Developmental level of analysis (theories and Studies)

Dion and Dion (1994) - support Hazan and Shaver.

A self-report which investigated why those who are securely attached generally express more positive feelings about their relationships than those with insecure attachment types. Participants: 99 17-36 yr old students who were currently in a relationships and who represented a variety of attachment types. Results: showed that participants with a secure attachment style were more open to disclosing intimate details to their partners than they were to strangers. Those with insecure attachment styles were not happy about such levels of disclosure, even to their partner. The securely attached types generally were found to be more comfortable disclosing personal and intimate facts to their partners than to strangers.

(Hodges and Tizard 1989) - deprivation and privation reversible.

Aim: To examine the effect of institutional upbringing on later attachments. Sample: The participants in the study were all aged 16 and had all been in institutional care until at least two years of age. At this age most of the children had either been adopted or restored to biological parents. The study focused on 31 ex-institutional children. A comparison group was also studied. Hodges and Tizard compared their group of children with a matched group who had been with their families throughout their lives. The sample was drawn from the London area. Method: Five main methods were used to collect data on all the adolescents (including those in the comparison groups): An interview with the adolescent subject. An interview with the mother (in some cases with their father present). A self-report questionnaire concerning 'social difficulties'. A questionnaire completed by the subjects' school teacher about their relationships with their peers and their teachers. The Rutter 'B' scale. This comprises 26 items and is used for psychiatric screening. The researchers collected data on the following issues: Attachment to parents; Relations with siblings; Showing affection; Similarity and assimilation; Confiding and supporting; Disagreements over control and discipline; Involvement in the family; Peer relationships; Specific difficulties with peer relations; Special friends; Relationships between attachment and peer relationships; Relationships between current and earlier peer relations; Over friendly behaviour; Relationships to teachers. Results: At age four most of the ex-institutional children formed attachments to their (restored or adoptive) parents although they did show some differences compared to the comparison group in terms of social development. About a third were markedly attention seeking and over friendly to strangers, and a few were indiscriminately affectionate to all adults. By eight, the majority of adopted children and some of the restored children had formed close attachments to their parents, despite their lack of early attachments in the institutions. According to their parents, the ex-institutional children did not present more problems than the comparison group; but according to their teachers, more of them showed attention-seeking behaviour. However the children had adequate language and cognitive skills. At 16 the majority of the adoptive mothers felt that their child was deeply attached to them. By contrast only a half of the restored children were described as deeply attached. Adopted adolescents were also more often said by their mothers to be attached to their father than the restored group. Ex-institutional children had greater problems with siblings than a comparison group. However, ex-institutional children had poorer relationships with peers than the comparison group. Teachers rated the ex-institutionalised group as more often quarrelsome, less often liked by other children and as bullying other children more than the comparison group. According to their mothers, the ex-institutional adolescents were less likely to have a definite special friend. Conclusion: The effects of early deprivation are not as severe as Bowlby suggested and can be reversed to some extent. Children who have experienced deprivation can form meaningful attachments but may experience some difficulty in establishing good peer or romantic relationships.

Cherney (2003)

Aim: To identify the impact particular stereotyped toys have on young children's complexity of play. Sample: 30 (15 female, 15 male) children aged 18-47 months old; all white and middle-class; parents responded to a flyer asking for participants in a Midwestern university. Method: Children were brought to a playroom which contained a variety of toys; parents were asked not to initiate play; the children were observed playing for 40 minutes. Their behaviour was coded and rated by observers. Results: Doll play and kitchen set play i.e. female stereotyped toys elicited the highest complex play behaviour. Conclusion: Traditionally female stereotyped toys should be included for both sexes to play with as they elicit more complex play which may lead to higher cognitive functioning. Strengths: A controlled study using more than one observer for inter-rater reliability; children are less likely to exhibit demand characteristics as they are less aware of taking part in a study than adults. Limitations; Lack of ecological validity due to the test setting; children may have behaved out of character because they were not in a familiar environment; a small sample with limited generalisability due to the demographic.

Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1984)

Aim: To investigate mood levels in adolescents. Sample: 75 high-school students from a diverse range of backgrounds who lived in Chicago, USA. Method: The participants were given pagers which went off every two hours. When the pager went off the student had to write down what they were doing and how they were feeling. They also filled in a questionnaire half way through the study which focused on their mood during particular activities. Results: 40% of the adolescents' time was taken up with leisure activities; 30% of their time was used for 'maintenance activities' eg getting to college, eating, washing; 30% of their time was used for 'productive activities' eg studying, working. The participants reported extreme mood swings, often going from one intense mood to another in the space of an hour or less. This is not generally seen in adults, who take several hours to change mood so dramatically.

Rutter, Isle of Wight study (1976)

Aim: To investigate the attitudes and behaviours of teenagers on the Isle of Wight. Sample: 14-15 year-olds' parents and teachers on the island - a total of 2,303 participants. Plus, a random sample of 200 of the teenagers and the 304 teenagers whose behaviour had been flagged as 'difficult or deviant' according to the questionnaires. Method: Questionnaires and psychological tests and interviews. Results: One parent in six reported conflict or arguments with their teenagers as to what they did and who they saw. About a third of the parents disapproved of their teen's clothes or hairstyle. The great majority of parents approved of their teen's friends and they nearly all reported having talked to their son or daughter about their future plans. And only about a third of the teenagers made any criticism of their parent(s). A tiny percentage seemed hostile towards their parents. Conclusion: Storm and stress is present to some extent in adolescence but not the extent to which it had previously been claimed to be a defining feature of adolescence. by (Hall 1904). This directly contradicts Hall's theory, which is built upon the idea of adolescence as being a time of tumultuous change and volatility.

Mahoney (2005) - building resillience

Aim: To investigate the effectiveness of after-school programme participation and the development of academic performance. Sample: 599 boys and girls (6.3 to 10.6 years) from an urban, disadvantaged city in the United States formed the sample for this study. Method: A longitudinal study looking at school grades, reading achievement and teacher ratings of motivation of pupils over a school year. Results: The study highlighted that there were four patterns of care: after-school programme care, parent care, combined parent/self-sibling care, and combined other-adult/self-sibling care. After a year the children in the after-school care programme scored highest on academic performance and observed motivation than the children in the other three groups. Conclusion: Being part of the school system, in an environment of study may enhance the academic performance of disadvantaged children. Evaluation: longitudinal study. Longitudinal research also brings with it the issue of subject attrition - the sample of participants may be reduced if someone drops out of the research process (e.g. they move away, end up in prison, simply lose interest). - which means that the results may be less reliable due to a resultant smaller sample.So, it seems that resilience is a quality that depends on a mixture of personal attributes and particular protective factors being in place.

Anschutz and Engels (2010) - body image

Aim: To investigate the effects of playing with thin dolls on body image and food intake. Sample: 6 to 10-year-old Dutch girls (N = 117). Method: Girls were randomly assigned to play with a thin doll, an average-sized doll, or Lego in a no-doll control condition. After 10 min, they participated in a taste-test and completed questionnaires about body image. Results: Girls who played with the average-sized doll ate significantly more food than girls who played with the thin doll. Conclusion: Although no support was found for the assumption that playing with thin dolls influences body image, the dolls directly affected actual food intake in these young girls.

Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) - evidence attachment theory

Aim: To study the attachment behaviour of a group of infants aged five weeks to 23 weeks old up to the infants reaching the age of 18 months. Method: A naturalistic observation (carried out in the infants' homes) of 60 children from working-class homes in Glasgow, Scotland. The researchers visited the infants' homes every four weeks until they were a year old then again when they were 18 months. Mothers were also asked to keep records of the children's behaviour. Results: The infants all followed the same stages of attachment. Asocial phase (0-6 week): Very young infants smile and cry but not at any specific individuals. indescriminant attachments (6 weeks to 7 months): Infants greatly enjoy human company. They smile more at people than at lifelike objects such as puppets. They get upset when an adult stops interacting with them, regardless of who the adult is. From about three months they smile more at familiar faces and are more easily comforted by regular caregivers. specific attachments (7-9 months): Infants show two main signs that they have formed a specific attachment to one person; stranger anxiety and separation protest occurs. multiple attachments (10 months onwards): Children begin to be attached to others, such as grandparents, siblings and other regular caregivers. By 18 months most have formed multiple attachments. Conclusion: That children do not necessarily attach to those who provide with functional care; the quality of the care determines the strongest attachments made. Evaluation: carried out their study in the infants' homes which means that they had little to no control of variables which reduces the reliability and replicability of their procedure. It does, however, mean that there is increased ecological validity as the researchers were using a natural and familiar environment to the participants. As the mothers completed a self-report about their interactions with their babies there is the issue of potential social desirability bias. Social desirability bias can occur when participants are asked to fill in a questionnaire or answer questions in an interview; often people will want to present themselves in the best light possible so they modify their responses accordingly However, as this was a longitudinal study it would be more difficult for the mothers to sustain any kind of misinformation as the inconsistencies might show up over the months in which the study was carried out.

Espin et al. (1990) - support Erikson

Aim: To test Erikson's theory of adolescence. Sample: One participant as this was a case study: a Latin-American girl studied between the ages of 13-22. Method: Content analysis of 71 letters sent from the girl to her teacher. Results: Themes of identity appeared in the earlier letters, and increased from the ages of 13 to 18 years, but then declined. Conclusion: Issues of identity were prominent from 13-18, as predicted by Erikson. Themes of "intimacy" which appear in early adult life, according to Erikson's theory, increased steadily through the next period but became predominant after the age of 19. Thus, there is some support for Erikson's theory.

Chugani et al. (2001) - biological and neurological approach to deprivation and privation

Aim: investigating the effect of early deprivation on cognitive development. Sample: Children adopted from deprived Romanian orphanages. Method: lab- experiment and quasi-experiment Procedure: used PET scans. limited extranous stimuli (social interaction/ light) to produce resting awake state. interviewed their parents on children behavior. Results: decrease in glucose metabolism in both pre-frontal cortex and hippocampus. impearments in attention and academics one year after adoption. Conclusion: deprivation showed a relationship between academic behaviors /attention and impaired neurological development in pre-frontal cortex and hippocampus.

G Stanley Hall's theory of adolescence.

Born in 1867 to a farming family in Massachusetts, USA, Hall originally studied theology. He became interested in psychology and gained the first ever psychology PHD in the USA. He became a professor at John Hopkins university where he set up the first psychology lab in the USA. He also launched the American Journal of Psychology in 1887 and became the first president of the American Psychological Association in 1892. Hall's theory of adolescence was based on the German idea of sturm und drang (storm and stress) with adolescents rebelling and experiencing emotional turmoil. He theorised that adolescence was linked to evolution, believing that all lives reflect the course of evolutionary change and that we each develop in accordance with our 'ancestral record'.

Bowlby´s theory of attachment

Bowlby's theory is based on an evolutionary perspective of behaviour. The theory states that human beings have an innate reflex to attach to a caregiver. Our continuing survival depends on the quality of the attachment bond. According to Bowlby, attachment serves the following functions: to make sure the infant survives; to promote an 'internal working model' (IWM) of relationships. This is a type of schema which each child develops based on the kind of parenting they receive. Bowlby also thought that the attachment figure provides a secure base from which the infant can explore and learn. The more secure the base, the more confident and independent the child will feel when exploring their world. Bowlby suggested that attachment happens in phases which are as follows: - Pre-attachment phase - birth to 6 weeks. - Attachment in the making phase - 6 weeks to 6-8 months. - Clear-cut attachment - 6-8 months to 18 months to 2 years. - Formation of reciprocal (i.e. two-way) relationships - 18 months to 2 years onwards. In essence, the details of Bowlby's theory are: - Human beings have an innate, biological need to attach to a caregiver. This links to an evolutionary instinct for survival. - Part of this innate programming involves 'social releasers', the behaviours (and physical features) of a baby that stimulate an adult's instinctive attachment behaviour e.g. smiling, crying, large eyes. - The Continuity Hypothesis is based on the idea that an infant forms an Internal Working Model of themselves based on the type of care that they receive from parents. This IWM will inform the child of how 'deserving' they are of love. Bowlby claimed that this persists throughout a person's lifespan. - The Critical Period is linked to the idea of attachment being an innate, biological mechanism; there is a limited 'window' of opportunity in which attachment can take place. Monotrphy: Bowlby theorised that an infant is genetically predisposed to attach to one primary caregiver, usually the mother but not exclusively the mother. Bowlby claimed that the quality of this relationship has an affect on future relationships. Bowlby stated that monotropy is necessary for the child to feel a secure attachment to one primary caregiver. Social releasers: Bowlby claimed that babies are equipped with particular behaviours and physical features called social releasers. Social releasers are designed to stimulate care-giving from adults. These are the features and behaviours that stimulate the need to care for, love and protect the baby, according to Bowlby. These features include big eyes in a head that seems too large for its small body; soft skin and rounded body shape; button nose; behaviours such as smiling, gurgling and even crying. Social releasers help to: Elicit caregiving in the parent. Form the basis for a social relationship between the baby and the adult. Ensure that the child receives the care and attention needed for their survival. Interactional synchrony: Interactional synchrony occurs when parent (usually but not always the mother) and child are in perfect harmony with each other. The mother smiles, the baby smiles; baby sticks his tongue and mother copies him; mother laughs, baby laughs. Critical thinking of Bowlby´s theory: It is the case with most studies of young children; researchers can only form very loose conclusions that have limited reliability and validity. There is also a problem with Bowlby's claim that a child forms a monotropic bond. Children form several strong attachments - particularly so if both parents are actively involved in family life, along with grandparents, siblings, nursery workers etc. Shaffer and Emerson (mentioned in the next section) found that monotropy is not necessarily essential for a child's healthy attachment. In other words, Bowlby may have overstated the importance of the monotropic bond. The concept of the Internal Working Model is also vague and difficult to measure. The IWM can only really be seen in subsequent adult behaviour, relationships and lifestyle choices but there are so many possible extraneous variables that could influence the behaviour that only a tenuous link can be established between childhood attachment style and later attachment behaviour. Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis is the idea that if a child does not attach securely or has experienced no attachment to an adult then he or she may become an affectionless psychopath - someone who lacks empathy and is anti-social in their behaviour

Deprevation and prevation (e.g Genie and Romainian twins, Harlow 1971, and Spitz and Wolf 1946)

Deprevation: Deprivation happens when a child has formed an early attachment with a caregiver but that bond is broken and the child loses his or her primary caregiver. In the case of Jade deprivation came in the form of losing her mother at the age of eight - well past Bowlby's 'critical period' in which attachment occurs. Privation: Privation happens when a child is prevented from making an attachment at all. It usually happens if a child is immediately removed from their mother at birth or if the quality of contact between parent and child is so poor and neglectful that no attachment bond can form (see the case of Genie and the Czech twins in this section). The short-term effects of deprivation and privation can be summed up in the Syndrome of Distress: Protest - involves anger, fear and frustration. Despair - involves apathy, depression and avoidance of others. Detachment - involves only a superficial attachment to others with superficial relationships and no preference shown for anyone. There may also be intellectual delay. The Syndrome of Distress may lead to the child feeling that there is no-one in their world that they can trust, rely on, that the world is a frightening place. These thoughts and fears may be internalised and lead to later attachment issues with personal relationships. The long-term effects of deprivation and privation show symptoms of Separation Anxiety: Increased aggression Clingy behaviour, possibly resulting in school phobia Increased detachment from others Physical disorders (e.g. eczema, stomach complaints) Depression Separation anxiety is not only observed in young children; adults who suffer the long-term effects of deprivation and privation may find that they have huge difficulty in forming and maintaining close personal relationships. In extreme cases the individual might develop extreme mental health issues

The theory of psychosocial development (Erikson 1968)

Erikson was a psychodynamic theorist who built on Freud's idea that the subconscious mind influences behaviour but he also added a social cultural dimension to this idea. He thought that adolescence, rather than early childhood, was the most decisive period in the formation of adult personality (unlike piaget form cognitve) Erikson thought that everyone goes through eight genetically determined (i.e. occurring in everyone) psychosocial crises, each of which could have a positive or negative outcome for healthy personality development. Infancy (birth to 18 months): Trust vs. Mistrust, - Feeding,- Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. Early childhood (2 to 3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt, - Toilet training- , Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Preschool (3 to 5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt,- Exploration,- Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. School age (6 to 11 years):Industry vs. Inferiority,- School,- Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Adolescence (12 to 18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion,- Social Relationships,- Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. Young adulthood (19 to 40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation, - Relationships, - Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation, - Work and parenthood, - Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Maturity (65 to death): Ego integrity vs. Despair, - Reflection on life, - Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness and despair. The fifth stage, from 12-18 years old involves identity versus role confusion, the adolescent phase. Identity is the way in which a person views him/herself not only as an individual but in the context of their social world. Erikson focused on Identity as one of the defining features of adolescence as he believed that adolescents - more so than any other age group - are consumed with the need to question who they are and what their place in the world is. Role Confusion is a negative concept which is based on the idea of the absence of identity; this means that the adolescent has lost sight of who they are - they cannot 'see' themselves. This may then lead to a lack of positivity about the self and the about the situations they find themselves in. What is also vying for the attention of the adolescent is the need to break away and not belong, to find their individuality and this is what lies at the heart of Identity vs Role Confusion. Erikson thought that adolescents go through a 'moratorium' at this stage, giving them the opportunity to try out different identities without committing to a final version of themselves. This can be seen in examples such as teenagers adopting a new, possibly controversial, religion for a short time; becoming vegetarian; completely changing the way they dress, the music they listen to or their political views. After this period of crisis, a more stable, consolidated sense of identity is usually achieved. Erikson identified what he termed 'basic virtues' and their secondary virtues connected to each stage which result from facing and going through each crisis in his psychosocial stages. A basic virtue is not achieved in one easy and simple way. The adolescent stage is characterised by the basic virtues of Fidelity and Devotion (self-confidence, self-esteem so that the adolescent can feel confident mixing with a range of people and ideas based on merit, loyalty, social and interpersonal integrity, discretion, dignity, pride, seeing a useful purpose in life).

Gender role theories

Evolutionary theory: Biological and psychological differences in men and women are natural and result in different gender roles. Men are naturally more competitive and agressive because this increases chances of attracting a partner and providing resources for offspring. Women are nurturing because this is needed to attract a partner and take care of offspring. Evaluation: theory is controversial. there are cross-cultural differences as well as similarities in gender roles so it is more logical to assume that gender roles should be seen as interaction of biological and sociocultural factors. Theory of psychosexual differentiation: Gender role identity is related to genetic ses determined by chromosomes (XX girls, XY boys. During prenatal development, sex hormones are released. it is the presence of or absence of male hormones (androgens) that makes a difference in psychosexual differentiation. this theory suggests that humans are born with innate predispositions to act or feel female or male due to the presence or absence of prenatal androgens. Socialization plays a subsidiary role. theory supported by animal research. Female rat fetus, injected with testosterone tend to behave like male rats as adults. does not exhibit normal female sexual behavior in adulthood even they are injected with female hormone estrogen at the time. Social learning theory: Bandura (1977) theory assumes that gender roles are learned through observation of same-sex models, direct tuition, and modelling. 1. direct tuition: acceptable gender behaviour is rewarded (social approval) by significant others (parents, peers) and gender inappropriate behavior is discouraged (social disapproval). 2. modelling: of gender role behaviour by same-sex models: Child observes how others behave and then imitates (models) that behaviour. e.g Smith and Lloyd (1978) baby x experiment: adult asked to play with children in snowsuits. gender colored snowsuits. some were in confusing color. adults played with child depending on color of snowsuit and the gender they thought they were. indicates that a baby preconceived gender is a part of it social environment. people treat them according to their perceptions of gender. could influence child´s own perception of gender and become a determine factor in the development of the child´s gender role identity. strengths Social learning theory: predicts children acquire internal standards for behaviour through rewards and punishment. a number of empirical studies support the notion of modelling. Limitations of Social learning theory: cannot explain why there seem to be a considerable variation in the degree to which individual boy and girls conform to gender role stereotypes. suggest gender is more or less passively acquired but research shows children are active participants in the socialization proces.

Hazan and Shaver (1987) - attachment effect on future relationships

Hazan and Shaver were interested in the idea of Bowlby's internal working model - Bowlby claimed that the IWM formed a template for all future relationships. They designed a study to test whether there was a correlation between an infant's attachment type and their approach to romantic relationships once they were an adult. Aim: To investigate the influence of infant attachment style on adult romantic relationships. Sample: A self-selected sample of 620 people aged 14-82 years with a mean age of 36. There were 205 males and 415 females. The sample was obtained via an advert placed in a local newspapers asking for people to fill in a 'love quiz'. Method: participants were asked to fill in a 'love quiz' in which they had to indicate which of the 3 patterns best described their feeling about romantic relationships. The participants had to read the three statements shown in the box and indicate which paragraph best described their attitude to close relationships. Examples of the three types of statements are: A. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely. B. I find it relative easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. C. I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't stay with me. Results: About 60% of respondents showed a secure attachment style, 20% showed the avoidant style and 20% showed the ambivalent style. The researchers also asked participants to describe their parents' parenting style, using a simple adjective checklist. People who were securely attached said their parents had been readily available, attentive and responsive; those who were avoidant said their parents were unresponsive, rejecting and inattentive; those who were ambivalent said their parents were anxious, only sometimes responsive and generally out of step with their needs. Conclusion: Hazan and Shaver concluded romantic love is a process that shares important similarities with early attachment relationships. They also found that differences in adult attachment were related to beliefs about the self and others, which could be explained by attachment theory. According to the researchers romantic attachment serves as a secure base against the challenges of life, and involves mutual attachment, care-giving and sex.

Adolecence

In the western world, adolescence is defined as the period of development between puberty and adulthood. the concept of adolescence is controversial because: 1. not everyone agrees that it is a unique life period across all cultures. 2. enourmours individual and cultural differences in the adolescent experience. 3. most research on adolescence has been conducted in the western world.

The case of the Czech twins, PM and JM (Koluchova, 1972, 1991)

Koluchova reported a case study of identical Czechoslovakian twins who were discovered at the age of seven years. They had been kept locked in isolation in a cellar with only each other for company, and had been mistreated and beaten, and so they had not formed any attachment with any adult caregiver. When they were discovered they had very little speech and communicated mostly in gestures. After they were discovered they were fostered by two sisters who gave them a loving home. By the age of 14 years they had caught up to the extent that they were basically the same as other 14 year olds, and at the age of 20 years had above average intelligence, became university students, and were able to develop good relationships with others. It seems therefore that, given the right sort of loving and caring environment and the opportunity to develop an attachment to a sensitive caregiver, the effects of privation may be reversible. In a sense their resilience was based on the fact that they became each other's attachment figure (compare this to the sad case of Genie from earlier in this section). The twins could also be said to have shown some independence in their time together, reframing their experience (possibly at a sub-conscious level) so that they could envisage themselves as survivors rather than as victims. It is possible that if either had been alone then this might not have been possible; the support of the other twin might have been a crucial factor in each other's resilience. Critical thinking: The experience of the children in these case studies does not represent the kind of life experiences that most children will go through in the normal course of events. The interesting point about these studies of resilience is the fact that the children themselves became each other's attachment figure(s) rather than an adult. Bowlby's theory states that children need an adult to attach to but it seems that these case studies refute that idea. However, the children featured in these case studies did benefit from some adult interaction which might have formed an IWM for them on which to base future attachment behaviour. The Czech twins benefited from the loving family they joined when they were rescued, even though this happened several years after Bowlby's 'critical period' of attachment when the boys were seven years old.

Ainsworths (1970) - the strange situation.

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation is a classic in the field of Developmental Psychology and it has been replicated many times. The study uses a controlled observation in which a standardised procedure is carried out while observers watch via a one-way mirror. The study uses a real-life mother and baby around the age of one year old. The procedure can be broken down into very specific stages which are as follows. The caregiver (who we shall refer to as the mother) enters the room with her baby and sits down. The room contains interesting toys but is unfamiliar to the baby (i.e. it is a strange situation). A stranger enters, talks to the mother and then approaches the baby with a toy. The mother leaves quietly. If the infant seems fine the stranger tries to interact with him/her by talking or playing. If the baby shows distress the stranger attempts to comfort them. The mother returns and greets the infant. The stranger leaves. The mother then tries to engage the baby in play and then she leaves, saying goodbye to the baby. The baby is left alone. The stranger enters and tries to play with and speak to the baby. If the baby is upset the stranger will offer comfort. The mother returns, greets the baby and picks them up. The stranger leaves quietly. Result: Secure attachment (Type B): The mother is used as a secure base as the child explores the room. The child shows distress when the mother leaves the room but will soon be calm when she returns. The child prefers the mother over the stranger and will not be comforted by the stranger when the mother is not there. This type of attachment is thought to be the ideal; both mother and child benefit by the relationship and gain huge amounts of comfort from it. Seen in 70% of study. Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment (Type C): Children showing this attachment style do not explore the room very much, they stay close to the mother and show some distress even when she is present (e.g. clinging behaviour). They become extremely distressed when the mother leaves the room and they may not calm down when she returns (their behaviour is sometimes quite violent e.g. hitting her). They appear angry as well as anxious and they do not seem to see the mother as a secure base. This type of attachment can mean that the child grows into an adult who is anti-social, may suffer from mental health issues such as depression and who may find it difficult to trust other people. Insecure-resistant attachment style is seen in around 10-15% of Strange Situation studies. Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A): A child with this attachment style shows very little interest in the mother and barely reacts when she leaves the room or when she returns. They are unconcerned about a stranger being in the room and they may even show preference for the stranger over the mother. Children within this attachment style may grow into adults who are 'disconnected' from life, who struggel to show empathy and who cannot sustain intimate relationships. insecure-avoidant attachment style is seen in around 10-15% of Strange Situation studies. Evaluation: This study uses a controlled observation with a clearly defined procedure which makes it replicable plus the use of quantitative data enhances the study's reliability. The use of qualitative observations also adds rich, in-depth data to the results. Ecological validity is low as the study took place in a lab setting however it may be possible to claim some external validity as the behaviour of mother and child could be said to reflect patterns from real-life settings. Babies are unpredictable which makes this study lack some reliability as the baby's behaviour in the unfamiliar lab setting might not represent their usual responses. This was a snapshot study which means the data was collected once, on the day of testing. It would be a better idea to carry out a longitudinal study to ascertain whether the specific attachment style seen in the Strange Situation was consistent over time, thus increasing the reliability of the study.

Mead (1935) - gender roles evidence

She argued that masculine and feminine roles are not related to biology but gender role ideology. Cultural differences in gender roles are more likely to reflect cultural expectations than biology. compared gender roles in three New Guinean tribes: Arapesh tribe: Both men and women were cooperative, gentle and loving ( a traditional stereotype of female traits.) Men and women cooperated in tasks relating to crops and children. Mundugumor tribe: both men and women were arrogant, competitive, and emotionally unresponsive ( a traditional stereotype of male traits.) they were constantly quarreling. neither men nor women were interested in children. the children grew independent quickly which was a highly valued trait in the tribe. Tchambuli tribe: Men were interested in body adornments and spent their time gossiping with other men ( a traditional stereotype of female traits.) Women were responsible for food production, tool making and producing clothes.

Dennis (1973) - deprivation and privation can be repaired

The children who formed the participants in this research had, from birth, been put into an horrific institution in the Lebanon which deprived them of all types of nurture and stimulation. Less than 15% of them could walk at the age of three; they functioned as six-month olds for many years. The fascinating thing that then happened was that at the age of six the boys and girls were sent to separate orphanages. By their teen years the boys were operating at an almost normal level while the girls were still showing signs of extreme mental retardation. The researchers concluded that this difference was due to the fact that the girl's institution had been just as bad as the original orphanage but the boy's institution had provided a stimulating environment, education and recreation facilities and more individual attention. As a result the boys' intellectual retardation had been reversed - and this was even more evident in boys who had been adopted by families. The early damage had, quite simply, disappeared.

Childhood survivors of the Holocaust (Freud & Dann, 1946, 1951)

This is a study of six German-Jewish children who were born and orphaned in a deportation camp. The children grew up being physically cared for by other adult prisoners but their emotional needs were not met due to the harrowing and traumatic environment of the camp. The children witnessed many terrifying and horrific scenes during their three years in the camp and they all suffered the usual physical and developmental delays that such circumstances bring. By the time they were rescued the children were passionately attached to each other - caring for each other in a way that was unlike any other three year-old's behaviour. They were scared of and hostile towards adults and they absolutely refused to be separated from each other. They were taken to England where all but one were adopted. However, the researchers reported that within a year of starting their new lives the children had started to form attachments to adults - they were not necessarily easy relationships but they were relationships nonetheless. They had acquired language, they were advancing intellectually and all in all they were finding ways of adapting to their new situation. This case study reveals to us just how resilient human beings can be - and of the importance of having an attachment figure or figures. Critical thinking: The experience of the children in these case studies does not represent the kind of life experiences that most children will go through in the normal course of events. The interesting point about these studies of resilience is the fact that the children themselves became each other's attachment figure(s) rather than an adult. Bowlby's theory states that children need an adult to attach to but it seems that these case studies refute that idea. However, the children featured in these case studies did benefit from some adult interaction which might have formed an IWM for them on which to base future attachment behaviour. The holocaust children, although appearing to be only attached and responsive to each other, had experienced some (fragmented) instances of adult interaction whilst in the camp. Plus, the children did eventually form attachment bonds with their adoptive families, showing that their attachment style was flexible and not limited to each other.

Spitz and Wolf (1946) - deprivation and privation

This research is based on the conditions noted in some very poor orphanages in South America. The problems arose from the fact that the staff were largely untrained, over-worked and under-paid. There was very little attention paid to the infants in the orphanage, with staff hardly ever holding them or talking to them; little if any affection was shown to the infants and they had no stimulation in the form of toys. The orphan displayed anaclitic depression and exhibited behaviour that was apprehensive, anxious, weepy, withdrawn, with no appetite and sleep problems. These children were also well below average IQ. One of the most disturbing findings of this research is that experiencing only three months of this deprivation meant that recovery was virtually impossible. A similar study carried out in the USA and Canada highlighted the fact that over one-third of such children died before their first birthday, regardless of how well-fed or generally healthy they were.

Cohen (1964)

This research looked at 45 non-industrialised societies which held adulthood ceremonies. Statistical analysis of data from a sample of these societies supports Cohen's hypothesis that if parents want a child to acquire an anchorage to a wider community of kinsmen outside the nuclear family, they will have to weaken the child's identification with themselves. Cohen focused on the early stage of puberty, roughly between 8 and 10, when profound physiological changes occur without visible bodily alterations. In this confusing period of growth the most drastic (though not most colorful) initiation ceremonies took place. The male initiation ceremonies were particularly hard and painful in societies where being an adult was tough due to the difficult circumstances in which people lived. These initiation ceremonies allowed the boy to prove to the community that he was now a man.

Resillience

an ability to adapt to life-changing events or stressful circumstances. Dobbs (2009) flower metaphor: Dobbs' flower metaphor is as follows: orchids are fragile, beautiful and liable to withering away if the conditions are too harsh. They need tender, loving care if I they are to bloom and thrive. They may need a hot-house to bring out their best qualities. Orchids do not thrive in the cold, or the wind or if they have too much or too little water and food. Dandelions are weeds, very different to a beautiful flower. They can take root pretty much anywhere and they thrive in almost any conditions. Even if they are cut out their roots will look for another place to grow - be that in grass or between the cracks in the pavement. Dobbs' idea is that some people are orchids and others are dandelions. The dandelions are tough, being able to survive difficult early experiences with no apparent severe effects. People who are orchids, however, need the right type of early experience (e.g. loving, nurturing, safe) in order to bring out their best qualities. If an 'orchid' child has a difficult early life then Dobbs argues that they are more likely to grow into depressed, drug-addicted adults who may well end up in jail. A 'dandelion' child on the other hand will be resilient; able to survive tough conditions and go on to thrive. other sources of resilience might include: Having an independent and self-reliant outlook and behaviours i.e. the individual is not looking to other people to solve their problems; they look within themselves. Resilient children often hang out with families of untroubled peers. Refusing to be viewed as a 'victim', despite experiencing adverse life events. Survivors practice the habit of questioning themselves and giving honest answers. They are not afraid to take charge of their lives and take the initiative. They enjoy stretching and challenging themselves. Externalising blame i.e. not blaming yourself for the negative events in your life (particularly so if those events were the actions of other people). Internalising success i.e. taking responsibility for what goes well in your life. Having healthy relationships and nurturing them so that they flourish and provide emotional sustenance. Reframing: this is a way of shifting focus from what is negative and making it positive e.g. by viewing an unpleasant childhood memory in a way that 're-frames' it so that the individual emerges feeling strong, confident and in control of their life.

Gender identity

at around two years old children can correctly label their own or another persons sex or gender. development of gender identity is a step towards assuming a gender role. but is only at about seven years old that children learn that no matter what clothes one wears or what you do you still remain male or female, this is called gender constancy.

Body image and adolescence

cultural ideal hypothesis puberty will bring boys closer to their physical ideal (e.g. being bigger, stronger, athletic) whereas girls move further away from theirs (e.g. hair growth, a rounder figure, the 'shame' and discomfort of menstruation).

Gender schema

gender schema theory is based on the assumption that cognitive processes play a key til in the development of gender identity. most important factor of the development of gender role identity is children´s ability to label themselves as boys or girls, i.e. gender identity. gender schemas guide subsequent information processing. children are motivated to be like others in their group (conformity) and they tend to observe same-sex role models more carefully. cultural beliefs about female and male gender roles are included in gender schemas and influence the wat children think about themselves and their possibilities. Stengths: can explain children gender roles do not change after middle school. established gender schemas then to be maintained because children pay attention to and remember information that is consistent with their gender schemas. (confirmation bias) dipicts the child as actively trying to make sense of the world using its present knowledge and gender schemas serve as an internal, self-regulating standard. Limitations: to much focus on individual cognitive processes in the development of gender role. Social and cultural factors are not taken into account. it is not possible to explain how and why gender schemas develop and take the form they do.

Martin and Halvorson (1983) - gender schema evidence

participants: boy and girls, age 5- 6 years. procedure: saw pictures of male and females in activities that were either in line with gender role schemas (e.g girl playing with doll) or inconsistent with schemas (e.g. girl playing with gun). Week later asked to remember what they had seen on the pictures. Results. children had distorted memories of the pictures, that were not consistent with gender role schemas. they remembered the picture of a girl playing with a gun as a boy playing with a gun. Conclusion: shows how information may be distorted to fit with existing schemas.

Physical changes in adolescence

until puberty boys and girls produce roughly the same amount of "male hormones" (e.g. testosterone) and "female hormones " (e.g. estrogens), at the start of puberty the pituitary gland causes an upsurge of sex hormones so that girls now produce more estrogen and boys more testosterone. the physical "growth" is characterized by an increase in the distribution of body fat and muscle tissue. body grow taller and heavier and gradually becomes more adult-like, the adolescent has to become familiar with this new body and integrate a revised body image. girls experience changes 2-3 years before boys (10-13 years). most important changes are the development of breasts and a widening of the hips. the gain in body fat and rapid weight gain may be seen as problem for some girls because it clashes with western ideal of slim female figure. boys experience growth spurt as a broadening of the shoulders and an increase in muscle strength. having a masculine body is welcomed because it bring boys closer to their body ideal. boys whose bodies do not appear masculine may experience identity problems.