vicarious learning
include beliefs about an object's attributes, ideal or desired levels of performance for each attribute, and the relative important attached to each attribute
multi attribute attitude model
attempt to capture a significant portion of a consumer's total personality using a set of personality attributes
multitrait theories **Five-Factor Model
a low-involvement scanning of the environment; right-brain activity
non-focused attention
three characteristics of the message structure that influence its ability to change attitudes
one- versus two-sided messages, positive versus negative framing, and the nonverbal components of the message
what is one- versus two-sided messages?
one-sided message, only a positive point of view is expressed; in a two-sided message, both good and bad points are expressed which can enhance effectiveness
attempts to create an association between a response and some outcome that serves to reinforce the response; generally high involvement in nature
operant conditioning
when only a portion of the items in a category are presented to consumers, the omitted items are not easily recalled.
part-list cuing effect
behavior is reinforced only part of the time; learning and extinction are slower
partial reinforcement schedule
how are information processing and perception different?
perception involves all but the storage function (memory)
offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a product's position; involves mapping how consumers perceive the similarity and dissimilarity between a set of competing brands or products
perceptual mapping
influence persuasion under high involvement in competitive situations
peripheral cues
influence persuasion under low involvement but not high involvement
peripheral cues
enhancing attention (4)
personal relevance, pleasant, surprising, easy to process
guides and directs the behavior chosen to accomplish goals in different situations
personality
what five levels of motivation are proposed by Maslow?
physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization
what research techniques is this an example of? consumers tell a story about a person shown buying or using a product in a picture or line drawing
picture response (construction technique)
major dimensions of emotion (3)
pleasure, arousal, and dominance
the placement of an object in physical space or time
position
levels of attention (2)
preconscious and focal
- uses activated knowledge from long-term memory - automatic process - uses little or no cognitive capacity - more likely for concepts of low to moderate importance or involvement - more likely for familiar, frequently encountered concepts
preconscious attention
revolve around a desire for safety and security and are related to consumers' sense of duties and obligations
prevention-focused motives
refers to how I do or would like to see myself
private self
old info interferes with new info
proactive associative interference
as new responses are learned, a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving the old response
proactive interference
skills possessed by humans **driving a car
procedural memory
what level of involvement is associated with brand loyalists?
product involvement
a decision by a marketer to attempt to attain a defined and differentiated brand image, generally in relation to specific competitors
product positioning
refers to a deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views a product
product repositioning
revolve around a desire for growth and development and are related to consumers' hopes and aspirations
promotion-focused motives
the primary way that lifestyle is made operationally useful to marketing managers; a way of describing the psychological makeup or lifestyle of consumers by assessing such lifestyle dimensions as activities, interests, opinions, values, and demographics
psychographics
the meaning assigned to a word based on experiences and the context or situation in which the word or other symbol is used
psychological meaning
what level of involvement is associated with brand switchers?
purchase situation involvement
suggests that consumers react differently depending on whether promotion- focused or prevention-focused motives are most salient
regulatory focus theory
the person accesses the desired information
retrieval stage
new info interferes with old info
retroactive associative interference
consumers forget stimulus-response associations when new response to the same or similar stimuli are learned
retroactive interference
the use of an unexpected twist or artful deviation in how a message is communicated either visually in the ad's picture or verbally in the ad's text or headline
rhetorical figures
difference between a schema and a script
schema = a complex web of associations linking a variety of concepts and episodes to a particular object or event script = a memory of how an action sequence should occur
three types of LTM
schemas, scripts, and procedures
types of exposure (2)
selective and voluntary
- the highly selective nature of consumer exposure is a major concern for marketers - failure to gain exposure results in lost communication and sales opportunities
selective exposure
one's beliefs and feelings about oneself
self-concept
we use observations of our own behavior to determine what our attitudes are
self-perception theory
a message involvement strategy used to highlight a brand's personal relevance to the consumer
self-referencing
facts and general knowledge about the world
semantic long-term memory
the conventional meaning assigned to a word that is found in the dictionary
semantic meaning
the ability of an individual to distinguish between similar stimular
sensory discrimination
focus on one aspect of personality in an attempt to understand a limited part of consumer behavior
single-trait theories
stimuli in the environment other than the focal stimulus and temporary characteristics of the individual that are induced by the environment
situational factors
banner ads that are activated based on terms used in search engines
smart banner
we assimilate new information about attitude objects in light of what we already know/feel
social judgement theory
refers to how I am or would like to be seen
social self
composed of two dimensions: trustworthiness and expertise
source credibility
two characteristics of the source of a message that influence its ability to change attitudes?
source credibility and celebrity sources
three communication characteristics
source, message appeal, and message structure
the ability of a stimulus to evoke a response years after it is initially perceived
spontaneous recovery
refers to the process of learning to respond differently to somewhat similar stimuli
stimulus discrimination
responding differently to somewhat similar stimuli
stimulus discrimination
physical characteristics of the stimulus itself **contrast, size, color, etc.
stimulus factors
once we have learned a particular response that works for us, we are able to capitalize on that learning by transferring it to similar learning situations or stimuli
stimulus generalization
one way of transferring learning by generalizing from one stimulus situation to other, similar ones
stimulus generalization
knowledge integrated into what is already there and warehoused
storage stage
what research techniques is this an example of? consumers complete a partial story.
story completion (completion technique)
what does retrieval depend on?
strength of initial learning, memory interference, and the response environment
what research techniques is this an example of? consumers give the series of words that come to mind after hearing each word on the list
successive word association (association technique)
what was on McGuire's list of motives?
the needs for consistency, attribution, categorization, objectification, autonomy, stimulation, desired outcomes (teleological), utility, tension reduction, expression, ego defense, reinforcement, assertion, affiliation, identification, and modeling
why are comparative appeals effective?
they are effective in generating attention, message and brand awareness, greater message processing, favorable sponsor brand attitudes, and increased purchase intentions and behaviors
why are emotional appeals effective?
they elicit a positive affective response rather than provide info or arguments
how do consumers organize information in LTM around brands?
through brand schemas
where are high impact zones in print ads?
top left portion of ad
when is a two-sided message likely to be more effective than a one-sided message?
two-sided messages are generally more effective than one-sided messages in changing a strongly held attitude and are particularly effective with highly educated consumers
involve informing the consumer of one or more functional benefits that are important to the target market; are most effective for products functional products and value-expressive appeals are most effective for products designed to enhance self-image or provide other intangible benefits
utilitarian appeals
attempt to build a personality for the product or create an image of the product user
value-expressive appeals
consumers actively seek out individual exposure for various reasons like purchasing goals, entertainment, etc.
voluntary exposure