DELTA MODULE 1 terminology

Awareness-raising activities

aim to make learners more aware of language and so improve their understanding, but do not involve learners in using the language themselves. As such, awareness-raising activities are often the first stage of learning new language. Example: A pre-intermediate level group have just finished a reading comprehension using an authentic text and the teacher goes back and highlights the phrasal verbs in the text, explaining what they are and their meaning, but not asking the learners to use them in any way.

subordinate clause

also known as a dependent clause. A clause which adds more information to a sentence but is incomplete and not a sentence on its own. It functions like a noun, adverb or adjective. Example: I just cannot understand whWHY YOU DID THAT.

guided discovery

also known as an inductive approach, is a technique where a teacher provides examples of a language item and helps the learners to find the rules themselves. Example: The learners are shown a problem page containing various examples of the second conditional 'If I were you,.....'. They identify the structure and then the rules for making it.

consciousness-raising

also known as awareness-raising, is part of the process a learner can go through with new language. They first become aware or conscious of the new language, then recognise and distinguish it, then produce it. Example: Learners studying the contracted form 'didn't' first may become aware that the form exists in English, then recognise it when they hear it and distinguish it from other sounds, and then produce it themselves.

linguistic intelligence

also known as verbal-linguistic - is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory. People with this are often good at languages and enjoy reading and writing. Example: This sort of person can remember new words very easily and use them quickly.

phrasal verb

an English verb followed by one or more particles where the combination behaves as a syntactic and semantic unit

gradable adjective

an adjective that can vary in degree /intensity Example: big, interesting

humanistic approach

an approach based on the principle that the whole being, emotional and social, needs to be engaged in learning, not just the mind. Example: A teacher always responds to the content of learners' written work, not just the quality of the language.

task-based learning

an approach to language learning where learners are given interactive tasks to complete. In order to do this, they need to communicate. Once the task is complete, then the teacher discusses the language used. Example: The learners plan an itinerary for a guest who is coming to stay with their teacher. They research places to visit and timetables. They prepare a written schedule and a short guide. Once the task is completed, they discuss some of the language that has been important with the teacher.

grammar translation

an approach to second language teaching characterised by the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the use of translation exercises. Emphasis on reading and writing; stress on isolated grammar structure and vocabulary lists.

Test-Teach-Test

an approach to teaching where learners first complete a task or activity without help from the teacher. Then, based on the problems seen, the teacher plans and presents the target language. Then the learners do another task to practise the new language. Example: The learners are given a text and asked to find examples of phrasal verbs. They are able to do this but not to deduce meaning. The teacher plans a lesson to help learners develop this, and then asks them to do a similar activity.

product writing

an approach to teaching writing where the focus is on the final product/outcome/result and a written model is provided as guidance Example: learners analyse a model of a formal letter and they are shown the importance of paragraphing and the language used to make formal requests, etc. Then they are instructed to write a similar formal letter.

inductive learning

an approach where the learner works out rules for themselves from context or examples; guided discovery Example: use of concept questions

variable

an element or characteristic that can be measured or defined Example: the amount of time a person has been learning the language

reformulation

an error correction technique. The teacher repeats what the learner has said but correctly, without drawing attention explicitly to the error itself. Example: The learner says 'I have been to the swimming pool last week'. The teacher replies 'You went to the swimming pool last week? So did I'.

model

an example of the target language a teacher shows learners to help them notice language patterns, or to encourage them to imitate. This could be a sentence, a model of an intonation pattern, or an entire text, such as an example of a writing genre. Example: Learners are looking at different uses of the present perfect continuous. The teacher writes two examples on the board, 'I've been waiting for you for ages', and 'What have you been doing? You look awful'.

transformation exercise

an exercise where learners are given one sentence and need to complete a second sentence so that it means the same. The second sentence usually has a prompt. Example: Call me immediately after he arrives. Call me __________ he arrives. (soon) Answer: Call me as soon as he arrives.

idiom

an expression whose meanings cannot be inferred from the meanings of the words that make it up. eg. to make ends meet

proclaiming tone

an intonation pattern that either rises and then falls, or just falls. It shows that the speaker is giving new information. Example: 'That guy we met at the party IS MY NEW TEACHER', 'is my new teacher' is new information.

referring tone

an intonation pattern which shows that the speaker is referring to something everybody already knows. It can fall and rise, or just rise. Example: In the sentence 'THAT GUY WE MET AT THE PARTY is my new teacher', there is a referring tone on 'That guy we met at the party' because it is not new information.

discrete item

an item of language isolated from context. Example: a single phoneme such as /e/, the past form -ed, a phrasal verb such as 'get up', or a conjunction such as 'in addition'.

phone

an unanalyzed sound of a language. It is the smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech that is able to be transcribed with an IPA symbol.

schwa

an unstressed vowel sound which occurs in many words of two syllables or more and in connected speech. It is the most common vowel sound in English and is represented by the symbol /ə/. Example: The word 'banana' has a main stress on the second syllable and the other two syllables are schwa sounds.

prior knowledge

another term for schematic knowledge; Knowledge, gained from experience, of the way the world is organised which is held as mental representations in the mind.

pelmanism

any activity that learners have to complete by memorising objects. It can help learners who have a strong visual/spatial intelligence as the activity exploits physical objects. Example: The teacher has a collection of countable and uncountable objects on a table. Learners memorise the objects, then the teacher removes some, unseen. The learners then have to identify which objects are missing.

discourse

any piece of extended language, written or spoken, that has unity and meaning and purpose. One possible way of understanding 'extended' is as language that is more than one sentence. Example: Something as short as two phrases in a conversation or as long as an entire extended essay are both examples of discourse and both show various features of discourse.

atomistic approach

attempts to analyse language into parts, such as grammatical structures or functional exponents, which can later become the content of a syllabus.

Sociocultural awareness

awareness of the societies and cultures of the target language, and therefore of the contexts the language is used in. Example: Learners read about taboo subjects in British society.

task-based syllabus

based on task-based learning, an approach where learners carry out tasks such as solving a problem or planning an activity. The language learnt comes out of the linguistic demands of the activity. It is structured around a series of these tasks. Example: A teacher uses a series of projects on British culture as a syllabus for teenage learners on a summer course in the UK, and applies the task-based approach to the work the learners do.

grammatical syllabus

based on the structures of a language. Learners learn grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects their complexity, rather than their use in communication, leading to many artificial contexts for practice, and perhaps an inability to transfer learning to real communication. Organising learning around a grammatical syllabus has been criticised because of this, but it is still the most common type of syllabus in published materials, mostly because it is the easiest type of syllabus to sequence. Example: It may start with the present simple, then the present continuous, then the past simple, and so on. Learners are not usually exposed to more difficult structures than the ones they are learning.

metacognitive awareness

being aware of how you think or how you learn. Developing this is an important part of helping learners become more effective and, importantly, more autonomous. If learners are conscious of how they learn then they can identify the most effective ways of doing so. Example: The teacher asks the learners to keep a diary of their classes in which they can note what they liked and didn't like and why. They then discuss their ideas and develop individual and class action plans.

word class

categories of word. The categories are defined by what the word does. Some word classes are open, which means that new words can be added to them, and others are closed, which means no new words can be added. Example: Nouns and verbs are open word classes and prepositions and determiners are closed.

/u:/

close back rounded vowel

affricatives

consonant sounds made up of a stop, like /t/, immediately followed by a fricative, like /s/. Example: The /tʃ/and /dʒ/ consonant sounds are affricatives.

Voiced consonants

consonant sounds that are made by vibrating the vocal chords. Example: /g/ as in 'good'

unvoiced

consonant sounds that are made without vibrating the vocal chords Example: /p/ as in 'pet' /t/ as in 'top' /k/ as in 'cat'

unvoiced consonants

consonant sounds that are made without vibrating the vocal chords. Example: /k/ as in 'cat'

Alveolar consonants

consonant sounds that are produced with the tongue close to or touching the ridge behind the teeth on the roof of the mouth. The name comes from alveoli - the sockets of the teeth. Example: /t/, /n/ and /d/

labiodental

consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth Example: /f/ as in fan

CPH

critical period hypothesis. The proposal that there is a limited period during which language acquisition can occur.

syllabus

describes what the contents of a language course will be and the order in which they will be taught. The content normally reflects certain beliefs about language and language learning. Example: A syllabus might be designed around the order in which grammatical items are introduced. Starting with 'present simple' then 'past simple', then 'present perfect' etc.

time lines

diagrams used to represent the relationship between a verb tense and time, by showing what time - past, present or future - that tense covers. Example : Yesterday, I met Bob.

accessibility hierarchy

(Sbj > Direct Obj > Indirect Obj > Oblique > Genitive > Object of Comparison (OComp)) A ranking of relative clauses developed by Keenan and Comrie in 1977. Different languages use relative clauses to modify nouns in different grammatical roles.

allophone

different articulations of the same phoneme Example: /g/ in goose and /g/ in geese /p/ in pin and /p/ in spin

allomorph

different forms of the same morpheme, or basic unit of meaning. These can be different pronunciations or different spellings. Example: There are three allomorphs of the morpheme -s in English. Compare the sound of the -s in 'cats', 'dogs' and 'foxes'.

1. appraisal language 2. vague language 3. filled pause 4. discourse marker (appealing to shared knowledge) 5. false start 6. linker 7. ellipsis (omission of elements) 8. non-standard form 9. clarification request 10. response (9 and 10 form an adjacency pair) 11. incomplete utterance 12. response (second part of adjacency pair) 13. discourse marker (hedging)

<Speaker 1> That eggplant is gorgeous! (1) <Speaker 2> I did it sort of (2) um (3) you know (4) you drain it for a long time then you (5) I rinsed it then (6) I dried it then I fried it <Speaker 1> (7) Must have took (8) forever <Speaker 2> then I sprinkled lemon juice on it put it in the fridge. <Speaker 3>The eggplant? (9) <Speaker 2> Delicious. Yeah. (10) <Speaker 4> Did you put salt on it first? To draw the (11) <Speaker 2>No (12) I didn't actually (13) It doesn't seem to have made any difference.

structure

= form

tonic syllable

= nucleus The most prominent syllable in a tone unit. The main stress of that tone unit.

situational presentation

A approach to presenting language which involves creating a natural context (situation) in which the target language naturally arises.

pragmatics

A branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language.

determiner

A class of word used before a noun or noun phrase to indicate quantity, identity or significance (e.g. 'a', 'the', 'some').

information gap activity

A classroom activity in which learners have different information and need to exchange the information / communicate in order to complete an activity. E.g. jigsaw reading, describing different pictures to each other.

communicative activity

A classroom activity in which learners need to talk or write to one another to complete the activity.

Dictogloss

A classroom dictation activity where learners are required to reconstruct a short text by listening and noting down key words, which are then used as a base for reconstruction.

learner training

A classroom process organised by the teacher which prepares learners for moves towards learner autonomy.

operating strategy

A cognitive strategy used in dealing with, and trying to make sense of, new language. Example: paying attention to the endings of words

drill

A common restricted production activity, involving students in repetition or very controlled oral practice.

technique

A common technique when using video is called silent viewing. Silent viewing is a single activity rather than a sequence, and such is a technique rather than a whole procedure.

utterance

A complete unit of talk, bounded by the speaker's silence.

validity

A concept used in language testing to cover the various forms of relevance of the substance of the test to the person taking the test and/or the people administering the test.

practicality

A concept used in language testing, amongst other areas, to refer to the ease (or difficulty) of producing, administering and marking a test.

affricate

A consonant sound in which the air flow is initially stopped, but then is released slowly with friction, e.g. /tʃ/.

alveolar plosive

A consonant sound made by a sudden release of air from between the tongue and the alveolar / tooth ridge. E.g. /t/, /d/.

fricative

A consonant sound where the flow of air is partially constricted and released slowly (e.g. / ʃ/, /v/, /s/, /z/).

fricative consonant

A consonant sound where the flow of air is partially constricted and released slowly. eg /f/ /s/

text

A continuous piece of spoken or written language, especially one with a recognizable beginning and ending.

consonant

A conventional speech sound made by certain movements of the articulatory muscles that alter, interrupt, or obstruct the expired airstream; defined according to manner of production, place of articulation, and voicing. E.g. /p/, /b/, /v/, /k/.

collaborative dialogue

A conversation between learners in which they work together to solve a problem. While the focus is on the task, learners may also focus on the elements of language that they need to complete the task. Example: reconstructing a story Ss have heard

blended learning

A course made up of a combination of both face-to-face and online elements.

blended learning

A course made up of both face-to-face and online contents.

corpus

A database of real language samples (either spoken or written texts) stored on a computer and which can be used for investigating language use and structure. E.g. British National Corpus

Action research

A development tool for a teacher that involves observing or gathering other data about a class through interviews, case studies, and questionnaires.

anaphoric reference

A device which refers to something which has been mentioned before in the text. E.g. I live in a large flat in Istanbul. It is very beautiful.

discourse marker

A discourse marker is a word or phrase that plays a role in managing the flow and structure of discourse Examples of discourse markers include the particles "oh", "well", "now", "then", "you know", and "I mean", and the 'discourse connectives', "so", "because", "and", "but", and "or"

scanning

A fast reading technique that involves moving the eyes quickly over a whole text in order to locate certain information Example: finding someone's telephone number on a page

assimilation

A feature of connected speech when a sound changes to another sound because of a neighboring sound e.g. in ten boys /n/ followed by /b/ changes to /m/ as in /tembɔɪz/.

transaction marker

A feature that indicates a shift in topic or conversational focus. E.g. Look,...

progress test/formative assessment

A form of assessment administered periodically during a course to monitor the learning process. These are set because they encourage revision.

dictogloss

A form of dictation whose aim is to highlight differences between a student's current linguistic level and that of the target language. It differs from a dictation in a number of respects: (a) it is not intended to test or focus on accuracy of spelling, morphology or syntax; (b) it is spoken at normal speed; (c) students (usually) work collaboratively together to reconstruct the text. The students' versions are then compared against the original and language work, if desired, can be done.

Idiom

A form of figurative language that is in common use.

chant/jazz chant

A funny or memorable poem-like monologue or dialogue intended for reading aloud or performance, often characterised by strong rhythms and opportunities to use emotional intonation.

cloze procedure

A gap-fill exercise with regularly spaced gaps. A modified cloze has gaps for selected items of grammar or lexis.

comprehension-based instruction

A general term to describe a variety of second language programmes in which the focus of instruction is on comprehension rather than production.

methodology

A general word to describe classroom practices, such classroom management, irrespective of the particular method that a teacher is using.

tense

A grammatical category which is used to indicate the time at which an action happens by changing the form of the finite verb. English has two: past and present, e.g. he walked and he walks.

mood

A grammatical term used for the imperative, infinitive and subjective forms of the verb.

discourse community

A group of language users who function in speech or writing in the same context of use. Example: sports commentators or writers of medical reports

word family

A group of words that share the same root. "Politics", "politician", "(a)political", "politicise/ politicize" all belong to one "family".

lexical set

A group of words which belong to the same category Example: fruit= apple, banana, kiwi, pineapple

lexical set

A group of words which belong to the same category, such as apple, kiwi, banana, pineapple.

word family

A group of words which share the same root but have different affixes, as in care, careful, careless, carefree, uncaring, carer.

jigsaw reading/listening

A jigsaw activity involves different groups of students or individuals reading or listening to different content. When they come back together they can report back and compare what they have learned.

pedagogic grammar

A kind of descriptive grammar designed for teaching and learning purposes. It focuses on grammar as a subsystem of overall language proficiency, as distinct from vocabulary, phonology or discourse.

linguistic competence

A knowledge of spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, grammatical structure, sentence structure and meaning.

guided discovery

A language teaching approach whereby students work out rules and patterns on the basis of a number of samples given. They may be provided with a set of questions aimed at directing them towards the meaning and form of the target language

Lingua Franca

A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different. E.g. English as international language.

TPR

A language-teaching method that was developed by James Asher in the early 1970s. Like the natural approach, it is a comprehension approach, based on the belief that learners need only understand input, and should not be required to speak until they are ready to (-+ silent period). TPR is modelled on the way that young children receive comprehensible input in their first language. Learners are exposed to input in the form of commands that require a physical response, such as Stand up, turn around, pick up the orange, hand it to me, etc. Hence, teaching sequences consist of a series of such commands that learners first see being demonstrated, and then act out themselves.

Direct Method

A language-teaching method the mains characteristics of which are: only TL must be used in the classroom, no translation is allowed, grammar is taught inductively, form and meaning are established using realia, pictures, demonstrations; T>Ss and S<>S interaction patterns, questions/answers (full answers are important), topic/situation based syllabuses, Ss self-correct themselves, speaking is the most important but all four skills are developed. For example: T: Stand. I'm standing next to the door. Am I standing next to the door? S: Yes, you are standing next to the door. T: Where am I standing? S: You are standing next to the door.

Test-Teach-Test

A lesson design in which learners first perform a task, which the teacher uses to assess learners' specific needs. They are then taught whatever they need in order to re-do the task more effectively.

test/task-teach-test/task

A lesson paradigm (=shape) which starts with the students' using the target language in some kind of exercise or task, while the teacher notices what kind of gaps exist in the students' linguistic knowledge. In the second phase, the teacher fills those gaps by focussing on language, and then finally students carry out another task or do another exercise using the language again, hopefully more accurately and fluently

Sociolect

A lexical group shared by a particular section of society.

intrusive /w/

A linking sound /w/ that is inserted between a word which ends in a vowel sound and a following one which begins with a vowel sound. E.g. in the phrase go out /gəʊwaʊt/

concordance

A list of words from a text (or texts), sometimes showing the ways they are used. i.e.: sentences they appear in

The Listening Approach

A listening-based application of the ideas of Krashen to the classroom.

complementarity

A meaning relationship between words which the existence of one item implies the existence of the other. Example: employer and employee

script

A mental representation of a typical sequence of events. Example: checking in at a hotel

direct method

A method in which grammar rules are not taught / only the target language is used in the classroom / translation is avoided at all costs. There is no tolerance of error (eg Berlitz)

direct method

A method in which grammar rules are not taught, only target language is used in the classroom and translation is avoided at all costs Example: The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.

Suggestopaedia

A method of FL teaching developed by the Bulgarian, Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations, and translation to present and practise language, and in particular, makes use of music.

The Silent Way

A method of FL teaching which makes use of gesture, mime, visual aids and in particular Cuisenaire Rods that the teacher uses to help the learners to talk.

audiolingualism

A method of second language learning that emphasises the teaching of speaking a listening over reading and writing, discourages the use of the mother tongue, uses dialogues and drills, contrastive analysis.

bound morpheme

A morpheme that can't stand alone. E.g. ing (smoking), ful (beautiful), ex (ex-boyfriend)

eliciting

A much-used technique for involving students more in lessons. It involves drawine language from the students, rather than just feeding it to them.

bilabial plosive

A non-continuant consonant articulation where the lips are pressed together./p/ /b/

compound noun

A noun made up of one or more words, with the final element ALWAYS being a noun. To be a ____ the idea ("referent") should be a single item. Often the two words will be hyphenated, sometimes they will be written as one word.

gerund

A noun that is created by adding -ing to the verb-stem (e.g. Parking is not permitted).

Dipthong

A one-syllable sound that is made up of two vowels. In Received Pronunciation English there are eight of these.

clarification

A part of a lesson in which students become clearer about language system items, especially concerning how they are formed, what they mean, how they are pronounced and how they are used.

Adjacency Pairs

A pattern and convention of speech where one utterance is followed by an appropriate linked response e.g. A question followed by an answer

allophone

A permitted variation in a phoneme of the language, usually determined by surroundings. Thus the sound that is normally spelt sh, and which is represented by the phonemic symbol [ ʃ] , is produced differently at the beginning of the word shoe than it is at the beginning of the word she. In shoe the lips are rounded whereas in she they are spread. However, saying she with the rounded lips of shoe, or vice versa, does not alter a listener's perception of the difference in meaning between the two words.

fossilization

A persistent lack of change in interlanguage patterns, even after extended exposure to or instruction in the target language.

reference

A phenomenon where words "point" to other individual words or phrases - or whole paragraphs even. A: Where's my towel? B: I hung it on the line. The pronoun 'it' refers back to 'my towel'.

endophoric reference

A phenomenon where words refer to other items in the same text. E.g. I like your dress. It's beautiful.

diphthong

A phoneme containing two vowel sounds, the first (onglide) gliding into the second (offglide). Example: The sound /ei/ in "play", made up of two vowel sounds, /e/ and /i/.

diphthong

A phoneme formed of two monophthong sounds joining together in a glide, e.g. /au/.

allophone

A phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. The difference in pronunciation does not affect meaning. The different pronunciations of the same phoneme are determined by position in a word. eg /p/ in /pin/ and /spin/

catenation

A phonological term referring to the joining of a consonant sound at the end of a word with a vowel sound at the beginning of the next. There is no noticeable pause between the two sounds. e.g.: "An apple" is pronounced /anapple/.

cue

A piece of information like a word or phrase T gives to Ss to use in a drill.

pro-drop

A pro-drop language (from "pronoun-dropping") is a language in which certain classes of pronouns may be omitted when they are in some sense pragmatically inferable. The phenomenon of "pronoun-dropping" is also commonly referred to in linguistics as zero or null anaphora. English is considered a non-pro-drop language. Nonetheless, subject pronouns are almost always dropped in commands (e.g., Come here); and in informal speech, pronouns and other words, especially copulas and auxiliaries, may sometimes be dropped, especially from the beginnings of sentences:

error analysis

A procedure for analysing samples of learners' language which attempts to explain the errors they make.

think-aloud protocols

A procedure for investigating learner strategies which requires learners to report on what they are doing as they undertake learning activities. They speak their thoughts out loud and these are then transcribed and analysed by the researcher.

process writing

A procedure in which students create a text by planning, drafting, revising, editing and then publishing or sharing it with others.

Fossilisation

A process through which an error has become a permanent feature of a learner's language use and is believed to be resistant to correction.

display question

A question to which the asker already knows the answer. Teachers often ask these questions to get learners to display their knowledge of the language. Example: What colour is your shirt?

genuine question

A question to which the asker does not know the answer in advance. Also called "referential" or "information" questions. Contrasts with display question. Example: What did you do last weekend?

Framing

A questioning technique which involves asking a question, pausing and then calling on a student to answer. In this way, students maintain maximum attention.

protocol

A record of a learner's verbalisation of thoughts while performing a task such as writing a composition.

Contraction

A reduced form often marked by an apostrophe in writing

hyponym

A relationship of superordinate and subordinate words Example: (Superordinate) gun = pistol, revolver, rifle (hyponyms)

circumlocution

A roundabout, indirect, or lengthy way of expressing something; periphrasis. The use of more words than necessary to express an idea. E.g. It's the thing you use to connect the video and the TV.

topic sentence

A sentence (often the initial sentence) in a text or paragraph which introduces and/or summarises the main idea or argument of the text/paragraph.

Minor Sentence

A sentence which is grammatically incomplete.

adjacency pairs

A sequence of two related utterances by different speakers, the second being dependent on the first. E.g. Compliment - thanks/downgrading: This cake is wonderful!/Thanks. But it's really simple to make.

Adjacency pair

A sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers. The first utterance leads to a set of expectations about the response.

gradable antonymy

A set of words on a scale between two antonyms. Example: water = boiling, hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold, freezing

activity

A single task, exercise or game for students to work on, usually set by teacher.

Diglossia

A situation where a language that has two forms, one a 'higher' and more prestigious form used by educated speakers in formal situations, and the other a 'lower', vernacular form used more commonly.

consonant

A sound made by restricting or closing the flow of air, which may result in friction.

observation task

A specific task to be done while an observer is watching a teacher in class.

semi-authentic

A spoken or written text which is formulated so as to be close to an authentic text in content and language, but which has been adjusted in some way, usually to suit the learner's level of language proficiency.

correlation

A statistical procedure that compares the relative frequency or size of different variables in order to determine whether there is a relationship between them.

linear syllabus

A step-by-step syllabus which moves from one language item to another in orderly progression, usually from simple to complex.

reduction strategy

A strategy used by a learner who lacks the necessary language to express something and changes the message to avoid the forms he/she is uncertain about.

achievement strategy

A strategy used by the learner who lacks the necessary language to express something, but perserveres with trying to express it.

cleft sentences

A structure used to help us focus on a particular part of the sentence and to emphasise what we want to say by introducing it or building up to it with a kind of relative clause. E.g. The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your generosity.

paragraph

A subdivision of a larger text, usually comprised of a number of sentences - usually begins with a topic sentence which is then developed.

multidimensional syllabus

A syllabus based on the integration of a number of organising principles. Example: structures, functions, vocabulary and skills

modular syllabus

A syllabus designed in units of material (or modules) based on language or content, which can be studied in any order.

structural syllabus

A syllabus in which grammatical structures form the central organizing feature. A structural syllabus proceeds from simple grammatical structure to more complex grammatical structure. An example might be something like: Present progressive -> Comparatives -> Simple past -> Past progressive. The main faults of structural syllabuses is that they tend to ignore meaning and a lot of really useful language is neglected at the beginning because it is viewed as structurally too complex (If I were you, I would).

notional syllabus

A syllabus organised around (abstract) concepts/meanings/ideas AND the exponents used to express them. E.g. headings in this syllabus would be: duration; location; degree; direction; the past; age; ability; possibility; permission; degree / any appropriate example

notional syllabus

A syllabus that is organised according to general areas of meaning that are used in most grammars Example: frequency, location, duration and possibility.

notional syllabus

A syllabus that is organised according to general areas of meaning that are used in most grammars, such as frequency, location, duration and possibility.

Structural syllabus

A syllabus which is based around a series of grammatical structures, which are sequenced according to assumed level of complexity.

language

A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.

ranking task

A task in which students must put things into an order, usually by discussing Example: List in order the five most important things remember when preparing for a job interview.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

A teaching method in which the teacher presents language items as instructions and the students have to do exactly what the teacher tells them. Example: YL listen to teacher and have to perform according to what he/she says "Jump"

pattern practice drill

A teaching technique in which learners are asked to practise sentences chosen to represent particular linguistic forms. Typical of the audiolingual approach

active listening

A teaching technique in which students not only listen, but also show their understanding by responses.

lexis

A technical term for the vocabulary of a language, as opposed to its grammar.

backchaining

A technique for helping students say a difficult sentence by breaking it into smaller parts and practising saying those pieces, slowly building up again to the complete sentence. E.g. 'n't you?' 'aren't you?' 'thirty, aren't you?' 'you're thirty, aren't you?'

structural grading

A technique for organising or sequencing material in a textbook or lessons. The basis for the organisation is a gradual increase in complexity of grammatical features.

input flood

A technique for providing a large number of examples of a particular language feature in the input to learners.

reformulating

A technique in which a more proficient language user (usually the teacher) rewrites a student's draft, keeping to the ideas but re-expressing them in more correct and appropriate language.

conferencing

A technique in which the teacher and a student, or students, discuss a piece of writing while it is being drafted, or after a first draft has been completed.

grammaring

A term coined by the applied linguist Diane Larsen Freeman in order to capture the notion of grammar being more a skill than an inert body of knowledge. The process by which a sequence of words if fine-tuned in order to create a more complex message than mere words can express. Has also been used to describe the way the learner's mental grammar develops, over time, from a mainly lexical mode into a fuller mode (mirrors L1 acquisition).

superordinate/hypernym

A term for an 'umbrella' item of lexis which subsumes a range of more specific items, e.g. fruit in relation to apple, orange, pear.

The Natural Approach

A term for an approach proposed by Terrell which emphasizes: the informal acquisition of language rules, tolerance of learners' errors, natural communication.

turn-taking

A term for the manner in which orderly conversation normally takes place.

comprehensible input

A term introduced by Stephen Krashen to refer to language which a learner can understand. The language may be comprehensible in this sense through the aid of clues such as gestures, situations, or prior information.

homonym

A term seldom used in the literature as there is no clearly established precedent for its meaning. If it is to be used to contrast with homophones and homographs then it should refer to two different words with the same spelling AND the same pronunciation. One example would be "bear" (the animal) and "bear" (the ver.)

summative test

A test administered at the end of the course, aimed at finding out if students have achieved the objectives set out by the syllabus ; also called a final achievement test. Example: end of year exam

direct test

A test employing tasks which replicate real-life activities, e.g. role-playing a job interview, writing a letter of complaint, or reading and completing an application form.

direct testing

A test employing tasks which replicate real-life activities. Example: writing a letter of complaint

subjective test

A test evaluated by the opinion of the test-giver. Example: Tests of writing ability

multiple-choice test

A test in which a response is required purely receptively: by choosing one (or more) item(s) from a list of given possibilities. Although this form of testing has been popular in various places at various times, there are serious problems with it. Reliability and practicality are key issues here.

grammaticality judgement

A test or task in which participants are asked to make a decision about whether a sentence is grammatically correct or not.

proficiency test

A test taken to assess candidates' ability, regardless of any course of study. Example: TOEFL

proficiency test

A test taken to assess candidates' language ability regardless of any course of study. E.g. IELTS, FCE, CAE etc.

discrete point test

A test that attempts to measure knowledge of a single aspect of language use.

Diagnostic test

A test that helps the teacher and learners identify problems that they have with the language.

Norm Referenced Test

A test which compares test takers to each other rather than against external criteria Example: IQ test

norm-referenced test

A test which compares test takers to each other rather than against external criteria.

subjective test

A test which requires the markers to evaluate and not just to follow a mark sheet.

genre

A text type distinguished by specific features. E.g. formal letters, anecdotes, emails.

NLP

A theory about the way the mind processes experience and language. Concerned with the brain, language and learning. Shares with the theory of multiple intelligences the view that the mind is predisposed to process experience in different ways/modalities. Learners have preferred thinking styles, or metaprograms. Many of its ways of establishing rapport are already well-established in literature on affect and in humanistic approaches.

PPP

A three-stage model of lesson design. In the first, language rules are provided for / elicited from students, then analysed. In the second stage, students are encouraged to focus on producing the language accurately, through practice exercises, and in the final stage, the students are encouraged to use the language more freely and in more natural settings.

classroom observation scheme

A tool, often in the form of a grid, that consists of a set of predetermined categories used to record and describe teaching and learning behaviours.

Turn Taking

A turn is a time during which a single participant speaks, within a typical, orderly arrangement in which participants speak with minimal overlap and gap between them. The principal unit of description in conversational structure.

exophoric reference

A type of referencing that points to something outside of the text but which is nevertheless understood in context. Example: Take a look at THIS.

diagnostic test

A type of test which is designed to show what language skills or knowledge a learner already has. It is often used by a teacher to find out how much a learner knows before beginning a language course.

chunk

A unit of language that is often perceived or used as a single unit. Example: Thank you or ice cream cone

syllable

A unit of pronunciation that is typically larger than a sound but smaller than a word. Syllables consist of vowel sounds (V) or combinations of vowels and consonants (C). In English, the different possibilities include V, as in I; CV, as in go; CVC, as in got, as well as combinations that start or finish with consonant clusters: CCCV (stray) , VCC (eats) , etc. Some consonants - notably /n/ and /l/ - can form syllables on their own, as in the last syllables of 'button' and 'little', and are called syllabic consonants.

style

A usually deliberate choice of a particular way of saying or writing something. There is often more than one way of conveying the same message. The choice is determined by 1) specific contextual factors; 2) a particular effect the person wants to achieve. Ranges from formal to informal. These choices affect both grammar and vocabulary. Can include literary, old-fashioned, humorous and medical. If these are related to particular fields, they're called registers.

Idiolect

A variety of a language unique to an individual. It is manifested by patterns of vocabulary or idiom selection (the individual's lexicon), grammar, or pronunciations that are unique to the individual.

real play

A variety of role play in which students play themselves in familiar contexts, perhaps to help study and resolve problems they have had in these real situations.

intransitive verb

A verb that does not have a direct object. Example: "After he finished the race, he FAINTED.

transitive verb

A verb that expresses an action directed toward a person, a place, a thing, or an idea Example: 'I like CHOCOLATE'

intransitive verb

A verb which does not take an object (e.g. He runs every day.)

stative verb

A verb which is used to describe a condition/state/belief/emotion/possession/sense. E.g. I know it's true. I have a house.

de-lexicalised verb

A verb with little or no (dictionary) meaning on its own / must combine with a noun or adjective to have meaning. E.g. Take (your time) / get (married) / make (friends) / go (mad) / have (fun) / do (the housework) /give (money) / keep (a pet) / look (sad) / put (on a coat)

creative construction process

A view of second language acquisition as a process by which learners construct their own rule system for the second language and gradually develop this through predictable stages.

vowel

A vocal sound made without the audible stopping of breath. E.g. /u/, /a/, /o/, /i/, /e/.

vowel

A voiced sound made without any closure, friction or restriction to the flow of air from the lungs.

method

A way of approaching or doing a particular activity. A system for the teaching of a language that is based on a particular theory of language or on a particular theory of learning, or both. These theories will underpin choices of syllabus type, materials and classroom activities.

substitution tables

A way of writing out grammar information as patterns that can be used for generation of further sentences.

monosyllable

A word consisting of a single syllable.

lexical item

A word or number of words that could be considered to be a single item of vocabulary Example: first aid kit

Anaphoric reference

A word or phrase that refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a written or spoken text.

Polyseme

A word or phrase with different, but related senses. eg. a person's foot, and the foot of the stairs (both relate to the base of something).

hyponym

A word representing a specific type of something. "Bungalow" is a ______ of "house". There are many other types of house. "House" itself is a _____ of "building". The more general term is referred to as a "superordinate".

idiom

A word sequence (usually a phrase or a clause) whose meaning is not literal, ie, it cannot easily be worked out from its individual words. E.g. in the long run, red herring, as a rule of thumb.

onomatopoeia

A word that imitates the sound it represents. E.g. woof, whack, moo.

deixis

A word that points to the time, place, or situation in which the speaker is speaking. Example: this, that, these, those, now, then

determiner

A word used before a noun to indicate quantity, identity or significance Example: "a" "some" every"

Content word

A word which carries meaning when used alone and refers to a thing, state, quality or action.

homophone

A word which has the same pronunciation as another word but a different spelling and meaning (e.g. see and sea).

antonym

A word which is opposite in meaning to another one, for example adjectives such as big-small or verbs such as arrive-leave.

antonym

A word which is opposite in meaning to another one. Example: stop/go

homograph

A word which is spelt the same way as another, but typically pronounced differently. The different meanings here of "row": "a row of houses" "a row between husband and wife" are examples.

modifier

A word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause Example: This is a RED ball.

Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Acquisition is rough-tuned and unconscious, and used to communicate messages. It is not consciously attended to. Learning, however, is very fine-tuned and refers to a learner‟s knowledge of rules and their ability to talk abut them. The Natural Approach values the former.

modified interaction

Adapted conversation patterns that proficient speakers use in addressing language learners so that the learner will be able to understand. Example: clarification requests

modified input

Adapted speech that adults use to address children and native speakers use to address language learners so that they will be able to understand. Example: shorter, simpler sentences

Non-gradable adjectives

Adjectives that cannot be expressed in degrees and so cannot be graded.

work plan

Also known as timetable. The plan of work showing lessons as units and identifying what goes on in each one.

lateral

An L-like consonant, in which the airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth.

communicative activity

An activity that has communication as its main aim (as opposed to practice of particular language items). It will normally involve an "information gap".

cloze

An activity used to measure reading comprehension in which words are removed from a reading passage at regular intervals - eg every 7th word, or every 9th word. The reader then has to replace the words.

jigsaw reading

An activity where learners read different texts/parts of texts and then exchange/compare/share the information they have read. Example: The same news item from different newspapers which learners compare/a story divided into parts - learners exchange information to make sense of the whole thing.

Dialogic

An adjective for two person discourse.

compound adjective

An adjective made up of two or more elements. These will typically be adverb + adjective (fully formed, well-rounded) or noun + adjective (weather-beaten, shop-soiled.)

Repairs

An alteration that is suggested or made by a speaker, the addressee, or audience in order to correct or clarify a previous conversational contribution.

processing instruction

An approach developed by Bill VanPatten. An approach to insruction in which learners are given explicit information about the language features to be learned and their practise activities involve the comprehension, not the production, of sentences or texts that cannot be understood without a focus on the language itself.

TBL

An approach in which learners do a task, using such language as they can naturally, possibly having previously seen or heard the task performed by native speakers. Language can be focussed on, before or after, though this is not always felt to be essential.

product approach

An approach in which the focus is exclusively on producing a text that reproduces the model learners are initially given. Example: learners analyse a model of a formal letter for its use of layout, lexical and grammatical features and then produce a similar letter.

genre-based approach to writing

An approach that is similar to a product approach. Starts with a model text (authentic) that is subjected to analysis and replication. These are closely associated with their contexts of use, and they are analyzed in functional terms as much as in linguistic ones. Has been particularly influential in the teaching of academic writing.

product writing

An approach to developing learners' writing skills that is informed by the belief that creating a written text is purely a matter of imitating elements that are provided in a model.

The Lexical Approach

An approach to language teaching that has chosen vocabulary (including collocations and formulaic language/chunks) as the main focus for syllabus design and classroom teaching. Emerged out of development of corpus linguistics, especially with frequency and collocations. Michael Lewis argues that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar. Jane and Dave Willis worked on the assumption that the most frequent words in any language express its most frequent meanings. In their view, words are really 'small grammar' and grammar is 'big words.' Willis' favored TBL; Lewis argues for a more analytic, text-based approach.

Grammar-Translation

An approach to second language teaching characterized by the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the use of translation exercises.

Dogme

An approach to teaching that aims to minimise the use of technology, teaching aids and other excesses and instead emphasises the importance of the learner-teacher relationship and interaction. Example: Learners come to class discussing something that is in the news. The teacher encourages and facilitates discussion and provides answers to questions about grammar and vocabulary as they arise.

process writing

An approach to writing where learners are encouraged to brainstorm, plan, draft, re-draft, review, and "publish" their written work.

principled eclecticism

An approach which encourages teachers to pick and choose judiciously from a wide range of methodologies depending on learner needs and styles. E.g. use both deductive and inductive approaches to teaching grammar. Intersperse pattern practice drills with communicative activities.

Interlanguage

An emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is approximating the target language.

strong CLT

An emphasis on deep-end communication. You learn language by using it. Led to task-based learning.

weak CLT

An emphasis on shallow-end communication. You learn language and then you use it. Learn the language systems first and then put them to communicative use.

mistake/slip

An erroneous form produced by a learner when tired, or not concentrating fully. They occur when students do know the rule they should apply, but fail to do so.

the chain

An error correction technique that involves students passing corrections to each other across the classroom.

global error

An error which interferes with the comprehensibility of an utterance.

post-systemic error

An error which occurs after the student has been explicitly exposed to the rule.

sociocultural theory

An explanation for knowledge and learning that is based on the assumption that all learning is first social and then individual. Learning is viewed as a process that is socially mediated. It is dependent on dialogue in face-to-face interaction. The claim is that during communication, learners jointly construct knowledge which is internalised by the individual.

corrective feedback

An indication to the learner that his/her use of the target language is incorrect.

jigsaw reading

An information gap exercise. Learners hear or read different parts of a text, then exchange information with others in order to complete a task.

negotiation of form

An interaction in which language learners work toward the correct form in a context where meaning is understood. If a teacher is involved in the interaction, he/she seeks to guide students to find the right form instead of providing it for them.

exponent

An item that is an example of a particular function. Example: Could you make me a cup of tea, please? = exponent of the function of making a polite request.

exponent

An iten that is an example of a particular function. E.g. Could you make me a cup of tea, please? is an exponent of the function of 'making polite requests'.

procedure

An ordered sequence of techniques

metalinguistic awareness

An understanding of one's own use of language. Example: being able to define a word

Utterance

An utterance is a complete unit of talk, bounded by the speaker's silence.

Co-opperative

An utterance that supports another speaker such as Uh-huh

textual competence

Another term for discourse competence (The ability to understand and produce contextualised stretches of language in spoken or written texts.)

prescriptive discourse

Any discourse that promotes what should be thought, spoken, or done. It is discourse about what ought to be the case rather than descriptive discourse about what is the case. eg You should eat more fresh fruit.

visual aids

Any observable resources used to enhance, explain, or supplement the presenter's message.

discrete item

Any unit of the grammar system that is sufficiently narrowly defined to form the focus of a lesson or exercise. eg. the present continuous, the definite article but NOT "verbs".

product approaches

Approaches which view the methodology of a writing class as having the main aim of focusing the learners' attention on how texts are structured and how to reproduce those structures.

redundancy

Approximately 50% of all items in a spoken English utterance are not absolutely vital in order to achieve communication.

display questions

Asked by teachers in order to find out what a learner can say in the target language.

Formative assessment

Assessment which checks students' progress during a course. Only tests what has been taught on the course. eg Progress test

features of connected speech

Assimilation: when a sound is modified by a neighbouring sound Elision: when a sound is omitted , because another similar sound follows Liason: a sound is introduced at word boundries, especially after words ending in a vowel. Juncture: the pausing, or lack of pausing at the boundry between 2 sounds (I scream; ice cream)

modal auxiliary verb

Auxiliary verb which expresses the attitude / modifies the meaning of the main verb in a sentence. They do not conjugate / inflect like 'normal' verbs. eg might/can

modal auxiliary verb

Auxiliary verb which expresses the mood or the attitude and modifies the meaning of the main verb in the sentence e.g. must, can, could, will, would, may, might, shall, should. There are 9 pure modal verbs, they do not conjugate like normal verbs & they express functions such as possibility, ability, prediction & obligation. They can have extrinsic (likelihood) and intrinsic (obligation, ability) meaning and each modal verb can express both meanings.

hedging

Avoiding directness in communication in an attempt to lessen a negative effect. E.g. The party was somewhat spoiled by the return of the parents. (adverb)

chain drill

Begin by a teacher or learner asking a question, another answers and asks the next questions, in a chain fashion until all learners have practiced the language

cognitive style

Characteristic way in which a learner tends to think about a task and process new information; typically comes into play automatically rather than by choice.

innatist theory of LA

Chomsky. Language is innate. Hypothesising, trial and error, creativity.

fixed expression

Chunks of language whose constituent parts never chance, e.g. Let's face it, Same again, please or Merry Christmas

fixed expression

Chunks of language whose constituent parts never change, Example: Happy New Year!

contextual clues

Clues in a text which a reader can use to deduce the meaning of unknown words.

restructuring

Cognitive activity that is seen as causing changes in the way information is orgamised in the brain, even though no new information has been learned.

CEFR

Common European Framework of Reference for languages. The Council of Europe's scheme to set comparable international language standards in order to recognise and describe the achievements and qualifications of learners at different levels. Thr CEFR includes many can-do criteria statements.

linking words/devices

Commonly used terms in the classroom to refer to discourse markers - more formally specific types of conjunctions and/ or adverbials used to signpost a writer's intentions and attitude and to establish logical relations and sequences. Words and phrases like "eventually", "such as", "however" are sometimes classified in this manner.

strategic competence

Communication strategies such as asking for help, paraphrasing, avoidance.

CLT

Communicative Language Teaching. The need to use language in successful communication is seen as more important than having a purely theoretical knowledge of how language works.

CLL

Community Language Learning. A method which employs use of L1 and L2 to allow students to communicate real messages to each other.

context

Conditions, including facts, social/historical background, time and place, etc., surrounding a given situation.

systematic errors

Consistent errors in learners' language output which indicate that they are constructing and operating a system for understanding and producing language.

glottal

Consonants articulated with the glottis. E.g. h.

CLIL

Content and Language Integrated Learning. The practice of teaching a subject (i.e.: geography) in English to learners whose first language is not English.

CBLT

Content-Based Language Teaching. Second language instruction in which lessons are organised around subject matter rather than language points. Example: in immersion programmes, students study science, history, maths etc. in their second language.

CAH

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. The expectation that learners will have less difficulty acquiring target language patterns that are similar to those of the first language than those that are different.

can-do statements

Criteria concerning what a learner can successfully do with language in the real world, against which they can be assessed or self-assess themselves. Example: B1 Level English: CAN write letters or make notes on familiar or predictable matters.

can-do statement

Criteria concerning what a learner can successfully do with language in the real world, against which they can be assessed or self-assess themselves. E.g. I can ask for information about coach departure times at an enquiry desk.

CA

Cued Articulaion. Devised by Speech and Language Therapist Jane Passy in the late 1970s. It is an original system which uses simple hand cues to show where and how speech sounds are made.

bottom-up processing

Decoding of a text, step by step from the smallest elements, for example sounds or letters, gradually building up to larger units of meaning such as sentences. Example: Asking learners to read aloud may encourage bottom-up processing because they focus on word forms, not meaning.

distractor

Describes a "wrong" answer in a multiple-choice (M/C) test (or activity). A good M/C test or activity will have ??? which are as plausible as each other and as the correct response.

plosive

Describes a consonant sound made by forming a complete closure of the vocal tract and releasing air (voiced or voiceless) suddenly. /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ are the plosives of English. "Stop" consonant is an alternative term.

labiodental

Describes a sound made by putting the (lower) lip near or on the top teeth. /f/ and /v/ are made in this way in English.

velar

Describes a sound made by putting the back part of the tongue on or near the soft palate towards the back of the mouth. /k/ and /g/ are made in this way as is the final consonant in "sing"

palatal

Describes a sound made by putting the centre section of the tongue on or near the middle of the hard palate - the roof of the mouth. /j/ as in "year" is the only sound traditionally dealt with in this way in English.

palate-alveolar

Describes a sound made by putting the middle part of the tongue on or near the front part of the hard palate - the roof of the mouth. shhh and the zh sound in pleasure are made this way.

dental

Describes a sound made by putting the tip of the tongue behind or near the top teeth. The consonants at the beginning of "think" and "this" are the only two such sounds in English. Some teachers like to teach them as inter-dental, that is made between the teeth. This is not accurate, but can be helpful for teaching purposes.

alveolar

Describes a sound made by putting the tip of the tongue on or near the alveolar ridge - the bit of the roof of the mouth behind the teeth. /s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ /n/ are all made in this way in English.

nasal

Describes a sound made by releasing air through the nose, maintaining a complete closure elsewhere in the mouth. /m/ is a bilabial nasal, /n/ an alveolar nasal and the sound at the end of "sing" is a velar nasal.

bilabial

Describes any sound made by closing both lips and releasing air, by some means or other. /p/ & /b/ are bilabial plosives - air released from behind the lips. /m/ is a bilabial nasal sound, air passing through the nose.

descriptive grammar

Describes how a language is actually spoken/written and does not state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written. Describes, in a systematic way, the rules that govern how words arc combined and sequenced in order to form semences in a given language. E.g. Love my is like a rose red, red (ill-formed). My love is like a red, red rose (well-formed).

hyponym

Describes the relationship between words represented by the formula X is a type of Y. eg banana to fruit.

syntax

Describes the rules for sequencing words so as to show their relationships of meaning within sentences. For example, in English the rules of ____ permit the placing of two nouns together, so that one modifies the other: orange juice, bus stop, table tennis.

phonotactics

Description of the allowed combinations of phonemes in a particular language.

cognitive-code approach

Developed in the 1970s, emphasised that language learning involved active mental processes, that it was not just a process of habit formation. Lessons focussed on learning grammatical structures but the cognitive code approach emphasised the importance of meaningful practice, and the structures were presented inductively, i.e. the rules came after exposure to examples. There was, however, little use of examples from authentic material. Example: The aim of the class is for learners to understand the 'rule of the day', which is that the past form of regular verbs is made using -ed. The teacher elicits a dialogue that includes clear examples of the structure. The learners practise it, and the teacher uses it to elicit the rules.

denotation

Dictionary meaning of a word. It's core meaning.

exophoric reference

Direct reference to the non-linguistic context. They refer to other "world knowledge" and are not found in the text. The use of the definite article 'the', in 'I hung it on the line'. The referent is in the shared world of speaker and addressee.(Compare it to 'I hung it on a line', which has no such shared referent).

construct validity

Do the tests and questions allow you to measure what you seek to measure? i.e. are the instructions simple enough to understand completely. If a St doesn't understand the instructions, then they cannot complete the test to their best abilities. A lot of overlap between content/construct validity.

Linear

Do they go in a line? This is rare in a natural conversation due to expected interruptions. Format of the conversation would be A-B-A-B-A-B...

repetition

E.g. Pasta is one of the most famous Italian foods. In fact, most Italians eat pasta three or four times a week. Key words may be repeated throughout the text, especially when we want to emphasise something.

lexical cohesion

E.g. The audience were very appreciative. The crowd gave the orchestra a standing ovation at the end of the concert. In the second sentence 'the crowd' is used as a substitute for 'the audience.' They are partial synonyms (people watching an event) and are used to avoid repetition.

consistency of register

E.g. The patient presented with a ruptured spleen. This is medical register. If the text continued: 'He has a consistent bellyache,' we would find the use of 'bellyache' inconsistent with this register and the result would not be cohesive.

speech act

Each individual "move" in a conversation.

Fidel charts

Eight-color coded charts that indicate possible spellings of each phoneme. Used to teach English in the Silent Way approach.

ELF

English as a Lingua Franca. English used as a common language of communication between people who speak different first languages.

EIL

English as an International Language. English as the langauge of a world community, rather than being owned by just a few native-speaking countries.

EAP

English for Academic Purposes. Refers to learning English in order to use it to study another subject. Example: Courses concentrate on specific skills the learners will need to benefit from their learning in another language.

ESOL

English for Speakers of Other Languages or English as a Second or Other Language

ESP

English for Specific Purposes. Refers to learning English because you have a specific need. It can include the area of EPP, English for Professional Purposes. Example: English for Air Traffic Controllers

ESP (English for Specific Purposes)

English for proplr who have very clear language requirements. Example: English for Nurses

global errors

Errors which prevent a listener from understanding a message, and so obstruct communication.

local errors

Errors which relate to only part of a message and do not prevent comprehension.

authentic exposure

Exposure to language when it is being used fairly naturally.

formulaic

Expressions or phrases that are often perceived and learned as unanalysed wholes. Example: "once upon a time"

Deixis/ Deictic

Expressions which depend on context for meaning. Suggests shared knowlege between speekers.

generalisation

Extending a pattern learned in one context to another one

intrusive sounds

Extra sounds that appear in fluent, connected sppech to help link two words Example: sea air is pronounced like seayair

mistakes

Faulty language output caused by affective factors (tiredness) or environmental factors (responding to partly heard messages).

communicative competence

First proposed by Dell Hymes, what you know in order to be able to communicate effectively. It is made up of linguistic competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence.

connected speech

Fluent speech in which words are not pronounced seperately. A number of recognisable pronunciation changes occur, including weak forms and ellision.

language focus

Focus (in the classroom) on particular features of language systems. E.g. the present perfect, the function of advising, the lexis of clothing.

contrastive stress

Grammar words (also known as function words) such as auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns etc are usually unstressed. However, any word can be stressed where the meaning requires it i.e. contrasting or correcting something a person has said or is likely to think. e.g. I got a taxi from the airport. Not to the airport. He did it. Not she

linguistic competence

Grammar, lexis and phonology.

phrase

Groupings of words which function like parts of speech. There are 5 types of in English, one for each of the five word classes: noun, verb, adjective, adverb and preposition. E.g. I('ll have finished) it by five o'clock

ESA

Harmer. Engage: in this stage, the teacher arouses students' interest in the context, and attempts to reduce negative affective factors so that students are emotionally engaged with what is going on in the classroom. In this way, their learning will be more effective. This may involve using a text which students read for meaning first. Study: Here, students are focussing on a particular element of the language system. It may be something pre-planned by the teacher, or a reaction to something the teacher notices in class. Activate: Here, students use all or some of the language at their disposal (which is why it covers both Practice and Production stages of the PPP paradigm), either to focus on the language point in question, or to carry out some kind of communicative task.

discourse competence

How we organise texts and conversations and make them hang together.

sociolinguistic competence

How we use language in different contexts/its appropriacy.

zero conditional

If + present simple, present simple. Often used to describe scientific facts.

noticing

If you notice a feature of the language that you are exposed to, it attracts your attention and you make a mental note of it. For example, a learner might notice (without necessarily understanding) the sign 'Mind the gap', repeated several times on a railway station platform. That same day, the learner hears the teacher say 'would you mind' in the context of making a request in class. A day or two later, the same learner hears someone else say 'I don't mind'. Each successive 'noticing' both primes the learner to notice new occurrences of mind, and at the same time contributes to a growing understanding of the use and meaning of mind.

semi modal verb

In addition to the core modals, there are a number of other verbs which combine with other verbs to express modal meaning. They behave in similar ways to core modal verbs but share some characteristics with lexical verbs and are known as _____. Grammarians do not all agree which verbs qualify as semi-modal but some of the main ones are need (to), have (got) to and ought to.

mitigation

In pragmatics, a phrase or tone of voice used to reduce or soften the possible negative impact of what has been said.

discourse markers

In spoken language, language items used to either indicate some kind of change of direction in the discourse (e.g. anyway, actually, well), or to appeal to the listener in some way (e.g. Yukon? Right?).

verb phrase

In traditional grammar, the auxiliary and main verbs in a sentence that function together as in have been studying English in "I have been studying English for 10 years."

error

Inaccuracy in speech or writing due to lack of knowledge of the language item needed.

Prosodic Features

Includes features such as stress, rhythm, pitch, tempo and intonation. These are used by speakers to mark out key meanings in a message.

ICT

Information and Communication Technology. Refers to technological tools that are used to communicate and to manage information. Example: Interactive Whiteboards

IRF

Initiation Response Feedback. A pattern of discussion between the teacher and learner. The teacher initiates, the learner responds, the teacher gives feedback. This approach to the exchange of information in the classroom has been criticized as being more about the learner saying what the teacher wants to hear than really communicating. Example: The teacher asks a learner for rules about use of the present perfect, the learner gives an answer, and the teacher says whether that is correct or not.

enhanced input

Input that is altered in an effort to make some language features stand out more to learners. Example: typographical enhancement (bold type or underlining) or exaggerated stress in speaking.

form-focused instruction

Instruction that draws attention to the forms and structures of the language within the context of communicative interaction. Example: highlighting the form in question

acquire

Internalise second language rules and vocabulary which are then used to communicate in the language.

conversational repair

It is concerned with a speaker or listener attempting to correct or deal with problems that arise in the course of a conversation eg echoing or asking for clarification to show the listener has not understood something.

grammatical cohesion

It is concerned with the ways in which clauses and sentences are linked by grammatical connections such as reference, substitution, and ellipsis.

comment/rheme

It is what the writer or speaker considers newsworthy about the topic: what you as reader or listener need to pay attention to. E.g. The genes (carry all information needed to make a new plant or animal).

complement

It normally follows a verb phrase (often the verb to be, seem or appear) and can be an adjective (eg I'm happy), a noun phrase (eg That was a lovely meal), a pronoun (eg Is this yours?), a number (eg She'll be 50 next month). It can also follow the object of the sentence (eg Walking makes me hungry).

progressive aspect

It refers to events 'in progress'. Under this umbrella definition, it can at times refer to actions or situations which are temporary, incomplete or of limited duration.

CLL

It uses techniques developed in group counselling. The method makes use of group learning. Learners say in their native language things they want to talk about, the teacher translates the learner‟s sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats this to other members of the group.

lexical field

Items which belong to one topic area. They may be different parts of speech. For example, cut, saucepan, flour, onion and washing-up are all part of a __________ of "cooking".

Fillers

Items which do not carry conventional meaning They are inserted in speech to allow time to think,or to create a pause or to hold a turn in conversation.

pragmatic competence

Knowing how to express an intention clearly and in a way which is appropriate both to the person to whom it is expressed and the setting in which it is expressed.

strategic competence

Knowing how to use different kinds of strategies. Example: miming, to express something when language resources are lacking.

communicative language ability

Knowledge of language form and the ability to put that knowledge to use in communication.

procedural knowledge

Knowledge that underlies fluent or automatic performance.

schematic knowledge

Knowledge, gained from experience, of the way the world is organised, which is held as mental representations in the mind.

LAD

Language Acquisition Device. Part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. It is a system of principles that children are born with what helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn. Second language learning theory proposes that acquisition is possible in second and subsequent languages, and that learning programmes have to create the conditions for it. Example: One piece of evidence for the existence of a LAD is the fact that physical areas of the brain concerned with production and comprehension have been identified.

Pragmatics

Language in its situational context, including the knowledge and beliefs of the speaker and the relationship and interaction between speaker and listener. It encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior.

intake

Language in the input learners are exposed to which they notice and internalise.

comprehensible output

Language produced by learners which they have attempted to make understandable to listeners/readers.

functional syllabus

Language programs with functions being the primary organizing feature. The course content is based on functions not grammatical structures. A typical unit might be Giving Advice. The content of the unit would include: I think you should...Why don't you...If I were you, I would...You'd better .

comprehensible input

Language that a learner can understand. It can be comprehensible because the language is adjusted to the proficiency level of the learner or because of gestures, contextual information or prior knowledge/experience.

discourse fillers

Language used by speakers to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses, to hold the floor, gain thinking time etc. e.g. er, um, well, you know.

metalanguage

Language used to describe langauge Example: present perfect continuous, adverbs, subject

metalanguage

Language used to describe language items (e.g.: present simple) or used in class to give instructions. It should always be as clear and concise as possible.

passive knowledge

Language which students understand but are not able to produce.

phatic language

Language whose purpose is to smooth the conduct of social relations. It has an interpersonal function.

LRE

Language-Related Episodes. Parts of conversational interactions in which language learners talk about the language forms they are using and engage in self- and peer-correction.

instrumental motivation

Learning a language because of its value as a tool or instrument for doing something else successfully, such as studying a subject in English at university.

integrative motivation

Learning a language because of its value in helping to integrate with speakers of that language.

additive bilingualism

Learning a second language without losing the first.

deductive learning

Learning that starts with learning language rules such as grammar, before practicing those rules. Example: self-study grammar books

incidental teaching

Learning which occurs inside the classroom but which was not planned by the teacher. In terms of lexis, this may occur, for example, when learners are reading a text and notice (and correctly hypothesise) about the meaning / use and form of an item in the text which the teacher does not deal with formally.

incidental learning

Learning which occurs inside the classroom, but is not planned by the teacher. Example: This may aoccur when the learner is listening to or reading something.

simplification

Leaving out elements of a sentence. Example: Using the same form of a verb regardless of person, number or tense. "I go today. He go today."

ARC

Lesson design proposed by Jim Scrivener. Authentic use: I can use all the language I have at my disposal. Activities such as communicative activities, discussions, conversations, or in skills other than speaking, reading newspapers, poems, notices, listening to radio or TV. Authentic stages of the lesson occur when students do things which we would do ourselves as native speakers. Restricted language use: there is a deliberate limitation on the language that I use. I am using only part of what I know. Indeed I am being directed to use a particular item. Drills, exercises, elicited dialogues etc. Scrivener later revised his description of Restricted Use into R1 and R2, where R1 is more accuracy and form focussed, and R2 is freer, more meaning focussed practice. Clarification and focus of language item: As if using a magnifying glass, I zoom in and look closely at some specific pieces of language. These pieces may be 'new' to me or they may be language that I already use (note that this is the language focus category). Rules, examples, reference information translation, error analysis etc.

OHE

Lewis. Observe: students observe language. Hypothesise: students hypothesise, establishing generalisations, clarifying and deepening (their) perceptions. Experiment: students experiment with the language forms themselves.

semi-fixed expression

Lexical chunks which have at least one slot into which a number of different words or phrases can be inserted. "Could you please pass the salt?" "Could you please pass the butter?" "Could you please pass the bread?" "Could you please pass the ketchup?"

semantic meaning

Literal meaning of the word/utterance.

processability theory

Manfred Pienemann's theory of learners' developing ability to process linguistic elements in different sentence positions.

pragmatic meaning

Meaning of the word/phrase/utterance in context.

subordinating conjunction

Members of a word class whose function is to join a subordinate clause to a main clause. E.g. if, because and when. Because I love you, I will let you know.

coordinating conjunction

Members of a word class whose function is to join together words, phrases, clauses and sentences of equal rank. E.g. and. The cat will mew, and dog will have his day. O, banish me my lord, but kill me not. And so he goes to heaven, and so am I revenged.

Humanistic Approaches

Methods in which the following principles are considered important: the development of human values, active learner involvement in learning and in the way learning takes place.

Interjection

Mini exclamations as somebody is saying something.

Ellipsis

Missing words out because they are implied. The resulting ellipsis conveys a more casual and informal tone.

syllable-timed language

More or less equal distribution of stress across all syllables of a word, that is they have no apparent stress pattern. E.g. French.

Incomplete Sentences

Most utterances take form of incomplete, minor or ungrammatical sentences.

polysemy

Multiple meanings for the same word. E.g. bank (of the river), bank (institution).

NLP

Neuro-linguistic programming. A theory about the way the mind is predisposed to process experience in different ways: through sight, smell hearing, movement, taste and touch. Example: The teacher draws a mind map on the board to show learners the relationship between new words; in this way she is addressing the visual intelligence of her learners.

elision

Omission of a sound or sounds in connected speech, often because it follows other similar sounds, commonly t + d Example: 'I don't know' /I duno/ or Baked beans /beɪkˈbiːnz/

stage

One distinct part of a lesson, usually a single activity. Stages may link together to help make a complete lesson.

phoneme

One of the distinctive sounds of a particular language. It cannot be replaced with another sound without causing a change in meaning.

adverbial

One of the five possible elements in a clause or sentence. It functions like an adverb in that it: contributes circumstantial information; it serves to comment on what is being expressed; it links clauses or sentences to some other component of the text. It can be a single word or a phrase. Example: She phoned YESTERDAY. or She phoned ON TUESDAY.

silent way

Originated in the early 1970s and was the brainchild of the late Caleb Gattegno.The three basic tenets of the approach are that: 1) learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remembers or repeats 2) that learning is aided by physical objects, and 3) that problem-solving is central to learning.

subtractive bilingualism

Partially or completely losing the first language or a second, or additional, language.

Hesitation

Pauses + micropauses Indicated by (2.0) and (.) in transcripts

Logical/mathematical intelligence

People with this are often good at logical reasoning and scientific investigation. For example A student with this may ask a lot of questions as they organise and categorise new information about language.

formative evaluation

Periodic review of course structure, content and methodology as it proceeds in order to gain information to improve its later stages.

Idolect

Personal speaking habits/Certain aspects of an individual's speech

parallelism

Phrases or sentences of a similar construction/meaning placed side by side, balancing each other, to aid grammatical cohesion. E.g. They are rich. They are famous. They are young. They are Hollywood's new stars. The first three sentences use the pattern they + are + adjective, a grammatical and rhythmical pattern, to create interest in the reader's mind as to who these people are.

cognitive-developmentalist theory of LA

Piaget, Vygotsky. Language is innate but not separate from other mental developments. LA grows from language use. Embedded in the experiences of its users.

obligatory contexts

Places in a sentence where a particular grammatical form is required if the sentence is to be correct. Example: "Last week, my brother rent a car." The speaker has created an obligatory context for the past tense by the use of "Last week", but has not used the required form of the verb in that context.

Status

Position in society which can be signified by mode of address.

PPP

Presentation, Practice, ProductionAn approach to grammar lessons based on the idea of presenting small items of language to learners, providing them with opportunities to use it in controlled practice and finally integrating it with other known language in order to communicate (production). Example: The teacher presents and illustrates the communicative purpose of a new structure 'If I was you...' for advice. Then learners use prompts to complete sentences with the correct forms of the verbs. They practise by giving each other advice.

formal schemata

Prior knowledge of the formal structure of different types of texts which assists readers and listeners in understanding and interpreting them.

retrieval

Process of "finding" information previously stored in memory.

CCQ

Questions designed to check learners' understanding of a language item.

fresh starts

Questions on a test/exam which do not rely on a previous question, therefore giving the student a fresh start to get the answer right. Example: key word transformations on the Cambridge exams

concept questions

Questions that focus on the meaning of a language item. Usually the answer is yes or no. Example: PAST tense: Is it happening at the moment of speaking?

extensive reading

Reading longer pieces of text without pausing and worrying too much about details, usually for pleasure.

scanning

Reading strategy when you look only for a specific fact or piece of information without reading everything.

Realia

Real objects used as teaching aids to make learning more natural. Includes items such as tickets, pictures, clothes, etc.

RP

Received pronunciation: It refers to an accent in English regarded by many people as a 'standard' accent. It has also been called 'the Queen's English' or 'BBC English'. Example: In RP bath is pronounced with an /a:/ sound. In other UK accents it can be pronounced with an /æ/.

multi-word units

Recurring fixed forms that consist of more than one word. It may look like a clause with a verb and object but the meaning cannot be worked out by cutting it up and the form is fossilised to varying degrees.

Anaphoric references

Referring back to something that has already been said in the conversation.

cataphoric reference

Referring forwards to a portion of a text which has not previously been mentioned. It's brilliant, this song.

intrinsic modality

Refers to a range of meanings to do with how necessary or desirable the speaker/writer views the situation.

Recieved Pronunciation

Refers to an accent in English regarded by many people as a 'standard' accent. It has also been called 'the Queen's English' or 'BBC English'. In the past, RP had high status in the UK, indicating an educated speaker, and this transferred into EFL where it has been used as a model for pronunciation. With the emergence of international English, the recognition of the equality of a variety of accents, and the emphasis on authentic communication, learners now become aware of a wider range of accents.

prosody

Refers to properties of language such as pitch, loudness, tempo and rhythm.

reliability

Refers to the extent to which the same score could be expected from a given candidate taking the same test on different occasions. This might be due to the circumstances in which the test was administered, the relevant qualities of the test (e.g. rubric) and also the subjective or objective nature of the test itself. If subjective marking is involved, scorer _____ is also an issue.

extrinsic modality

Refers to the speaker's/writer's view of how likely the situation is.

approach

Refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning which are the source of the way things are done in the classroom and which provide reasons for doing them. Describes how peaceful acquire knowledge of the language and makes statements about the conditions which will promote successful language learning.

difference between style and register

Register = This refers to a speech variety which a particular group of people have in common. They usually share the same profession, hobby or interests. There may be a number of words used in a particular way. Style = This refers to the type of language used because of a particular genre or level of formality. There will be structural and lexical complications.

Paralinguistic Features

Related to body language . It is the use of gestures, facial expressions + other non-verbal elements to add meaning to the speakers message beyond the words being spoken.

echo

Repetition of what a student has just said. This may be "aware" echo. with a purpose (indicationg that an error has been made) or "unaware" echo (you feel the need to fill silences.)

echo

Repetition of what student just said. This may be 'aware' echo, with a purpose (e.g.indicating that an error had been made), or 'unaware' echo (e.g. you are feeling the need to fill silences).

drill

Repetitive oral practice of a language item, whether a sound, a word, a phrase or a sentence structure.

variable substitution drill

Requires the students to substitute one element of the pattern with the prompt, making any necessary adjustments, but the prompts are not restricted to one element of the pattern: Teacher: They have been watching TV Student: They have been watching TV Teacher: She Student: She has been watching TV Teacher: radio Student: She has been listening to the radio. Teacher: We Student: We have been listening to the radio.

substitution drill

Requires the students to substitute one element of the pattern with the prompt, making any necessary adjustments: Teacher: They have been watching TV Student: They have been watchingTY. Teacher: She Student: She has been watching TV Teacher: I Student: I have been watching TV.

action research

Research carried out by teachers, often in their own classrooms or in collaboration with other teachers. The research goals and questions are local and specific to their own teaching environment. Example: teacher analyses the practice of CALL as a supplement to the classroom lessons.

summative evaluation

Review of course structure, content and methodology at the end of a course, in order to gain information to improve further/future courses.

local revision

Revision of small or "surface" errors in a written text (punctuation or grammar), as opposed to revision of larger errors of text structure.

global revision

Revision of the larger structures of a written text, for example, overall organisation of an argument, or paragraph structure, rather than of local errors (grammar or punctuation)

derived words

Roots with bound morphemes attached at the beginning or the end (e.g. deformed, de-form-ed).

eclecticism

Selecting techniques for classroom use from a range of different methods. E.g. pattern practice drills in a TBL lesson.

Back Tracking

Self-correction by filling in a detail which should have occurred earlier in speech.

Agenda Setting

Setting the topic/subject of discussion

roots

Single morphemes that cannot be further subdivided (e.g. rain).

monophthong

Single vowel sound.

Slang

Slang/informal speech, often used in speech especially intoractional talk.

Cuisenaire rods

Small coloured rods of wood or plastc often used in language teaching.

phonemic

Small differences in language sounds that can change meaning within a particular language Example: The consonants "p" and "b" are phonemic in English, but not on Arabic

Monitor Hypothesis

Sometimes when we communicate spontaneously in L2, we want to get our message across and accuracy is sacrificed. At other times, we may wish to be much more accurate (writing a formal letter, for example). In the latter case, we employ our Monitor ( a kind of accuracy-focus device) to scrutinise our output and make it is accurate as possible.

approximant

Sounds which occupy an intermediary position between vowels and all other consonants. E.g. w, r, j.

restricted output

Speaking or writing when Ss use less than the full quantity of language they know. Practice that uses language in ways that are controlled or deliberately simplified in a way that makes the load on Ss less demanding. Example: writing a dialogue using certain expressions

connected speech

Spoken language in which the words run together to form a continuous stream of sound.

authority-oriented learning style

Ss like and need structure and sequential progression. They relate well to a traditional classroom. Prefer teacher as an authority figure. They like to have clear instructions and know what they are doing.

restricted exposure

Ss read or listen to texts specifically designed to draw attention to language points. The language available for Ss to hear or read has in some way been restricted. Example: a coursebook text containing multiple examples of "used to".

authentic output

Ss speaking or writing using the full range of language at their disposal. Language used has not been restricted in any way.

Vague Language

Statements that sound imprecise and unassertive.

prescriptive grammar

States rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. They are often based not on descriptions of actual usage but rather on the grammarian's view of what is best. E.g. Don't say 'less than 10 items', say 'fewer than 10 items'; Never begin a sentence with 'and'; Don't say 'Hopefully, she passed the exam', say 'I hope she passed the exam'; etc.

affective filter

Stephen Krashen hypothesized the existence of what he called the ______ which acts to control the amount and quality of input learners receive. Learners with a low _______are emotionally well-disposed to processing input, but those whose _____ is set high, because of stress, anxiety, or negative attitudes, will not process the input so effectively, and this will slow down or even block their rate of acquisition.

socio-affective strategies

Strategies used by learners to obtain practice in using the language. Example: starting up conversations

metacognitive strategies

Strategies used by learners to plan, regulate and monitor their learning. Example: highlighting important information

communication strategies

Strategies used to communicate when the learner lacks the necessary language knowledge Example: mime or paraphrase

stress-timed language

Stressed syllables tend to recur at different intervals, and the intervening syllables are accommodated. E.g. English

Tag Question

Strings of words normally added to a declarative sentence to turn the statement into a question.

STT

Student Talking Time. It is the time learners spend talking rather than the teacher. Example: Group work with the teacher monitoring, rather than an open class, is a way to increase the STT in an activity.

authentic output

Students speaking or writing using the full range of language at their disposal.The langauage used has not been restricted in any way.

Code mixing

Switching between two or more language within sentences and phrases - often used to show belonging and solidarity within bilingual or multilingual communities.

total physical response

TPR. an approach to teaching language based on the idea that if you have to do something physical in response to language, then learning is more meaningful, and you learn faster. Example: The learners are looking at action verbs. The teacher says 'Jump!' and they jump

transactional talk

Talk whose purpose is to achieve the exchange of goods or information.

TTT

Teacher Talking Time. The amount of time a teacher talks within a lesson.

pre-teaching of lexis

Teaching about the form, meaning or use of some key items of vocabulary that the teacher feels Ss are likely to need in subsequent reading or listening work.

The Communicative Approach

Teaching materials used with this approach teach the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, such as requesting, describing etc. Emphasis is on the processes of communication.

discrete-point test

Test that tests individual components in isolation

TALO

Text as a Linguistic Object

TASP

Text as a Stimulus for Production

TAVI

Text as a Vehicle for Information

illocutionary competence

That part of pragmatic competence which is to do with knowing how to use language in order to carry out certain intentions.

topic/theme of a sentence

The 'launch pad' of of the message and is typically - but not always - realized by a noun phrase. E.g. The genes (topic/given information) carry all information needed to make a new plant or animal.

mode

The HOW of the situation. The means by which the text is being created. E.g. email, face-to-face talk, broadcast talk.

field

The WHAT of the situation. What kind of social activity is going on and about what sort of topic.

tenor

The WHO of the situation. The participants and their relationships.

learner autonomy

The ability of the learner to take responsibility for his/her own learning and to plan, organise and monitor the learning process independently of the teacher.

auditory discrimination

The ability to distinguish language sounds Example: wreath/reef

Discourse management

The ability to produce extended written and spoken texts, for example conversations.

fluency

The ability to speak the language idiomatically and accurately, without undue pausing, without an intrusive accent, and in a manner appropriate to the context.

discourse competence

The ability to understand and produce contextualised stretches of language in spoken or written texts.

Pragmatic competence

The ability to use language in a contextually appropriate fashion.

communicative competence

The ability to use language in a variety of settings, taking into account relationships between speakers and differences in situations.

sociolinguistic competence

The ability to use language in ways appropriate to contexts of use, role relationships and communicative purposes.

hyponymy

The abstract term for one thing being an example of a more general thing. "Car" is a hyponym of "vehicle." "Vehicle" is the superordinate term.

verb function

The actual use of a verb in context eg asking for permission or apologising.

genre analysis

The analysis of recognisable categories of discourse on the basis of purpose and structure. Example: a research paper abstract; an obituary, a menu

connotative meaning

The associative meanings that a word evokes. (the emotions and associations connected to a word) Example: Childish and childlike implies that someone is immature, but youthful infers that someone is lively and energetic.

Connotation

The attitudinal meaning of a word, which may be culturally determined, such as whether it carries a positive or negative meaning.

connotation

The attitudinal meaning of a word, which may be culturally determined, such as whether it carries a positive or negative meaning. E.g. kid, bloke.

content schemata

The background knowledge of a topic which a learner holds in his or her mind and which assists in the interpretation of a text.

phoneme

The basic unit of sound from which we build up words and sentences. Example: caught = three phonems /k/ /ɔ:/ /t/

tone unit

The basic unit of spoken language, similar to a clause or sentence for written language. A sentence could have one or more than one tone unit. It can be one or more syllables long and must contain a nucleus at which there is a movement of pitch.

coherence

The capacity of a text to make sense.

complement

The clause element that follows linking verbs, such as "be" and "seem", and which provides further information about the subject. Example: The news proved to be FALSE.

illocutionary force

The context-specific and culture-specific meaning of an utterance, often described as the underlying meaning. Example: It's raining = so you need to remember to take your umbrella.

sound system

The different phonemes that make up a language's phonology.

elision

The disappearance of an expected sound in (rapid) spoken language. Most commonly /t/ or /d/ when sandwiched between two other consonants Examples: "He must make a lot of money" sounds like "he muss make ..." "my old girlfriends" sounds like "my ole girfriends"

Dialect

The distinctive grammar and vocabulary which is associated with a regional or social use of a language.

liaison/juncture

The effect produced by a word-final consonant being more vigorously articulated than usual under the influence of a following vowel, and thus appearing to be at the beginning of the following word. examples: "at all" may sound like "a tall" "in anger" may sound like "Inn Nanger" "last entry" may sound like "Lars Tentry" The term "catenation" is sometimes used to describe the same phenomenon.

washback/backwash

The effect that the format of a test or exam has on the teaching that precedes it. Negative ____/ ___ is associated primarily with "teaching the exam" i.e. doing practice tests instead of useful learning activities.

task achievement

The extent to which a learner's production achieves its purpose in terms of transmitting or requesting information or answering a given question

validity

The extent to which a test accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

language systems

The following are commonly referred to as language systems: grammar, lexis, phonology, function and discourse.

language skills

The four language skills are: listening. speaking, reading and writing. Listening and reading are receptive skills. Speaking and writing are productive skills.

systems

The four systems of language are grammar, vocabulary, phonology and discourse. Example: English Proficiency exams explicitly test the four skills and also two systems, grammar and vocabulary.

presentation

The giving or input of language to students.

stress

The greater emphasis of some syllable sor words over others during speech.

noticing hypothesis

The hypothesis (Richard Schmidt) that language learners learn only that which they have first noticed or become aware of in the input.

interaction hypothesis

The hypothesis that language acquisition is based both on learners' innate abilities and on opportunities to engage in conversations, often those in which other speakers modify their speech and their interaction patterns to match the learners' communication.

counterbalance hypothesis

The hypothesis that learners' attention will be drawn to classroom events that are different from those they are accustomed to.

segmental

The individual sounds of a language.

transfer

The influence of a learner's first language knowledge in the second language.

illocutionary force

The intended, context-defined and culture sensitive meaning of an utterance. (e.g. when a speaker informs us that "there's someone at the door" but really they mean "answer the door please").

connotation

The interpretation of a word in a particular context or language variety. Example: propoganda has a negative connotation in English

Register

The language appropriate to particular types of situations.

interlanguage

The language produced by a second language learner. It may have some features of the first language and some features of the second language. It continually changes as the learner revises his/her internalised rule system. Example: in English an adjective appears before the noun it modifies, while in French the adjective usually comes after the noun. So a French native speaker could say a fish green instead of a green fish.

sub-skills

The language skills of speaking, listening, writing and reading are often divided into sub-skills, which are specific behaviours that language users do in order to be effective in each of the skills. Example: Learners developing the skill of listening need to have the sub-skill of being able to recognise contracted forms in connected speech.

Metalanguage

The language used to describe, analyse or explain another language including, for example, grammatical terms and rules of syntax.

meta-language

The language used to describe, analyse or explain another language. Example: grammatical terms and rules of syntax.

phatic language

The language used to share feelings or establish a mood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas. E.g. How are you? How ya doin'? Have a nice day!

vague language

The language very common in speaking. We often add words and phrases such as about, kind of, sort of, and that kind of thing to make what we say less factual and direct: it's kind of cold in here. We generally use this language when we don't know the name of something, or to make things sound less factual, or to talk about groups and categories.

co-text

The language you can find before and after a language item.

input

The language, either written or spoken, which a learner is exposed to in the environment.

sentence

The largest purely grammatical unit in a language.

tonic syllable

The last prominent syllable in the tone unit where the tone change begins. The syllable in a tone unit / utterance / sentence which carries the main stress / is the start of the main pitch / intonation movement. E.g. live in /Lon/don.

ellipsis

The leaving out of elements of a sentence because they are either unnecessary or because their sense can be worked out from the immediate context.

silent period

The lengthy period of time children learning their first language go through when they simply listen before they venture their first words. Some researchers have argued that this is a necessary stage in language acquisition. It provides and opportunity to comprehend input. Methods based on this are TPR and the natural approach. Some evidence suggests that learners use this period to engage in private speech (a kind of silent or sub-vocablized rehearsal phase).

modality

The lexical and grammatical ways used by speakers to express their attitude to what they're saying. For example: Maybe Sarah is a chef. (lexical _______: adverb)

cognitive deficit

The limitations on processing information in a second language compared to in L1.

Contextual Knowledge

The listener also has information from the context in which the listening takes place. Thus certain elements specific to this particular situation, rather than more general schema related , will enable you to immediately predict what the topic is, and even make more specific predictions about the exact content of the message. Knowledge of situation Physical setting, participants, context Knowledge of co-text What has been/will be said

contextual knowledge

The listener has information from the context in which the listening takes place which enables him/her to immediately predict what the topic is.

Apodosis

The main clause in a conditional sentence.

prominence

The main syllables emphasised in a tone group.

denotative meaning

The meaning of a word in relation to the objects, events, states or concepts it refers to (also known as referential meaning)

referential meaning

The meaning of a word in relation to the objects, events, states or concepts it refers to, also known as denotative meaning.

Utterance meaning

The meaning of something that is said, including the words used, the speaker's tone and posture and other contextual considerations.

Intonation

The modulation of voice - pitch used to support meaning.

classroom management

The moment-by-moment decisions and actions concerning organisation of the classroom and activities Example: dealing with unexpected problems

affixation

The morphological process of adding a bound morpheme to the stem of a word, either at the end or at the beginning. This modifies the word's meaning and/or changes its word class, e.g. adding ful to use or un to tidy.

keywords

The most important content-carrying words in a text. From a whole article, we might be able to pick out a small number of key words that represent the main subject matter and message.

intonation

The musical pattern of speech.

schwa

The name for the most common sound in English. It is a weak, unstressed sound and it occurs in many words.

dogme ELT

The name of a loose collective of teachers who challenge what they consider to be an over-reliance on materials, including published coursebooks, in current language teaching. Based on DOGME 95, a group of Danish filmmakers who vowed to make films using minimal means for maximum effect. Proponents say they are not so much anti-materials as they are pro-learner, and thus align themselves with other forms of learner-centered instruction and critical pedagogy.

interference

The negative influence of one language whilst learning another language.

frequency

The number of times a word or language item occurs in a text or a corpus.

ellipsis

The omission in speaking or writing of individual words, or parts of a sentence, which are not needed to convey the meaning. For example, it can be used to avoid repetition (e.g. 'Got a pen?' 'Yes, I have.').

developmental sequence

The order in which certain features of a langauge are acquired in language learning. Also called developmental stages or order of acquisition.

Order of acquisition

The order in which grammar/language items are thought to be acquired.

short-term memory

The part of the memory with limited capacity which can only hold information for a short period of time.

intrapersonal intelligence

The people are often introspective, prefer working alone, and are very self-aware. Example: A student with strong intrapersonal intelligence may not like working in groups, or save certain kinds of work for home.

Reciever

The person being adressed in conversation/ exchange/discourse.

Nuclear stress

The place in an utterance where the major pitch movement begins, marking the focal point of the message.

parataxis

The placing of clauses or phrases one after another, without words to indicate coordination or subordination, as in Tell me, how are you

Backwash

The positive or negative impact of a test on classroom teaching.

priming

The process by which a word gathers particular associations through repeated encounters.

accomodation

The process of "squeezing together" the syllables that occur between stressed syllables, so that each segment of an utterance takes the same time to produce.

Ephenthesis

The process of adding vowels to make possible syllables out of impossible consonant sequences, for example /helep/ for help.

acquisition

The process of picking up a language without formal instruction and without a sustained conscious effort to learn the language.

induction

The process of working out rules on the basis of examples. Also called discovery learning.

parsing

The process which involves dividing up sentences into their constituent parts, and identifying each part.

affective filter

The psychological barrier that allows input to be filtered through to a language processing mechanism. A low filter has little anxiety increasing comprehension and attention.

rhetorical functions

The purpose or intention of a particular sentence within written discourse. Example: comparing and contrasting

rapport

The quality of relationship within the classroom.

bottom-up processing

The reader is decoding the language itself.

rhythm

The regular repetition of stress in time.

synonymy

The relationship of similarity of meaning.

accuracy order

The relative accuracy of grammatical forms in learner language. Example: Learners are often more accurate in plural "s" than in using the possessive "'s"

substitution

The replacing of a noun phrase or a clause by a single word in order to avoid repetition or to make a text more cohesive. E.g. I need a pen. Have you got one?

Substitution

The replacing of a noun phrase or a clause by a single word in order to avoid repetition or to make a text more cohesive.

intonation

The rise and fall of the voice when speaking.

cognitive psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

rubric

The set of instructions (usually written) that tells students what they have to do for a test or an exercise.

word

The smallest language item that can occur on its own.

phoneme

The smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language traditionally identified as consonants or vowels. /p/ and /b/ are phonemes in English, the biggest difference between them is the aspiration after /p/.

morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit of words/ grammar - analagous to the phoneme in phonology. "disinterested" as a word consists of 3 morphemes. "interest" as the "root": "dis-" as a meaningful prefix and "-ed" as a suffix, giving grammatical information ("part of speech"). ";interest" is a "free morpheme" - it exists on its own; it is "free-standing". "dis-" and "-ed" are "bound morphemes"; they do not function as independent words. They can only serve to give extra, defining information about a "free morpheme".

phone

The smallest unit of human sound which is recognizable but not classified. E.g. [p], [i:], [t] all three of which are found in 'peat'.

context of use

The social, psychological and physical setting in which a communicative event takes place.

suprasegmentals

The sounds of a language that involve the melody and rhythm of the langauge, rather than the pronunciation or individual sounds. Example: stress and intonation

Dominant speaker

The speaker leading the discussion, typically using more discourse markers and having more to say.

prosodic features

The stress, rhythm, and intonation along with tempo, loudness and voice quality of speech.

onset syllable

The stressed syllable before the tonic syllable Example: She LIVES in LONDON. (LIVES is the onset syllable; LON is the tonic syllable).

Affective Filter Hypothesis

The student will learn better if s/he feels well disposed to the language and to the learning process. In such cases his Affective Filter is low, and so more input can wash over him. If the filter is high (negative attitude to the language, stress, linguistic difficulties), the filter will be high and so little - if any - input will be attended to.

phonology

The study of a sound system of a particular language, which describes the abstract system that allows the speakers of a language to distinguish meaning from mere verbal noise.

phonology

The study of how speech sounds are produced, used and distinguished in a specific language.

discourse analysis

The study of how stretches of language (spoken or written) achieve both cohesion and coherence.

morphology

The study of of words, their internal structure and the changes they undergo when altered to form new words (word formation - lexical morphology) or when they hav edifferent roles within a sentence (grammatical inflection - inflectional morphology).

phonology

The study of phonemes, intonation, word stress, sentence stress, rhythm and aspects of connected speech.

phonetics

The study of speech sounds and sound production in general.

pragmatics

The study of the real use of language in relation to context, language user and topic.

end-weight

The tendency to place new information in the latter part of a clause or sentence.

scaffolding

The term is used metaphorically to describe the temporary interactional support that is given to learners while their language system is 'under construction'.

interlanguage

The term used to describe the grammatical system that a learner creates in the course of learning another language. It is neither their first language system, nor the target language system, but occupies a transitional point between the two. Lower level Ss saying 'I want to go to a magazine' instead of a shop.

indirect test

The testing of underlying knowledge and competencies that make up the basic or advanced requirements of the skill.

critical age theory

The theory that there is a period during which language can be acquired rapidly and perfectly and after which it is no longer possible to achieve the same level Example: age 2 to puberty

behaviourism

The theory that viewed learning as a matter of habit formation, where habits are formed when the learner's responses to external stimuli are positively reinforced (e.g. in language learning: pattern drills with positive feedback from the teacher to correct answers). Skinner. Language is acquired behaviour. Imitation, repetition, positive & negative reinforcement.

Face Theory

The theory we attempt to "save face" in discourse, to keep status or achieve respect.

Universal Grammar

The theory which claims that every speaker of a language knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within set limits

Universal Grammar

The theory which claims that every speaker of a language knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within set limits.

learning style

The typical approach (including methods, activities, procedures etc) which an individual tends to favour / find most useful in order to acquire information or skills. Eg : Someone with a theorist learning style (Honey and Mumford) like to see clear rules and explanations for what s/he is learning

cohesion

The use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text, either spoken or written.

cohesion

The use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text, either spoken or written. These include: reference words e.g. this, the, it; linkers, e.g. However and topic-related lexis.

Principled eclecticism

The use of various teaching styles in a discriminating manner as required by learner needs and styles, favoured by contemporary course book writers.

standard variety

The variety of a given language which is typically used in formal writing and formal public speaking, incl. broadcasting. The standard variety of widely spoken languages may be different in different places. Each country has it's own standard variety, as well as numerous ethnic, regional and socioeconomic varieties. Example: Australian English and American English

back-channeling

The verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention, surprise etc Example: really, uh-huh, yeah

back-channelling

The verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention, surprise etc. (e.g. 'really', 'uh-huh', 'yeah')

back-channelling

The verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention, surprise etc. (eg really, uh-huh, yeah)

Lexicon

The vocabulary of a language.

citation form

The way a word is pronounced if you say it on its own. This is often different from the typical in-sentence pronunciation in fluent connected speech.

register

The way in which language use varies depending on context. The forms we select differ depending on cultural, social and contextual factors.

consequential validity

The way in which the implementation of a test can affect the interpretability of test scores; the practical consequences of the introduction of a test

deixis

The way language "points to" spatial, temporal, and personal features of the context. e.g.: YOU have been HERE for three weeks NOW.

deixis

The way language points to spatial, temporal and personal features of the context. For example, I have been here three weeks now, the referents of I, here and now cannot be identified without knowing the context.

appraisal

The way speakers and writers use language to express personal attitude to what is being said or written

schemata

The way that knowledge about a topic or a concept is represented and organized in the mind. It helps us make sense of experience, and hence they are crucial in comprehension. For example, the sentence 'At check-in they told me my flight had boarded' will not make much sense to anyone who does not have an 'air travel schema'.

discourse

The way that language - either spoken or written - is used for communicative effect in real-world situation.

aspect

The way the speaker's 'view' of an event is expressed by the verb phrase, regardless of the time of the event itself. It concerned with the internal nature of the event, eg, whether it has duration or not, whether it is completed or not, whether it is repetitive or not, or whether it is connected to the time of speaking (speech time) or not.

syntax

The way the words are ordered in a sentence/clause Example: She likes chocolate. She doesn't like chocolate. Does she like chocolate?

script

The ways in which we expect things to happen. E.g. catching a bus in London used to follow this sequence: 1) wait at stop 2) board bus 3) sit down 4) pay conductor when he or she approaches. Nowadays, the London bus script goes like this: 1) wait a stop 2) board bus 3) pay driver 4) sit down.

Accent

The ways in which words are pronounced.

nominalization

There are the key words, such as way, problem, answer, situation, process that can either encapsulate what has gone before or set up expectations as what is to come. E.g. Each parent passes on certain characteristics to its offspring. This (process) is called heredity.

syntagmatic relations

These are concerned with how words combine to form text, as in collocations Example: his injured leg or his damaged car

Taboo Language

These are words and phrases that are considered inappropriate in some contexts

variational features

These can be learned any time in the learner's development Example: vocabulary

Cuisenaire rods

They are small wooden rods of different lengths and colours. They are used as a classroom resource to visually represent various areas of language. They are used in the Silent Way, a teaching methodology associated with humanism.

aim

Things that you hope will be achieved during a lesson or sequence of lessons.

genre approach

This approach identifies that writing is a social activity with particular power relations and social conventions. It explicitly identifies the social and linguistic conventions of different types of texts.• It usually includes the following:• familiarisation, controlled writing, guided writing and then free writing

Input Hypothesis

This does not necessarily mean everything is comprehended, but the learner should be constantly exposed to reading and listening and this is most beneficial if it is a notch or two above the learner‟s „level‟.

finite form/verb

This is a form of a verb that matches the form of other words in a sentence. They have present and past forms, plus non-finite which comprise inifinitves and present participles. They usually follow other verbs and are not marked by tense. Example: 'The news would have shocked the world.'

non-finite form/verb

This is either a participle or an infinitive and so does not show a particular tense. Example: 'He recalled sending the email.'

prominence

This is part of sentence stress and it shows what the speaker feels important in a sentence by making it longer, higher or louder. It can take into consideration shared knowledge between the speaker and the listener.

function

This is the communicative purpose or use of an utterance, which may be at odds with its form. For example, the function of Would you mind...? In Would you mind lending me £20? and Would you mind turning the noise down? Is very different; in the first, the function is that of requesting, in the second, commanding, or compelling.

error analysis

This is the field of applied linguistics which collects and assesses learners' errors in order to analyse what learners get wrong, why, and what we need to do in classroom in order to minimise those errors.

Hedging

This is the general term where a speaker wants to avoid speaking directly. It is used to soften the blow, or going straight to the point.

False Start

This is when the speaker begins an utterance, then stops and either repeats or reformulates it. Sometimes called selfcorrection.

avoidance behaviour

This occurs when a learner avoids using language, which is difficult or poorly remembered.

achievement behaviour

This occurs when a learner compensates for language deficiency by using a communication strategy

noticing

This occurs when a learner pays conscious attention to an item of language, paying special attention to its form, use and meaning. Example: A learner might make an error in the use of a preposition, but "notice" its correct use by another learner, or in an authentic text. This might allow them to begin to use it correctly.

Schematic Knowledge

This refers to knowledge that the listener already has about the 'world' and about certain types of text. Listeners are able to predict and interpret language by analogy with past similar experiences. In other words they have a range of stereotyped expectations of particular people, places, situations and text types. Background knowledge Factual knowledge Socio-cultural knowledge Procedural knowledge How language is used in discourse

polysemy

This refers to the case where one word has more than one related meaning.

silent period

This refers to the fact that children learning their first language go through a lengthy period simply listening before they say their first words.

systemic knowledge

This relates to grammar, lexis and sounds. In order to make sense of what we hear, we need to be able to recognise sounds, discriminate between sounds e.g. know the difference between 'girl' and 'gull', not be put off by features of connected speech such as elision, assimilation, weak forms etc. or different accents and to be able to identify (and interpret) stress and intonation patterns. Knowledge of the language system Semantic Systemic Syntactic Phonological

cognitive theory

This sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies.

deductive approach

This starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice. It is a teacher-centred approach to presenting new content. Example: The form and use of the third conditional is explained to learners, then they have a gap-fill exercise to complete, then prepare their own examples.

Natural Order Hypothesis

This states that there is an order in which structures are acquired by learners, irrespective of L1, aptitude or age (learners learn -ing as a progressive form, then plurals, then to be and so on) which is at odds with the order of language presented in coursebooks.

uptake

This term is sometimes used in a general sense to refer to what a learner notices and/or retains in second language input or instruction.

Achievement test

This test evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study programme.

overgeneralisation

This type of error is as a result of trying to use a rule or pattern in a context where it does not belong. Example: putting an -ed ending on an irregular verb: buyed instead of bought

formative assessment

This usually refers to assessment of learners that is carried out during a course, as an ongoing process, with the aim of supporting language learning. Example: progress test

developmental features

Those aspects of a language which develop in a particular sequence, regardless of input variation, learner motivation or instructional intervention.

notion

Topic.

turn-taking

Turn-taking is a type of organization in conversation where participants speak one at a time in alternating turns.

consonant cluster

Two or more consonants spoken together without an intervening vowel E.g. spoon (sp), blue (bl), tree (tr).

Collocation

Two or more words that co-occur in a language more often that would be expected by chance.

collocation

Two or more words which commonly occur together, can be adj + noun; verb + noun or adverb + verb Example: toss a salad

minimal pair

Two words that are identical except for one sound, revealing which phonemes are semantically significant

minimal pair

Two words which differ from each other in pronunciation by only one phoneme e.g. met, mat; pin, bin.

UG

Universal Grammar. A theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest without being taught.

interactional language

Used mainly for the purpose of social communication.

collective noun

Used to define/describe a group of objects. Example: a flock of seagulls

face validity

Used to say that a test is acceptable to a learner, in that it meets the learner's expectations of what a test should be like.

top-down processing

Using either pre-existing knowledge of discourse or topic/culture/social norms to understand (reading/listening) texts. E.g. when reading a text about New York, the reader creates a mental picture/brainstorms/thinks of related ideas before reading the text e.g. yellow cabs, The Statue of Liberty, crowds of people /any valid example

content and language integrated learning, CLIL

Using the medium of English to teach a subject such as geography, natural science or history, to learners whose first language is not English.

world Englishes

Varieties of English spoken and written in many different countries around the world.

cognitive strategies

Various mental processes the learner uses to work on, internalise, and automatise new language. These include repetition, organising new language, summarising meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. All of these strategies involve deliberate manipulation of language to improve learning. Example: A learner remembers new words by visualising them represented in a memorable or ridiculous situation. This makes it easier and faster to recall these words.

auxiliary verbs

Verbs which are used to support another verb in a sentence and have a grammatical function such as showing tense, aspect, person, voice and mood Example: be, do, have, will, may, can

auxiliary verbs

Verbs which are used to support another verb in a sentence and have a grammatical function such as showing tense, aspect, person, voice and mood e.g. be, do, have, will, may, can.

VLE

Virtual Learning Environment. A computer-based system for managing lessons and courses. It will typically allow T and Ss to upload and download documents, to set and use exercises, to share files, to interact, and to set/hand in/mark assignments.

VAK

Visual Auditory Kinaesthetic. The three main channels via which we receive input from the outside world. NLP suggests that we have a "sensory preference" for one channel over others. Some educators argue that our lessons should match the sensory preferences of our learners.

VAK

Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic, refers to one model of learning styles. It is comprised of three different learning styles, or preferred ways of learning. Example: Dunn and Dunn's model of learning styles

Needs Analysis

Ways of finding out what students need or want to study on a language course. Example: using questionnaires or interviews)

weak forms

Weak forms are syllable sounds that become unstressed in connected speech and are often then pronounced as a schwa. Example: "What do you want to do this evening?" In this sentence the first 'do' is a weak form and the second is stressed.

uptake

What learners report to have learnt from a language lesson. Typically this does not match what the teacher intended to teach.

Implied purpose/ Overt Purpose

What you say and what you mean

deductive learning

When a rule or generalization is first presented to the learners, and then they go on to apply it in practice activities. E.g. T: The past tense of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed to the base form of the verb, so, walk - walked, start - started, climb - climbed. OK, can you turn these verbs into the past? Clean? S: cleaned T: Good. Work? etc.

content validity

When a test has been shown to test what it sets out to test. Example: If you want to test grammar structure, then it doesn't make sense to give Ss a reading comprehension task.

instrusive /j/

When a word begins with a vowel sound, it links with the word before. This sound is inserted between flatter vowels eg. a free evening.

intrusive /w/

When a word begins with a vowel sound, it links with the word before. This sound is inserted between two rounded vowels, for example between : you are / you eat. It can also occur within a word, such as cooperate.

Overlapping.

When one speaker's utterance has not finished before the next one begins.

intelligibility

When other people can understand what you are saying. In the teaching of pronunciation, it is generally accepted that ____________ should be the standard to aim for. This is partly realistic: few adult learners of a second language will achieve native-like pronunciation in that language. One of the factors that affect intelligibility is the speaker's accent.

Tautology

When two synonyms are placed consecutively or very close together for effect. eg. the reason why

intrusion

When two vowels appear alongside each other in (rapid) spoken English there is often an additional consonant sound created. Typically /j/ or /w/; in some varieties of English an extra /r/. Examples: "high alititude" may sound like "high yalltitude" "low interest" may sound like "lo winterest" "four aces" may sound like "four races".

inflection

When we put something on the end of the root of the verb eg third person 's' or 'ed' ending in past simple.

holistic scoring

Where a single score is assigned to writing or speaking samples on the basis of a global impressionistic assessment of the learners' performance. Example: using band descriptors

word boundary

Where one word ends and the next one begins, especially in connected speech.

Chaining

Where speakers continue discourse by linking there utterances

inductive learning

Where the learners themselves generalize the rule from examples, before practising it. E.g. 1. I have been here since six o'clock. 2. Tom and Anna have been married for six years. 3. It hasn't rained since last September. 4. I've been waiting for Dearlv an hour. At various points, learners can be asked to formulate a rule. Or they can complete further examples in order to test their grasp of the rule.

cohesive devices

Words and expressions which help to link ideas within and between sentences in written texts, and within and between utterances in spoken texts. Cohesion refers to the organization of sentences and ideas in your essay working together as a whole within their paragraphs. 'For example', 'In conclusion', 'however' and 'moreover'.

Colloquial Expressions

Words and phrases used in everyday speech but avoided in formal writing.

Discourse Markers

Words and phrases used in speaking and writing to 'signpost' discourse. Discourse markers do this by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing attitude, and generally controlling communication.

compound words

Words created by combining two or more words either written as one word, or hyphenated or as separate words. E.g. washing machine, website, mother-in-law.

Phatic speech

Words or phrases that have a social function and are not meant literally. For example, "You're welcome" after hearing thank you doesn't literally mean the hearer is welcome.

collocation

Words that frequently occur together. Can be grammatical (collocate with specific prepositions: "account for") or lexical: "narrow escape."

false friend

Words that may look or sound the same in the target language and in the student's first language, but that have two different meanings.

meronym

Words that relate to parts of something - the body is the superordinate, the face is an hyponym, cheek, mouth, nose is a _____.

cognate

Words which have the same or very similar forms and meaning in two languages. For example, a German verb finden and an English verb find, German noun die Name and English name, German das Land and English land.

polysemes/polysemy

Words with the same form and a related meaning or sense. Example: head (part of body); head of state (leader)

Back- Channel Features

Words, phrases and non-verbal utterances used by a listener to give feedback to a speaker that the message is being followed and understood. Very often used in phone conversation. e.g. 'I see', 'oh', 'uh huh', 'really'

WM

Working Memory. The cognitive space in which we actively process new information or information that is currently in focus. Also called short-term memory.

compound words

a (new) word created by combining 2 or more words Example: memory stick, brand name, well-respected

The Silent Way

a METHOD of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makes use of gesture, mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisinière rods (wooden sticks of different lengths and colours) that the teacher uses to help the students to talk. The method takes its name from the relative silence of the teacher using these techniques.( Longmans dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics p486)

corpus

a body of utterances, as words or sentences, assumed to be representative of and used for lexical, grammatical, or other linguistic analysis.

style

a characteristic way of conveying information Example: humourous, journalistic

Dictogloss

a classroom dictation activity where learners are required to reconstruct a short text by listening and noting down key words, which are then used as a base for reconstruction. Example: Learners discuss the sea. The teacher then explains the task, and reads a short text on the sea to the class, who just listen. The teacher reads the text again, and the learners take notes. In groups, the learners then reconstruct the text.

substitution drill

a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves the teacher first modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. The teacher then substitutes one or more key words, or changes the prompt, and the learners say the new structure. Example: Teacher: I have a new car (phone) Student: I have a new phone, Teacher: Mary Student: Mary has a new phone.

noun clause

a clause that is used in the same way as a noun or a pronoun. Example: I know WHAT HE WAS DOING THERE.

relative clause

a clause which tells us more about a noun or a noun phrase. There are two types, defining and non-defining. Defining add essential information to tell us what we are talking about, non-defining add extra information. Example: 'They demolished the house WHERE I USED TO LIVE.'

information gap activity

a communicative activity in which students ask and answer questions to find our information they do not know or is missing Example: spot the differences

Utterance

a complete unit of talk, bounded by the speaker's silence.

coordinating conjunction

a conjunction (like 'and' or 'or') that connects two identically constructed grammatical constituents

bilabial

a consonant made with both lips Example: /b/ /m/ /p/ /w/

alveolar plosive

a consonant sound made by a sudden release of air from between the tongue and the alveolar/tooth ridge. can be voiced (lenis/d/) or unvoiced (fortis/t/)

plosive

a consonant sound made by blocking the air and then quickly releasing it. Example: /p/ pillow

glottal stop

a consonant sound produced when the flow of air is stopped by the glottis closing, and then released. Many languages use glottal stops, often much more than in English. Example: The sound /t/ in 'cat' is often a glottal stop sound.

fricative

a consonant sound, produced by bringing the mouth into position to block the passage of the airstream, but not making complete closure, so that air moving through the mouth generates audible friction. Example: /f/ or /v/

text

a continuous piece of written or spoken language, classified into genres Example: encyclopedia entry

pedagogic grammar

a description of how to use the grammar of a language to communicate, for people wanting to learn the target language. It contains assumptions about how learners learn, follow certain linguistic theories in their descriptions, and are written for a specific target audience. Example: Grammar in Use is a pedagogic grammar book, as it helps learners use the grammar of English for communication.

backchaining

a drilling technique intended to help learners pronounce difficult sound groups, words or phrases. The teacher begins with the last sound, which the learners repeat, and then gradually builds up the word or phrase by going 'back' to the beginning. Example: "n't you?" "thirty, arent't you?" You're thirty, aren't you?"

assimilation

a feature of connected speech when a sound is modified by a neighbouring sound. Example: ten mice /tem mais/

intrusion

a feature of connected speech. When two words are said together, an extra sound is sometimes placed between them in order to make them easier to say. Example: 'I am not happy' becomes "I yam not happy" with an intrusive /j/ sound

Applied linguistics

a field of study that looks at how linguistics can help understand real-life problems in areas such as psychology, sociology and education. It can be compared with theoretical linguistics, which looks at areas such as morphology, phonology and lexis. Areas of applied linguistics of interest to teachers of languages include language acquisition, corpus studies and sociolinguistics.

tenses

a grammatical category which is used to indicate the time at which an action happens by changing the form of the finite verb. English has two: past and present, e.g. he walked and he walks

tense

a grammatical category which is used to indicate the time at which an action happens, by changing the form of the finite verb. Example: past (he walked), present (he walks)

determiner

a grammatical unit which precedes a noun phrase and modifies the noun phrase.There are different classes which limit the noun in different ways, such as quantifiers, articles and possessives (eg some, the, her)

word family

a group of words sharing the same root but different affixes. Example: love, lovely, loving, unloved

lingua franca

a language that is used widely outside the country where it is spoken as a native language. Example: Latin and Greek in earlier times. The current one in international business is English.

syllable-timed language

a language whose syllables take approximately equal amounts of time to pronounce. Example: French

observation checklist

a list of things that an observer is going to look at when observing a class. This list may have been prepared by the observer or the teacher or both. Example: The teacher has asked the observer to look at the issue of timing so the observer's checklist includes these questions: - Does the teacher follow the timings on the lesson plan? - Does the teacher tell learners how long they have for an activity? - Does the teacher tell learners when time is nearly up?

audio-lingualism

a method of foreign language teaching where the emphasis is on learning grammatical and phonological structure, especially for speaking and listening. It is based on behaviourism and so relies on formation as a basis for learning, through a great deal of mechanical repetition. Example: The teacher spends most of the time in the class drilling the learners on grammatical and phonological structures. Error correction is also important.

skimming

a method of rapidly moving your eyes over text with the purpose of getting only the main ideas and general overview of the content.

intrinsic motivation

a motivation to learn that comes from an internal force such as interest in language learning or the desire for further personal development in general Example: Often high level learners show this as they continue to study a language beyond any practical need.

open pair

a pair of learners working together with the rest of the group observing. Example: The learners are working on developing telephone conversations using prompts. The teacher asks one pair to continue working while the rest of the group watches.

clause

a phrase that contains a verb and normally a subject. It can be a full sentence by itself or be part of a sentence. Example: 'The rain fell heavily' is an example of a clause that is a full sentence. 'It fell on the land, which quickly flooded' is an example of a clause as parts of a sentence, in this case a relative clause.

scheme of work

a plan that defines work to be done in the classroom. Example: Before starting a project, a group works on defining a scheme of work for it.

cloze

a practice exercise where learners have to replace words missing from a text. These are removed at regular intervals, for example every five words. This contrasts with a gap-fill exercise, where words are chosen and removed in order to practise a specific language point. Example: The third sentence above as a cloze would be: 'This contrasts with a ______ exercise, where words are ______ and removed in order ______ practise a specific language ______'.

Negotiation of meaning

a process that speakers go through to reach a clear understanding of each other. Example: Asking for clarification

cataphoric reference

a reference to something which occurs later in the text. Example: THAT's what I want, a warm jumper.

paradigmatic relations

a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure or between one element present and the others absent Example: The ___ had a thorn in its paw. We can choose "lion" and replace it with "dog"

reduced relative clause

a relative clause that is not marked by an explicit relative pronoun or complementizer such as who, which or that. Example: "This is the man I SAW."

field-dependent learners

a relative inability to distinguish detail from other information around it. Example These learners often work well in teams as they tend to be better at interpersonal relationships.

cline

a scale of language items that goes from one extreme to another, for example, from positive to negative, or from weak to strong. Example: The teacher asks learners to map frequency adverbs from never, 0%, to always, 100%.

descriptive grammar

a set of rules about language based on how it is actually used. There is no right or wrong language. Example: A descriptive grammar might include 'He goes...', meaning 'He said'.

prescriptive grammar

a set of rules about language based on how people think language should be used. In this case, there is right and wrong language. Example: 'He goes...', meaning 'He said', is incorrect language.

generative grammar

a set of rules that tries to include all examples of correct language and predict how these will be formed. Example: The tree structure is important in the context-free generative grammar model. It describes phrases in terms of constituent grammatical parts.

Diglossia

a situation where a language that has two forms, one a 'higher' and more prestigious form used by educated speakers in formal situations, and the other a 'lower', vernacular form used more commonly. Although English is not a diglossic language, it does have a wide variety of dialects, colloquial forms and levels of formality. Example Greek, Arabic and Tamil are diglossic languages.

modal verbs

a small group of verbs which convey the speaker's opinion about or attitude towards what is being expressed. Example: 'could', 'should', 'might' and 'may'.

fricitive

a sound made by forcing air out of your mouth through a narrow opening that is made using the lips, teeth, or tongue Example: /θ/

nasal

a sound produced by air passing through the nose. Examole: /n/ nose or /m/ mouth

pyramid discussion

a speaking activity where learners form progressively larger groups as they carry out a speaking task, which normally requires each grouping to reach agreement before joining another group. Example: In small groups, the learners have to agree on the most important of the five senses. They then join with another group and have to agree again, and so on, until the whole class is involved in one discussion.

free practice

a stage in a lesson where learners produce language using the target content freely. Example: The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the present passive form. They have practised using the structure by completing sentences using cues, and now they practise the form more freely by describing a process they have chosen.

restricted use

a stage where learners do controlled practice of the target language. Example: Learners have seen examples of the structure 'If I were you...' They then look at the form and practise making it using prompts.

notional-functional syllabus

a syllabus primarily organized around functions and notions Example: apologising (function); time and duration (notion)

methodology

a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt. Example: Direct Method

authentic task

a task that native speakers of a language would do in everyday life. When learners do an authentic task they are doing something that puts real communicative demands on them. Example: The learners need to plan a trip around their country for a group of students on an exchange trip.

maze

a task where learners have to make decisions about what to do at certain points, in order to continue towards a final goal. Example: The aim of the activity is for learners to successfully get the job they want. They have to make decisions about areas such as their CVs, how to prepare for the interview, and what to say when talking to their new employer.

counselling

a teacher talking with a learner about their learning and advising them. It can be done in a formal or informal way, and integrated into the beginning or end of a language course. Example: At the end of the course, each learner has 15 minutes of counselling with the teacher. They discuss the learner's strengths and weaknesses, progress, plans and get feedback about the course.

Task-Based Teaching

a teaching approach based on the use of communicative and interactive tasks as the central units for the planning and delivery of instruction. Such tasks are said to provide an effective basis for language learning since they: a involve meaningful communication and interaction, and b negotiation c enable the learners to acquire grammar as a result of engaging in authentic language use.

Anchoring

a technique used to manage emotional states in Neuro-Linguistic Programming. It involves setting up an association with a desired mental state such as happiness or calm by creating an anchor stimuli to that state. Anchoring is one of various NLP techniques which have applications not only in terms of managing thinking and feeling but also as classroom activities to support other learning aims. Example: Hearing a song and remembering a sad experience, or smelling a particular food and recalling a time in childhood, are both examples of anchors.

field-independent learners

a tendency to separate details from the surrounding context. Example: These learners tend to rely less on the teacher or other learners for support.

superordinate

a term for an 'umbrella' item of lexis which subsumes a range of more specific items, e.g. fruit in relation to apple, orange, pear

De-contextualised language

a term that describes language that is presented as an isolated item rather than with a meaningful and real context. This means that the teacher and learners focus on the target language only, often through an example at sentence level. Example: In young children, the ability to recognise and understand de-contextualised language is one milestone in the development of language.

genre

a term used to classify types of spoken or written discourse. These are normally classified by content, language, purpose and form. Example: formal letters

superordinate

a tern for an 'umbrella' item of lexis which subsumes a range of more specific items. Example: fruit, in relation to: apple, orange, pair

Direct Test

a test employing tasks which replicate real-life activities, e.g. role-playing a job interview, writing a letter of complaint, or reading and completing an application form

objective test

a test that has right or wrong answers and so can be marked objectively. Example: True or false questions based on a text

criterion referenced testing

a test that provides a basis for determining a candidate's level of knowledge and skills in relation to a well-defined domain of content. Example: Advanced placement exams

placement test

a test used to identify a student's level or what students know. Example: the Oxford placement test

integrative test

a test which combines a number of language elements. Example: writing an essay - grammar structures, lexis, text layout, register etc.

connectionism

a theory of knowledge (language) as a complex system of units that become interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together. The more often units are heard or seen together, the more likely it is that the presence of one will lead to the activation of the other.

Phonemic script

a transcription of the sounds of a word or phrase, using phonemic symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Example: The phrase 'please do it' can be transcribed as /pli:zdu:wit/ (without stress marks), showing an intrusive /w/ sound.

extended speaking

a type of speaking activity that involves learners speaking for longer periods of time and in a freer form than controlled speaking practice. It offers an opportunity to practise all the skills needed for communication. Example: The learners have been reading about superstitions in different countries and they now share their opinions on causes in an open class discussion.

register

a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example the language used in the pub between two friends is not the same as the formal language used when signing contracts

intransitive verb

a verb (or verb construction) that does not take an object

transitive verb

a verb (or verb construction) that requires an object in order to be grammatical

participles

a verb form used in passive sentences and to form perfect and progressive aspect. There are two participles in English, the present participle (-ing) and the past participle (-ed). Example: 'I'm leaving'

copula verb

a verb that connects the subject to the complement. They are sometimes called linking verbs.

modal auxiliary verb

a verb which expresses the mood/attitude or modifies the meaning of the main verb in a sentence. Example: could, may, should

stative verb

a verb which is/can be used to describe a condition, state, belief, emotion, possession or sense Example: I KNOW it's true

approach

a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learnt. An approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or techniques to help learners learn. Example: The communicative approach is the best-known current approach to language teaching

meronym

a whole-part relationship where X is a part of Y. eg wheel to car.

acronym

a word formed from the initial letters of a multi-word name Example: UNO (United Nations Organisation)

pejorative

a word or phrase that is used to express contempt. Example: 'idiot'

discourse marker

a word or phrase that signals the function of the information that will follow/has just been given Example: well, anyway, I mean

preposition

a word that connects a noun, pronoun or noun phrase to other parts of a clause. Example: 'We went from here to there in 10 days'.

particle

a word that has a grammatical function but does not fit into the main parts of speech (i.e. noun, verb, adverb). Particles do not change. Usually a preposition or adverb. Example 'I'm going TO Spain next week'.

syntactic expletive

a word that performs a syntactic role but contributes nothing to meaning "IT is important that you work hard for the exam." "THERE are ten desks here." "IT is raining."

coordinating conjunction

a word which connects two or more items (words, main clauses, sentences) of equal syntactic importance Example: and, but

mechanical activities

activities learners do which are not meaningful but which may be necessary in order to have the tools to use language. Example: Learners thinking about the position of the tongue in the pronunciation of certain sounds

affective factors

emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative or positive effect. Negative affective factors are called affective filters and are an important idea in theories about second language acquisition. Example: A learner's attitude to English, to the teacher, to other learners in the group and to herself/himself are all affective factors and have impact on how well she/he learns.

stress

emphasis given to certain syllables in words. In English, stress is produced with a longer, louder and higher pitched sound than unstressed sounds. Example: The word 'baNAna' has stress on the second syllable.

pre-systemic error

errors which occur prior to the learner's being exposed to the language item in questions.

summative assessment

evaluates a learner's progress up to that point and provides a summary of where they are. Example: At the end of the course, the teacher gives a test to see if the learners know and can use what they have learnt.

achievement test

evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study programme. Example:The learners have finished units 1 - 4 of a coursebook and the teacher now gives them an achievement test based on what they have seen in these units. The test is taken from the teacher's book.

verb tense

expresses time, past, present, future Example: present perfect tense of "go" 'The cat has gone home.'

prosodic features

features that appear when we put sounds together in connected speech. Example: Intonation, stress and rhythm

catenation

final consonants and initial vowel linking Example: The two words an + apple become 'anapple'

idiom

fixed or semifixed expression in which the meaning is not literal and cannot be duduced from its individual words. Example: feeling under the weather

process writing

focuses learners on the different stages and aspects of writing as they have been observed in good writers, and spend time on each, led by the teacher. These are; planning, drafting, revising, editing and considering the audience. Example: The learners are at the editing stage of their writing work so spend time identifying problems and correcting them, with the teacher helping.

process-oriented syllabus

focuses on the skills and processes involved in learning language. Example: A process-writing syllabus would focus on the processes writers use to complete their tasks, such as collecting information, organising ideas, drafting and revising

product-oriented syllabus

focuses on things learnt at the end of the learning process (outcomes) rather than the process itself. Example: lexical syllabus as it focuses on lexical outcome.

extension task

further activity around the aims of a class but after it, often as homework. They can provide more, or different, forms of practice. They can also make classroom learning more meaningful, as they give learners a chance to personalise language and content. Example: The learners have been reading about extreme sports and as an extension task they research other examples, choose one to explore further, and present their findings to the group.

chunking

grouping words together, with a pause, or a change in pitch, or a lengthening of a syllable to signal the end of the chunk.

proficiency

how good a learner is at the language they are learning. Example: Cambridge Examinations test how good a candidate's overall ability in English is.

sensory acruity

how good your senses are at doing what they should do. In the context of NLP, it refers to the ability to use our senses to make accurate observations about ourselves or other people. Example: NLP recommends looking at eye movements, changes in skin colour and breathing, and postures in order to get information about what is happening to other people.

fluency

how well a learner communicates meaning rather than how many mistakes they make in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Example: A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of mistakes).

Natural Approach

i+1 is associated with this approach (- the input hypothesis). It is one of Krashed and Terrell's five hypotheses. It states a learner doesn't necessarily have to comprehend everything, but they should be constantly exposed to language and that this is most beneficial if it is slightly above the learner's level.

word stress

indicates which syllables are stressed - or emphasised - in a word. Example: 'Photograph' has word stress Ooo (stress on the first syllable), 'photographer' has word stress oOoo (stress on the second syllable).

aspect

information described by a verb that is not related just to tense and time. For example, aspect shows whether an action is unfinished or not. It can be compared to tense, which refers to the verb's past or present form, and time, which is whether the verb refers to past, present or future. Example: In English, aspects include the simple, the continuous and the perfect.

guided writing

involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task. The aims of the task are based on what they have previously been learning about the writing process. It aims to support learners in this psychologically and cognitively difficult activity. Example: The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and compare ideas. They are now writing a short discursive essay on the subject of animal experimentation. The teacher is working with the groups to guide them in the correct use of the target language.

intensive reading/listening

involves learners reading or listening in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. Example: The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order.

extensive reading

involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills. Example: A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read and listen.

informal assessment

involves observing the learners as they learn and evaluating them from the data gathered. Example: The teacher has carried out informal assessment of the learners during speaking activities throughout the course by keeping notes about how well individuals are doing in speaking and uses the data gathered to evaluate the learners at the end of the course.

cross-linguistic influence

is a generic term for different ways in which different language systems in the mind interact and affect either the linguistic performance or the linguistic development (or both) of the individual concerned (Sharwood Smith 1983). This typically refers to different languages. Example: the influence of Korean on a Korean native speaker who is learning Japanese or French.

ARC

is one way to describe three possible stages of a class. It stands for Authentic Use, Restricted Use and Clarification and Focus. Example: could be used to describe the staging of a grammar presentation lesson which starts with an explanation of rules.

demonstrative adjective

it shows whether something is near or far from the speaker Example: this, that, these, those

lexical field

items which belong to one topic area and may be different parts of speech. Example: fruit, tree, farm, orange, tractor, farmer

systemic knowledge

knowledge of the language system.

agglutinative language

language in which each affix carries one item of grammatical meaning

controlled language

language that the teacher gives the class that is in some way changed to suit the level or the aims of the lesson. Example: A teacher may prepare a written biography of a famous person that only uses present simple tense, for an elementary class.

fillers

language used by speakers to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses, to hold the floor, gain thinking time Example: er. um, well, you know

stress-timed language

language where the stressed syllables are said at approximately regular intervals, and unstressed syllables shorten to fit this rhythm. Stress-timed languages can be compared with syllable-timed ones, where each syllable takes roughly the same amount of time. Example: English and German are examples of stress-timed languages, while Spanish and Japanese are syllable-timed.

transactional language

language which is used to make a transaction and which has a result. Example: Writing a letter or creating a dialogue asking for a refund.

immersion programme

learners are fully immersed in the target language for a certain period of time, both in and outside the class.There are varying degrees of immersion, including full, partial and bilingual immersion, which involves two groups of students learning each other's languages.

affective strategies

learning strategies concerned with managing emotions, both negative and positive. Example: Lowering anxiety levels with relaxation techniques is one kind of affective strategy.

interactive listening

listening in which the lister is also the speaker Example: a phone call

cleft sentence

made by separating a single clause into two clauses, one main and one subordinate. They are useful to change emphasis. Example: 'It was me who broke the vase' is a cleft sentence made up of two clauses. A single clause version would be 'I broke the vase'.

global comprehension

means understanding the general meaning of what you are listening to or reading. Example: The learners have listened to a story and now try to recreate it by putting jumbled sentences into the correct order.

criterion-referenced test

measures a candidate's mark against a series of criteria and produces a description of level based on that criterion. They are useful for indicating how a group of learners are progressing as they compare candidates against a standard, rather than each other. Example: TOEFL exam

errors

mistakes caused by a learner not knowing something. Example: The learner says 'I buyed a new book' because she does not know that buy has an irregular past form.

slips

mistakes caused by temporary factors such as a learner being tired, nervous, excited or distracted. Example: A learner asked to speak in front of the group may make slips because she is nervous.

/ʊ/

near-close near-back vowel

Asynchronous learning

occurs when learner and teacher are not in the same place at the same time. Used to define types of online learning. Example: In online learning, e-mail and discussion threads on forums are asynchronous learning tools.

Synchronous learning

occurs when the learner and the teacher are in the same place at the same time. This term can be used to talk about online learning. Example: In online learning: Video chat

deictics

of or relating to a word, the determination of whose referent is dependent on the context in which it is said or written

lexicon

often used to describe the knowledge that a speaker has about the words of a language. This includes meanings, use, form, and relationships with other words. can be thought of as a mental dictionary. Example: A successful learner develops an L2 lexicon independently of their L1 lexicon, which means there is less confusion, translation and L1 interference.

bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence

one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory. People with significant bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may enjoy doing things rather than reading or hearing about them, and are good at making things and at physical activities in general. Example Total Physical Response is an example of an approach that seeks to develop and support this kind of intelligence.

Visual/spatial intelligence

one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory. People with this often have a strong visual memory and are artistic. Example: A student with strong visual/spatial intelligence may respond well to organizing vocabulary using a mind-map or spidergram.

blending

one of the many ways new words are made in English. It refers to joining the beginning of one word and the end of another to make a new word with a new meaning.

re-duplicatives

one of the many ways new words are made in English. They are words made by copying the sound of the first word in the second. Example: 'mish-mash'

clipping

one of the ways new words are created in English. It involves the shortening of a longer word, often reducing it to one syllable. Many examples are very informal or slang. Example: Maths, which is a clipped form of mathematics, is an example of this. Informal examples include 'bro' from brother and 'dis' from disrespect.

/ɑ:/

open-back unrounded vowel

converseness

pairs of words which exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items Example: If John sells to Fred, Fred buys from John

parallelism

phrases or sentences of a similar construction/meaning placed side by side, balancing each other, to aid grammatical cohesion

hypotheses

possible ideas about language rules that learners form as they receive information. Learners test these by using language and these ideas change as new information is received. Example: A learner has noticed that English often uses the suffix -ness to form a noun from an adjective and so develops a hypothesis that this is a rule. The teacher gives them more information and the learner adjusts the hypothesis accordingly.

recycling

practising language that learners have seen previously. It will be re-introduced in a different context, or through a different skill. This helps the student extend their range of use of the new item. Example: In the last lesson, the learners were introduced to functional language of greetings and introductions. Now they do a quick mingle activity where they recycle this language.

facilitation

providing the necessary resources, information and support in order for learners to complete a task, rather than teaching. Example: A teacher facilitates a discussion on AIDS by asking learners to research the issues for homework, structuring the groups, providing a list of useful functional phrases, acting as a quick reference for language questions, and managing the discussion where necessary.

contextualisation

putting language items into a meaningful and real context rather than being treated as isolated items of language for language manipulation practice only. It tries to give real communicative value to the language that learners meet. The context can help learners remember the language and recall it at a later date. Learners can use natural learning strategies to help them understand contextualised language, such as guessing meaning from context. Example: Teaching the language used to give advice by looking at problem pages from teenage magazines gives the target language context.

open questions

questions which cannot be answered with just 'yes' or 'no'. Many of them begin with 'wh': why, where, who etc. Example: 'Why did you decide to study English?'

referential questions

questions you ask someone because you don't know the answer. In an ELT classroom, this can mean questions teachers ask learners and learners ask each other. Example: The teacher asks a learner 'What did you do at the weekend?'

skimming

reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. Example: On a reading exam, looking at the title, introductions, and any diagrams and sub-headings, then skim reading to get a clear general idea of what the text is about.

receptive skills

reading and listening, because learners do not need to produce language to do these, they receive and understand it. These skills are sometimes known as passive skills. Example: Often in the process of learning new language, learners begin with receptive understanding of the new items, then later move on to productive use.

functions

refer to what items of language actually do in a real context, as opposed to what they might mean literally. These include suggesting, criticising, refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, enquiring, talking about the past, and giving advice. Example: The phrase 'What time do you call this?' has a clear literal meaning but its function is to ask 'Why are you late? I'm very angry!'

anaphoric reference

reference to something that occurs earlier in the text. Example: Where's the towel? IT is hanging on the line.

congruency

refers to all the parts of something working together; in ELT this means how different elements work together to produce successful communication. These elements can include such tools as intonation, gesture, grammatical structure and lexis. Example: Learners working on matching different intonation patterns to utterances are thinking about how different elements of language can work together.

declaritive knowledge

refers to facts or information stored in the memory, that is considered static in nature ( referred to as conceptual, propositional or descriptive knowledge), describes things, events, or processes, their attributes, and their relation to each other.

empowerment

refers to giving learners the power to make their own decisions about learning rather than the teacher having all the control. This opportunity to make decisions is part of what can make a learner more independent, or autonomous. Example: A teacher decides to negotiate the syllabus of a skills course for a group of high level learners. The learners identify what they need and help design a suitable course.

concord

refers to grammatical agreement between different parts of a sentence. Some aspects are more difficult for learners to learn than others, for example the third person 's'. Example: In the sentence 'He doesn't want to go, and now they don't either' there is concord between 'he' and 'doesn't' because 'he' needs an 's' on the verb, and between 'they' and 'don't'.

discourse management

refers to the ability to produce extended written and spoken texts, for example conversations. Example: FCE speaking paper

register

refers to the degree of formality of language, but in a more general sense it means the language used by a group of people who share similar work or interests, such as doctors or lawyers. Example: For formal and informal register; 'Would you mind passing the salt?' is appropriate for a formal situation with strangers, whereas 'Pass me the salt' would be used for a situation where friends are talking, or possibly when being rude.

tone

refers to the pitch changes made to affect the meaning of words and phrases. Example: Many learners have a first language that is tonal, i.e. the same word said in a high pitch may mean something different from when it is said in a low pitch.

fossilisation

refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected.

embedding

refers to the process of inserting one sentence into another sentence. It includes putting questions into affirmative sentences, with a subsequent change in word order. Example: 'I wonder if you could tell me what time it is?' is the question 'What time is it?' embedded in a polite structure.

polysemy

refers to the quality of some words to have several related meanings. Example: The word 'head': 'My head hurts' 'He heads the news section' 'We'll head them off at the pass'

rubric

refers to the written instructions for a task. Example: The writing part of a proficiency exam such as FCE or IELTS has a rubric giving instructions.

appropriacy

refers to whether a word is suitable for the context it is being used in. It is an important aspect of language but an extremely complex one, as decisions about how to say things depend on understanding exactly what is right for the context and the culture. Example: It may be appropriate to say 'hold on a minute, will you?' in one context and 'Could you wait a moment, please?' in another.

Onomatopoeia

refers to words that have a sound that represents what the word means. They are one way in which new words can be created. Example: 'thud'

recast

repeat a learner's incorrect utterance, making changes that convert it to a correct phrase or sentence.

high-order questions

require answers that go beyond simple information and as such both the language and thinking behind them is more complex. They take learners into more abstract language functions, such as giving and justifying opinions, speculation, and hypothesising. Example: 'Why are rainbows important?'

critical period hypothesis

says that there is a period of growth in which full native competence is possible when acquiring a language. Example: Older learners rarely achieve a near-native accent. Many people suggest this is due to them being beyond the critical period.

Eclecticism

selecting techniques, activities, procedures for classroom use from a range of different methodologies/approaches. This is very typical of current practice. eg. pattern practice drills in a TBL lesson.

teachable moments

sensitive periods when conditions are optimal for integration of previous knowledge and the accomplishment of new developmental task with assistance.

marker sentence / model sentence

sentences that are clear examples of the target language of the lesson. They help learners understand the structure, use and meaning of new language. They can also provide information about context, including collocations and connotation and work as a reliable example for learners to record. Example: 'I have lived here in Japan since 1989'. To show the use of the present perfect to describe something that starts in the past and continues.

imitation drill

simply involves repeating the prompt, as in: Teacher: They have been watching TV. Student: They have been watching TV.

grammatical morphemes

smaller units that are added to words to alter their meaning. Example: adding -s to a noun to make it plural (book-books)

productive skills

speaking and writing, because learners doing these need to produce language. They are also known as active skills. Example: Learners have already spent time practising receptive skills with a shape poem, by listening to it and reading it. They now move on to productive skills by group writing their own, based on the example.

affricative

speech sound consisting of a stop and a fricative articulated at the same point Example: /tʃ/ chair and /dʒ/ joy

inductive approach

starts with examples and asks learners to find rules. Example: Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third conditional. The teacher checks that the students understand the meaning of its use through checking learners' comprehension of the listening text, and only after this focuses on the form, using the examples from the text to elicit rules about the form, its use and its pronunciation.

prosody

stress, rhythm, intonation especially when considered along with tempo, loudness and voice quality

gloss

summaries of the meanings of words, usually found as notes in the margin or between the lines of a text. They can be interpretations, explanations or translations. Example: Learners work together on a project to provide a gloss for a text on pub life in the UK, investigating the socio-cultural significance of the language in the text.

TBLT

task-based language teaching. Instruction in which classroom activites are tasks similar to those learners engage in outside the foreign language classroom. Tasks may be complex or more limited Example: making a phone call to reserve a ticket

social strategies

techniques in which students learn from each other or by interacting in groups.

adverbial clause

tells us more about a main clause, in the same way as an adverb tells us more about a verb. Example: He went there BECAUSE HE WANTED REVENGE.

face validity

test items appear to capture what they set out to measure

empathy

the ability to imagine another person's thoughts, beliefs and feelings. In an ELT context, it normally refers to the ability to understand how a learner is feeling. Example: A teacher working in a highly unstable and dangerous environment chooses not to do a reading comprehension where a writer describes their feelings after the violent death of their mother.

grammaring

the ability to use grammar structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately. Example: She work project 3 month = She'll be working on the project for 3 months.

exposure

the contact that the learner has with the language that they are trying to learn, either generally or with specific language points. Referring to the language in general, it often refers to contact outside the classroom. Example: A learner studying in a country where English is spoken as a first language has a lot of exposure and so more opportunities to learn.

construct validity

the degree to which a measure actually assesses what it claims to assess

construct validity

the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring

interaction patterns

the different ways learners and the teacher can interact in the class. Example: The class are doing a dictation activity. The interaction pattern is teacher to the whole group (T-Ss). Other patterns include pair work (S-S), and group work (Ss-Ss).

accuracy

the extent to which a learner's use of a second language conforms to the rules of the language. This is usually measured in terms of grammatical accuracy. For example, What means this? or I no understand are inaccurate according to standard usage

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

accuracy

the extent to which language follows the "rules" of the standard variety of the language.

mood

the feature of the verb that expresses the speaker's or writer's attitude. Can be imperative, indicative or subjunctive.

natural order hypothesis

the idea that children learning their first language acquire grammatical structures in a pre-determined, 'natural' order, and that some are acquired earlier than others. This idea has been extended to account for second language acquisition in Krashen's theory of language acquisition. Example: According to this hypothesis, learners acquire the grammatical morpheme -ing before the morpheme third person -s.

socio-cultural content

the idea that language, rather than existing in isolation, is closely linked to the culture and society in which it is used. Example: Learners are looking at the language of advertisements. In order to do this effectively, they need to understand the culture in which the adverts function.

silent period hypothesis

the idea that when a language is learned, there should be a period in which the learner is not expected to actively produce any language. This is based on observations of a listening period in infants when they learn a first language. Example: When learners begin to study a new language, they can go through a silent period where they are exposed to sufficient comprehensible input to allow them to begin to acquire language.

base form

the infinitive form of the verb without "to" Example: teach

eclectic approach

the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies. Example: The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different uses of synonyms of movement using a reading text. They then practise these using TPR. In another class the input is recycled through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the instructions for an exercise manual.

closed pairs

the learners are all working in pairs simultaneously and therefore privately. Closed pairs are the opposite of open pairs, where one pair works while the rest of the learners watch. Example: The learners are practising pronunciation of stressed and unstressed syllables in pairs; the teacher monitors the group.

cotext

the linguistic environment in which a word is used within a text

catenation

the linking of sounds together in speech, such as the grouping of phonemes into SYLLABLES, and the grouping of syllables and words through ASSIMILATION, ELISION, and JUNCTURE.

denotation

the literal meaning or "dictionary definition" of a term, devoid of emotion, attitude, and color

inflection

the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case. Example: 'ed' ending in past simple.

cognitive depth

the more decisions learners make about an item of language, the more they have to grapple with its central meaning, and the more likely to acquire that item

denotation

the most direct or specific meaning of a word or expression

ellipsis

the omission, in speaking or writing, of one or more words from a sentence, which are not needed to convey the meaning. Example: can be used to avoid repetition. 'Have you been to Paris?' 'Yes, I have.'

conversion

the process by which an item becomes a different word class. eg noun to verb (water/to water)

Parsing

the process of analyzing a text to determine its grammatical structure with respect to a given formal grammar. Also known as syntactic analysis.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent part of the memory system.

bound morpheme

the smallest meaningful unit in a word that can not stand on its own. Example: un + friend + ly = un- and -ly are bound

morpheme

the smallest single unit of language that has meaning. Example:meaningful = "mean" (free morpheme) + "ing" + "ful" (both bound morphemes)

liason

the smooth linking of words in connected speech

suprasegmental

the sound of the whole utterance. Important for receptive fluency. What happens at word boundaries.

semantics

the study of how meaning is created by words. Semantic change is when a word changes meaning. It can become wider in meaning or narrower, or more positive or more negative. Example: 'bad', which has changed meaning from negative to positive in some contexts.

corpus linguistics

the study of language as expressed in samples (corpora) of "real world" text. This method represents a digestive approach to deriving a set of abstract rules by which a natural language is governed or else relates to another language.

kinesics

the study of non-verbal communication achieved by movement of the body. Example: This includes gestures such as shrugging your shoulders.

contrastive analysis

the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities.

pre-teaching

the teaching of the language, learners need before an activity. Example: The learners are going to hear a short discussion on environmental issues. Before listening, they match key environment words to definitions.

inference

the technique of finding answers from clues and from prior knowledge rather than directly. Example: Learners listen to a discussion between two unidentified speakers and must infer their relationship from what they hear.

scaffolding

the temporary interactionsal support that is given to learners while their language system is "under construction" Example: by asking questions, repeating and reformulating

innatist

the theoretical perspective based on the hypothesis that hunan beings are born with mental structures that are designed specifically for the acquisition of language.

behaviourism

the theory that viewed learning as a matter of habit formation, where habits are formed when the learner's response to external stimuli are positively reinforced. Example: pattern drills with positive feedback from the teacher to correct answers.

cohesion

the use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve a connected written or spoken text. Example: conjunctions (and, such as, including), articles (the), reference (it), and collocations

orthography

the way a language is spelt and the way the letters are written. English spelling is notoriously difficult for both native speakers and learners and produces corresponding difficulties in pronunciation. Almost every sound in English has more than one correct spelling.

sentence stress

the way a speaker highlights certain words in each sentence. It helps the listener focus on important parts and understand the speaker's meaning. Example: He's had a HEART ATTACK.

exploitation

the way a teacher or learner uses resources to meet their learning aims. Example: using the native speaker in a role-play

stress pattern

the way all the syllables are stressed in the word. There can be main and secondary stress, or unstressed sounds. Example: o0o e.g. com/pu/ter

semantic prosody

the way in which certain seemingly neutral words can be perceived with positive or negative associations through frequent occurrences with particular collocations. Example: 'cause' usually associated with negative words like accident or riot

rhythm

the way some words are emphasized to give the effect of regular beats

appraisal

the way speakers and writers use language to express their presonal attitude to what has been said or written.

acquisition

the way we learn our first language, i.e. through being involved in real communication, and without formal teaching. As we learn, we hypothesise rules, and use these to communicate until we notice that the rule is different, or has exceptions.

voice

the ways in which the relationship between the verb + noun phrases associated with it, can be changed without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. Example: active and passive

plenum

the whole group, so an activity that will involve all learners and the teacher. Example: Learners work in pairs to correct the errors in a text, then in plenum work with the teacher and an overhead transparency on a final version.

paradigms

theoretical models used to describe sequences of teaching. Example: ESA - engage, study, activate

linkers

they join what has already been said/written to what follows. Example: moreover, meanwhile

pre-listening

things learners do before a listening activity in order to prepare for listening. These activities have various purposes, including pre-teaching or activating vocabulary, predicting content, generating interest and checking understanding of task. Example: The learners are going to listen to a radio programme about sharks. First, they work in groups to pool their knowledge of sharks and then tell the rest of the class.

sensitise

to make them more sensitive to specific language or ideas before doing an activity. They are then more likely to notice language and respond to ideas. Example: Learners are going to watch the balcony scene from 'Romeo and Juliet' and then discuss how love is expressed in the scene. Before doing this, the teacher sensitises them to the ideas by asking them for examples of attitudes to love from their favourite songs.

TAP

transfer-appropriate processing. When we learn something new, we also interanlise some aspects of the circumstances and thinking processes that were present when we learned it.

minimal pair

two words which differ from each other in pronunciation by only one phoneme. Example: 'but' and 'bat'

cognate

two words which have the same (or similar) form and meaning in two different languages. Can help teachers/learners, as their meaning is clear.

cognate

two words which have the same, or similar, form and meaning in 2 different languages. Example: Haus (German) house (English)

/b/

unvoiced bilabial plosive

/f/

unvoiced labiodental fricative

/v/

unvoiced labiodental fricative

process approach

used in writing. The text emerges out of a creative process. This process includes planning, drafting, redrafting, reviewing, editing, proofreading and then the final draft.

discrete item test

used when we want to know if a learner can recognise or produce a specific language item

top-down processing

uses background information to predict the meaning of language learners are going to listen to or read. They develop expectations about what they will hear or read, and confirm or reject these as they listen or read. Example: Asking learners to predict what a newspaper article might be about from the headline or first sentence.

formal assessment

uses formal tests or structured continuous assessment to evaluate a learner's level of language. Example: At the end of the course, the learners have a final exam to see if they pass to the next course or not.

phatic communication

verbal or non-verbal communication that has a social function, such as to start a conversation, greet someone, or say goodbye, rather than an informative function. Example: Waving hello is non-verbal phatic communication and saying 'How's it going?' is verbal.

delexicalised verbs

verbs that have little meaning alone but that can be joined together with many other words, so generating a wide variety of new meanings. These have also been called 'empty' verbs. Learners often have problems with these verbs because they try to find a general meaning. eg. the get in get older

/s/

voiced alveolar fricative

/ʒ/

voiced palato-alveolar fricative

long vowels

vowel sounds that are longer than normal, or short, vowels. In RP English these sounds are those in 'seat', 'suit', 'sort', 'shirt' and 'start'. Phonemic symbols for long vowel sounds have a /:/ to indicate length. Example: /i:/ in the word 'keys'.

outcomes

what learners should be able to do or have done at the end of the class or course. They are similar to aims but are more focussed on end results and often describe what actually happened rather than what the teacher intends to happen. Example: Learners are doing a video project on local tourist sites. Learning outcomes for this work include better speaking skills, increased vocabulary, and more learning skills.

competence

what we intuitively know about a language in order to be able to use it.

coherence

when ideas in a spoken or written text fit together clearly and smoothly and so are logical and make sense to the listener or reader.

linking

when sounds are joined together or when a sound is inserted between two others to make them easier to say. Example: When we say 'I am' we insert a /j/ sound to produce 'I yam'.

gemination

when two sounds next to each other are so similar you can't tell there are two, Example: the 2 'n's in unknown

editing stage

where the writer and peers edit the written work. It comes after the other stages: pre-writing activities, focusing ideas and structuring. Example: The learners have written their first drafts, based on their notes, without thinking too much about organisation and accuracy. Then they move to the editing stage.

holistic approach

whole language emphasis: focus on everything the learner needs to know to communicate effectively. ....................... Example: Young learners have a set of daily tasks in the classroom including cleaning the board and collecting materials. This is all done in the target language.

audio-lingual method

widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic. Based on the Behaviourist Theory. Example: drills to teach structural patterns

discourse markers

words and phrases used in speaking and writing to 'signpost'. They do this by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing attitude, and generally controlling communication. Some people regard these as a feature of spoken language only. Example: Words like 'actually', 'so', 'OK', 'right?' and 'anyway' all function in this way as they help the speaker to manage the conversation and mark when it changes.

affixation

words formed by the combination of bound affixes and free morphemes

Neologisms

words or phrases that are invented to describe either new things or to give a new name to an old idea. Example: VJ

quantifier

words put before nouns to show how many there are. Example: several

function words

words that are used mainly as linking or supporting words for nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They have little or no meaning when they occur alone, but they have an an important effect on the words they accompany. Example: prepositions (to, for, by)

homonym

words that are written and pronounced the same, but have a different meaning. Example: right = correct and opposite of left

homophone

words that have exactly the same pronunciation but different meanings and spelling. Example: our and hour

content words

words that have meaning, these include: nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Example: 'WE FLEW over the MOUNTAINS at DAWN'.

homonym

words which are written and pronounced the same way, but have different meanings. eg Would you _like_ a drink? Who do you look _like_?

homophone

words which are written differently, and have different meanings, but pronounced the same. eg sew, so

homograph

words written the same way, but pronounced differently, and have different meanings. eg windy day, windy road.

authentic material

written or spoken texts used with learners without changing the level of language. Example: a story from a CDROM

ZPD

zone of proximal development. The metaphorical place in which a learner is capable of a higher level of performance because there is support from interaction with an interlocuter.