ED 229 FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Behaviorist theories share a number of common underlying assumptions. Describe three assumptions that behaviorists make and the implication of each one for classroom practice.
The five basic assumptions are mental processes can't be studied objectively so focus is on stimuli and responses. learning is a change in behavior not mental because of stimulus response associations, key to forming associations is close time proximity. Principles of learning apply equally to human beings and other animal species.
Describe what psychologists mean by the terms schema and script, and illustrate each of these concepts with a concrete example. Then explain how schemas and scripts sometimes play a role in knowledge construction
A *schema* is an organized set of facts about a specific concept or phenomenon. A *script* is a schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to some activity. Schemas and scripts promote knowledge construction by enabling learners to fill in missing information in a manner consistent with how objects typically are and/or how events typically unfold.
Edward was accidentally hurt in his physical education class last week when a large boy ran into him and knocked the breath out of him. Edward is now afraid to go to physical education. Explain this situation in terms of classical conditioning, identifying the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR
Edward associated physical education class with a temporary lack of oxygen—something that frightened him. Lack of oxygen was the *UCS*; being afraid as a result was the *UCR*. Physical education class and the boy who ran into him were associated with the lack of oxygen; hence they were *CS(s)*. Fearing physical education class and fearing the boy became *CR(s)*.
Describe the five needs in Maslow's hierarchy. Illustrate each one with a concrete example of how a student might behave.
Physiological needs = needs related to physical survival • Asking to use the restroom or drinking fountain • Being excessively restless • Acting lethargic due to lack of sleep • Feeling ill and asking to go see the nurse • Shivering Safety needs = the need to feel safe and secure • Wanting to know what will happen in class • Staying away from the school bully • Being truant if the route to school is dangerous • Being truant if classmates bring weapons to class Love and belonging needs = needs to have affectionate relationships with others and to feel that one is part of a group • Dressing in accordance with current fashions • Conforming to a group • Preferring group activities to independent seatwork • Participating in extracurricular activities
Discuss differences between knowledge transforming and knowledge telling approaches to the writing task.
*Knowledge transforming* must stress the goal of reader comprehension and how a writer might use knowledge of how readers' process information to aid comprehension. *Knowledge telling* must stress the fact that communicating for "understanding" or "communicating" effectively are not relevant to the process- the act of getting ideas in one's mind on paper.
Distinguish among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, presentation punishment, and removal punishment. Give a concrete example of each one.
*Positive reinforcement* is a consequence in which a presumably desirable stimulus is presented *Negative reinforcement* is a consequence in which a presumably unpleasant stimulus is removed. *Presentation punishment* involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus *Removal punishment* involves the removal of a presumably desirable stimulus. Both positive and negative reinforcement lead to an increase in the behavior they follow. Both presentation punishment and removal punishment lead to a decrease in the behavior they follow
Many cognitive psychologists believe that human memory has three components. Describe each of these components, including both its capacity and its duration. Explain how students must process information so that it arrives at the third, final component
*Working memory* - In the moment. Stores and "works on" attended output. Multiple specialized components. Limited capacity, short duration. Cognitive load matters *Long term memory* - Forever. Stores processed information- knowledge, beliefs, episodic memories, and procedural skills. Unlimited capacity, long duration *Sensory register*- Stores uncoded input. Large capacity very short duration
In its discussion of motivation, the textbook describes three kinds of achievement goals: mastery goals, performance-approach goals, and performance-avoidance goals. *a* In a short paragraph, explain how these three types of goals are different. *b* Describe four ways in which students with mastery goals and those with performance goals (especially those with performance-avoidance goals) are likely to think and/or act differently. ??? *c* List three strategies you might use to promote mastery goals. Illustrate each one with a concrete example of something you might do. •
*a* A mastery goal is a desire to acquire new knowledge or skills. A performance goal is a desire either to look good and receive favorable judgments (a performance-approach goal) or else not to look bad and be judged poorly (a performance-avoidance goal). *b* Mastery Goals: More intrinsic, care more about the details to achieve a goal, a student wants to actually learn the skill, may raise hand even if they may be wrong (learn from mistakes) Performance Goals: Care more about what others think Performance-Avoidance Goals: Won't raise a hand in class for fear of looking bad Approach: Care more about looking good; will raise a hand if they know the correct answer *c* Present subject matter that students find value in and of itself. • Relate subject matter to students' present and/or future needs and goals. • Insist on meaningful learning and true understanding rather than rote learning. • Give specific feedback about how students can improve. • Encourage students to use their peers not as a reference point for their own progress, but rather as a source of ideas and help. However, strategies that promote interest and other forms of intrinsic motivation are also acceptable. Following are examples: • Capitalize on students' existing interests. • Model your own interest in and enthusiasm for the subject matter. • Get students actively involved with the subject matter (e.g., with hands-on activities or class discussion.) • Include novelty, variety, fantasy, or mystery in classroom materials and/or procedures. • Encourage identification with prominent figures in history or fictional characters in literature. • Present inconsistent or discrepant information. • Occasionally let students make choices about what they want to study. • Encourage students to set goals that are challenging yet achievable. • Show students that they are making progress. • Acknowledge that effective learning requires exerting effort and making mistakes. • Encourage students to use their errors to help them learn.
Some motivation theorists believe that in order to be intrinsically motivated, students must have both a sense of competence and a sense of self-determination. *a* Briefly describe these two concepts, illustrating each with a concrete example: *b* With the two concepts in mind, describe four strategies for promoting intrinsic motivation in a classroom setting.
*a* A sense of competence is a belief that one can deal effectively with the environment. A sense of self-determination is a belief that one is in control of one's destiny and can make choices regarding the direction that one's life will take. *b* • Help students achieve success, especially on challenging tasks. • Provide mechanisms that enable students to track their progress. • Minimize competition and other situations in which students might judge themselves unfavorably in comparison with peers. • Create an environment in which students feel comfortable taking risks and making mistakes. • Give larger rewards for accomplishing challenging tasks than for accomplishing easy ones. • Provide opportunities for independent work and decision making. • Present rules and instructions in an informational rather than controlling manner. • Provide opportunities for students to make choices. • Evaluate students' performance in a noncontrolling fashion. • Be selective about when and how to use extrinsic reinforcers.
A girl in your classroom rarely interacts with her classmates. She is obviously quite lonely but apparently has no confidence in her ability to make friends. Using a behaviorist perspective, describe how you might help the girl develop social skills through shaping. In your discussion, be sure to include: *a*. The specific behavior(s) you would shape: *b*. A specific reinforcer you might use, as well as a justification for your choice *c*. The sequence of steps you might take as you shape the desired behavior:
*a* One or more social behaviors (e.g., carrying on a conversation, smiling at others, initiating interaction with a classmate, etc.) should be shaped *b* Because the girl appears to be lonely, some form of social reinforcers (praise, attention, etc.) may be appropriate. Or perhaps, if the girl really wants to make friends, positive feedback regarding appropriate social behavior might be sufficient. (One of these or any other well-justified reinforcer is acceptable here.) *c*
You are teaching your students how to do something—perhaps how to solve a math problem, write a research paper, or do a side dismount from the parallel bars—and you find that your students have low self-efficacy for doing the task. a. Describe a specific task that you might eventually be teaching. *b*. Considering the factors affecting self-efficacy that the textbook describes, develop two strategies you might use to enhance your students' self-efficacy for performing the task. For each one, describe what you would do in specific and concrete terms.
*a* A specific task that I might eventually teach as an art teacher would be to teach students blend their pencil shading. If they were having difficulty I could try using videos on youtube as resources? *b*. • Assign tasks that are challenging yet within students' current ability levels. • Provide words of encouragement (e.g., "I know you can do it"). (This strategy is apt to be effective only over the short run.) • Expose students to the successes of similar-ability peers. • Teach basic knowledge and skills to mastery. • Define success as mastery or improvement, not in terms of peer comparison. • Scaffold students' efforts. • Teach effective learning and study strategies. • Have students tackle difficult tasks in small groups (potentially leading to collective self-efficacy). • Provide concrete mechanisms through which students can track their progress. • Present negative feedback in a way that communicates competence and the ability to improve. • Once some self-efficacy is established, allow students to fail occasionally as a way of building resilient self-efficacy
Perspectives such as behaviorism and social cognitive theory show us how the consequence (reinforcement or punishment) of a particular behavior affects the extent to which the behavior is likely to appear again. Attribution theory has cast a new light on this notion, maintaining that the consequences of behavior will affect each person's learning and future behavior differently, depending on how the individual interprets those consequences. Within the context of attribution theory: *a* Explain what motivation theorists mean when they talk about attributions. *b* Explain how students' responses to failure are likely to be different when they attribute that failure to a controllable cause or to an uncontrollable one. Give a concrete example to illustrate your explanation. *c* Describe three specific strategies you might use to foster more productive attributions in your students. In each case, use attribution theory to explain why you think the strategy will be effective.
*a* An attribution is a student's explanation regarding why a specific event (e.g., a success or failure) has occurred. *b* Students are more likely to respond productively to failure—for example, to try harder or use a different strategy—if they believe they have control over the factors contributing to their failure. They are unlikely to change their behavior if they think the source of the failure is beyond their control. *c* Provide sufficient instruction and support that students can experience success if they exert reasonable effort Make response-reinforcement contingencies clear Communicate high yet realistic expectations for student performance Attribute students' successes to both high ability and such controllable internal factors as effort or learning strategies Attribute students' successes to effort only when they have exerted a great deal of effort Attribute students' failures to factors they can control Attribute students' failures to a lack of effort only when they clearly haven't tried very hard Help students acquire more effective learning strategies Define success as eventual rather than immediate mastery Evaluate students in terms of the improvement they're making Minimize competition among students
Describe the role that each of the factors below plays in students' ability to solve problems. Illustrate the role of each with a concrete example *a* Working memory capacity *b* Encoding *c* Metacognition
*a* Because working memory capacity is limited, students can consider only so many aspects of a problem at once. When a problem is complex and multifaceted, students may have difficulty keeping all of its components in mind at once. *b* How students encode a problem in memory *c* How our brain works and how you know how it works (your ability to think about thinking)
Compare and contrast cognitive psychology, behaviorism, and social cognitive theory with respect to each of the following: *a* How learning is defined: *b* The role that consequences of behavior play in learning: *c* The role that mental processes play in learning:
*a* Cognitive psychology and social cognitive theory both define learning as an internal mental phenomenon. Behaviorism defines it as a behavior change. *b* Cognitive psychology does not focus on the consequences of behavior. Social cognitive theory considers consequences experienced either directly or vicariously. Behaviorists focus on reinforcement and punishment experienced personally. *c* Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes. Social cognitive theory considers them, although not in as much detail. Mental processes play little role in behaviorism.
Greg has terrible study habits. Whenever he is given an assignment to be done either in class or at home, he doesn't begin the assignment until he has been repeatedly nagged by either you (his teacher) or his parents. Furthermore, Greg seems unable to complete assignments without constant prodding to stay on task. Explain how you might use instrumental conditioning to help Greg develop better study habits. Be concrete and specific in your explanation of what you would do, and be sure to include each of the following in your description: *a* The baseline: *b* The terminal behavior: *c* A secondary reinforcer you might use: *d* Shaping: *e* Some means of preventing extinction:
*a* Greg's baseline for completing his assignments without reinforcement is quite low, as he rarely if ever completes them. *b* The desired terminal behavior is doing homework on a regular basis without being prodded. *c* Possible secondary reinforcers include praise, feedback, favorite activities, checkmarks or other tokens that can be traded in for something special, and so on. *d* Reinforcing a series of steps that become increasingly more similar to the desired terminal behavior. *e* Extinction can be prevented by continuing to reinforce Greg on an intermittent basis after the terminal behavior has been reached. It can also be prevented by continuing to provide an extrinsic reinforcer until such time as Greg finds studying behavior intrinsically reinforcing.
Students' prior knowledge about a topic often influences their ability to learn something new about that topic. Explain how students' prior knowledge is involved in each of the following long-term memory storage processes: *a* Elaboration: *b* Organization: *c* Visual Imagery:
*a* Learners use their prior knowledge to embellish on a new idea, thereby storing more information than was actually presented. Prior knowledge enhances students' ability to elaborate on information-for example, to fill in missing details, clarify ambiguities, and draw inferences *b* Humans learn and remember a body of new information more easily when we pull it together in some reasonable way. We make connections among various pieces of new information and forming an overall cohesive structure *c* Forming mental pictures of objects or ideas-can be a highly effective method of storing information.
Social cognitive theorists propose that people often become increasingly self-regulating over time. *a* Explain what social cognitive theorists mean by the term self-regulation. *b* Identify an activity for which you would like students to become increasingly self-regulating. Then describe two specific strategies you might use to promote their self-regulation. Your strategies should be based on concepts and/or principles that social cognitive theorists provide. A student behavior that is appropriately self-regulated (study skills, independent seatwork, interpersonal conflict resolution, etc.) should be identified. Then, two concrete strategies should be described that reflect two or more of the following ideas:
*a* Self-regulation is a process of setting standards and goals for oneself and engaging in behaviors and cognitive processes that enable one to meet those standards and goals. *b* • Provide opportunities for students to set their own goals (ideally, these goals should be challenging yet achievable). • Teach strategies for keeping counterproductive emotions in check. • Have students talk themselves through a task. • Have students observe and record their own behavior. • Have students evaluate their own performance; possibly compare students' self-evaluations to their teacher's evaluations. • Teach students to reinforce themselves for successful performance. • Give students opportunities to learn without teacher assistance
Explain each of the following situations in terms of attribution theory. *a* After a history of school failures, Marcus eventually stops trying to do well. *b* A fifth-grade teacher gives her class a difficult mathematics test, and many of her students fail it. She tells her class that she will give them a different test over the same material tomorrow. Many of the boys in the class say they will go home and study again. Some of the girls say that they already studied once, but it didn't do much good, so why bother? *c* Samantha's mother helps her study for a spelling test on Tuesday and a vocabulary test on Thursday. Samantha passes the spelling test and is quite proud of herself. She fails the vocabulary test and blames her mother for not helping her enough.
*a* Students with a history of failure are likely to develop the belief that success is beyond their control—for instance, that they lack the necessary innate ability. Marcus is beginning to show signs of learned helplessness *b* Males tend to attribute their failures to a lack of effort; therefore, they will be relatively optimistic about their chances for future success. In contrast, females tend to attribute their failures to a lack of ability; therefore, they will be relatively pessimistic about their chances for future success. This gender difference is most often observed for traditionally "male" subject areas such as mathematics. *c* Students have a tendency to attribute their successes to internal causes and their failures to external causes
Research tells us that students' misconceptions about a topic are often quite resistant to change, yet sometimes misconceptions must change if students are to acquire an accurate understanding of the world around them. *a*. Describe three different reasons that psychologists have offered about why students' misconceptions are sometimes resistant to change. *b*. Describe at least three teaching strategies that theorists believe should help students change their misconceptions about the world.
*a* Students' existing beliefs affect their interpretation of new information Students' existing beliefs may be more consistent with their everyday experiences Some beliefs are integrated into a cohesive whole, with many interconnections among ideas Students may fail to notice an inconsistency between new information and their existing beliefs Students may have personal or emotional investment in their existing beliefs *b* Identify existing misconceptions before instruction begins Look for and then build on kernels of truth in students' current understandings Convince students that their existing beliefs need revision Present phenomena and ask questions that lead students to find weakness in their current understandings Have students conduct experiments to test various hypotheses and predictions Ask students to propose several possible explanations for puzzling phenomena and to discuss the pros and cons of each one Show how one explanation of an event or phenomenon is more plausible Have students apply the new ideas to real life situations and problems
Some motivation theorists believe that human beings have a basic need for relatedness. *a* In a paragraph, explain what theorists mean by this concept, and describe three different student behaviors you might see that would indicate a high need for relatedness. *b* In three additional paragraphs, describe three different strategies you might use to address students' need for relatedness in the classroom. Be specific as to what you might do.
*a* The need for relatedness is the need to feel socially connected and to secure others' love and respect. This need may manifest itself in a variety of student behaviors, such as the following (give credit for other reasonable examples as well): • Interacting with peers, perhaps at the expense of getting schoolwork done • Being concerned about projecting a favorable public image • Showing concern for others' welfare • Helping others • Showing susceptibility to peer pressure *b* • Include group activities (e.g., class discussions, cooperative learning) in the weekly schedule. • Show students that you like and respect them and are concerned about their well-being. • Create a classroom culture in which everyone is valued and respected. • Give recognition for students' achievements and good deeds. • Reward students for high achievement by giving them a little bit of free time at the end of class to interact with classmates. • Help students maintain a good "image" in the eyes of their peers (e.g., don't single them out as being high achievers if their friends don't value academic achievement; scold them privately rather than publicly for any wrongdoings). • Occasionally rearrange seating assignments as a way of helping students get to know some of their classmates better. Each of the strategies identified should be described in sufficiently specific and concrete terms that you have a fairly good idea as to what the teacher would do and how it would address students' need for relatedness.
Pick a topic you might effectively teach through a cooperative learning approach. Then, using guidelines presented in the textbook, describe how you will: *a* Form your cooperative groups: *b* Foster interdependence of group members: *c* Assess what students have learned:
*a* The procedure used to form cooperative groups should ensure that students in each group can work effectively together. The groups should be somewhat diverse with respect to gender and ethnic background (gender-homogeneous groups are appropriate if there is a desire to encourage girls to participate more actively). *b* Interdependence of group members can be achieved by: (1) assigning different roles to different group members (e.g., through scripted cooperation), or (2) using a jigsaw technique in which each group member receives information that he or she must then teach to the rest of the group. *c* Cooperative learning is most effective when students are individually accountable for their own learning but also receive rewards for achievement of the group as a whole.
In each of the following situations, a student either is learning or has learned something. (1) Classify each of the situations as involving either classical or instrumental conditioning. (2) Defend your answer by analyzing the situation within the context of the learning paradigm you have chosen. *a* James begins running down the hall toward the cafeteria, his teacher asks him to walk instead. James begins walking, and the teacher gives him a smile. After that, James always makes sure that he walks rather than runs to the cafeteria. *b* Ralph's friend offers him an illegal drug. Ralph takes the drug and finds that it makes him feel great. Ralph begins to buy the drug himself and takes it more and more frequently. *c* Linda is a bright, academically capable girl. Once when she was sick, she failed an important test. Now she is very anxious whenever she takes a test.
*a* This is instrumental conditioning (walking is a voluntary response). Walking is reinforced by the teacher's smile and increases in frequency as a result. *b* This is instrumental conditioning (taking a drug is a voluntary response). Taking the drug is reinforced by the feeling it produces, so the behavior increases in frequency. *c* This is classical conditioning.
In each of the following situations, a person is learning through either reinforcement or punishment. Classify each situation as involving one of these four consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, presentation punishment, or removal punishment. Then explain why you chose the answer you did. *a* Because Danielle fails her math class, she is taken off the school dance squad. *b* Joe always does his homework assignments as soon as he gets them so he won't have to worry about them anymore. *c* Lisa and Fran are giggling about something in the back of the classroom. Their teacher scowls at them. They are embarrassed and shut up *d* A teacher finds that by yelling at her students when they get too rowdy, they will settle down and be quiet for a while. (Focus on what is happening to the teacher.)
*a* This is removal punishment: a pleasant state of affairs (being on the dance squad) is removed after Danielle fails her math class *b* This is negative reinforcement: Joe is doing his homework in order to get rid of something unpleasant (his feeling of worry). *c* This is presentation punishment: something presented (a scowl) leads to a decrease in giggling behavior. *d* This is negative reinforcement: the teacher's yelling is reinforced by the removal of something she doesn't like (her students' rowdy behavior).
Many psychologists propose that learning often involves elaboration. Explain what they mean by the term elaboration, and give a concrete example to illustrate it Then explain: *a* Why educational psychologists recommend that students elaborate as much as possible *b* Why different people often elaborate on the same information differently *c* Why elaboration sometimes leads to the storage of inaccurate information
Elaboration involves embellishing on new information using what one already knows. *a* Elaboration usually promotes more effective memory of the information over the long run (better students elaborate more frequently). Also, multiple elaborations promote multiple connections in long-term memory, thereby facilitating retrieval at a later time. *b* Each person brings unique knowledge base to new information and therefore makes unique connections with the information *c* People may reinterpret new information in light of misconceptions they have
Describe how your students' level of anxiety is likely to affect their classroom learning and performance, being sure to include the concepts of facilitating anxiety and debilitating anxiety in your discussion. Then describe three strategies you can use to keep students' anxiety at a productive level.
Generally speaking, some anxiety promotes learning and performance; this is facilitating anxiety. A great deal of anxiety often interferes with effective learning and performance; this is debilitating anxiety. Easy, automatic tasks are often facilitated by high levels of anxiety, but more difficult tasks are best undertaken with low or moderate levels. *Possible strategies a teacher can use to keep students at a facilitative level include the following:* • Communicate clear expectations for students' performance. • Hold realistic expectations for students' achievement. • Match the level of instruction to students' current knowledge and abilities. • Provide support or scaffolding to help students master subject matter. • Teach effective learning and study strategies so that students can be successful. • Assess students' performance independently of how other students are performing (i.e., don't grade "on the curve"). • Provide specific feedback rather than global evaluations. • Allow students to correct errors.
Identify a particular grade level at which you hope to teach some day. If appropriate, also identify the particular subject area in which you plan to specialize (science, social studies, language arts, physical education, etc.). Then describe three different strategies you might use to promote higher-level cognitive processes in your students. Illustrate each strategy with a specific, concrete example of what you might do.
I will be teaching K-12 Art Education. • Teach fewer topics, but in greater depth. • Encourage some intellectual skepticism. • Overtly model critical thinking. • Give students many opportunities to practice critical thinking. • Have students debate controversial issues from several perspectives, and occasionally ask them to defend a perspective quite different from their own. • Help students understand that critical thinking involves considerable mental effort but that its benefits make the effort worthwhile. • Embed critical thinking skills within the context of authentic, real-world problems. Each strategy should be illustrated with a specific example.
Luke approaches you before class and expresses his frustration about having done so poorly on yesterday's exam. "I studied for hours and hours," he tells you. "I guess I'm just not a very good test taker." You know that your test was a good measure of what you taught your students. You also know that students seldom do poorly on your tests simply because they are poor test takers. What other possible explanation might you give Luke as to why he thought he knew the material well yet earned a low test score. And with your explanation in mind, describe a strategy you might teach him to improve his performance next time.
Luke may have had the illusion of knowing the material: He used ineffective study strategies (e.g., rote memorization) and failed to monitor his comprehension, so he thought he knew the material better than he really did. Luke needs to develop a strategy for monitoring his comprehension (e.g., self-questioning).
Describe the mastery learning approach to instruction, identifying four major components that are typically included. Then give a concrete example of how you might use mastery learning to teach a specific topic, being sure to illustrate all four of the components you listed.
Mastery learning approaches are those that ensure that students learn one topic thoroughly before proceeding to the next one. Components of mastery learning approaches are these: • Small, discrete units • A logical sequence of topics • Demonstration of mastery at the completion of each unit • Remedial activities for students needing extra assistance to achieve mastery
Describe what psychologists mean when they say that attention and working memory have a limited capacity. Discuss an implication of this limited capacity for students' learning in the classroom.
People can attend to and process only a small amount of information, and thus can deal with only one complex task, at any time. *This limited processing capacity has several possible implications*: Keep students' attention focused on the task at hand. Capture students' attention by making subject matter interesting, exciting, puzzling.. Minimize distractions that take students' attention away from their schoolwork Pace instruction so that students receive only so much new information at once-so that the capacity of their working memory capacity is not exceeded Don't ask students to solve complex problems entirely in their heads Promote automaticity of basic skills that students will use in more complex activities
Distinguish between positive and negative transfer, and give a concrete example of each to illustrate your discussion
Positive transfer-- something learned at one time that facilitates learning or performance at a later time-- example: practice with note taking in history improves performance in science Negative transfer-- something learned at one time that interferes with learning or performance at a later time-- example: transferring a principle related to whole numbers to a situation where it doesn't apply like comparing decimals
Describe reciprocal teaching and its effects on student achievement. Explain its effectiveness using principles of learning from cognitive psychology, being sure to address metacognition in your discussion.
Reciprocal teaching is an approach to teaching reading comprehension in which a group of students and their teacher read passages from expository text, stopping periodically to ask teacher like questions of one another. The teacher initially models appropriate questions and then gradually turns the role of "teacher" over to students; each student has a turn asking questions about the text and encouraging other group members to do likewise. Reciprocal teaching has been shown to have dramatic effects on students' reading comprehension skills. It promotes four information processing strategies—summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. By verbalizing these strategies aloud within a social context, and by observing how classmates process the material they read, students acquire greater metacognitive awareness of how reading material can be effectively processed.
Imagine that you are a compulsive overeater. Describe two different strategies based on the concept of self-regulation through which you might cut down on eating. Be specific as to how you might implement each method.
Self-regulation, or the ability to manage our emotions, moods, thoughts, impulses and behaviors, is a developmental achievement. Conditions need to be right for our brains to develop and connect the proper circuitry for us to be capable of self-regulation. Given that our early childhood environment has a powerful impact on brain development, and that you can't go back in time for a "redo", it would be easy to feel hopeless about your chances of altering your brain's functioning, improving your self-care and your response to stressors, and resolving eating challenges. But it turns out that there is good reason to hold hope. Neuroplasticity is a term used to refer to the brain's ability to reconfigure itself- to establish and to dissolve connections between its different parts, in response to experience. Research suggests that even into old age, our experiences can actually change the physical structure of the brain. In other words, it's never too late to grow neural fibers and improve self-regulation.
Describe the basic idea underlying self-worth theory. Then, explain what self-handicapping is and the role it plays relative to self-worth. To illustrate your discussion, describe two different kinds of self-handicapping that students might exhibit in or outside of the classroom.
Some motivation theorists propose that people have a strong need to protect their general sense of competence—that is, to protect their sense of self-worth. In some cases people engage in behaviors that actually undermine their chances of success, but such behaviors enable them to maintain their sense of self-worth even as they are failing; this phenomenon is known as self-handicapping. Examples of self-handicapping include the following (the response should include at least two of these or offer two plausible alternatives): • Reducing effort, to the point where success is highly unlikely • Misbehaving in class • Setting such high goals that even the most capable individual could not attain them • Taking on so many tasks that it is impossible to complete them all • Procrastinating, putting off a task until success is virtually impossible • Cheating on tests or assignments • Using alcohol or drugs that will almost certainly reduce performance
You are hired to teach a struggling student (Joy) more effective study skills. Describe five different strategies that you will teach Joy so that she can study and learn more effectively. Include at least one strategy that will enable Joy to transfer the things she learns to new situations.
Study over several days, outline information (concept map), periodically check oneself for recall and understanding of info, make notecards from notes, ask yourself questions.
What happens when students do not get the reinforcement they think they will get for behaving in a certain way? What happens when they expect to be punished for something but are not? From the perspective of social cognitive theory, describe the effects that the nonoccurrence of expected reinforcement and expected punishment are likely to have on students' later behavior.
The nonoccurrence of expected reinforcement for a behavior is punishing, and the behavior should decrease in frequency. The nonoccurrence of expected punishment for a behavior is reinforcing, and the behavior should increase in frequency.
A number of assumptions underlie social cognitive theory. Describe three of these, and derive an implication of each one for classroom practice
The textbook lists five assumptions underlying social cognitive theory: • People can learn by observing others. • Learning is an internal process that may or may not result in a behavior change. • Cognitive processes influence both learning and motivation. • People and their environments mutually influence each other. • Behavior becomes increasingly self-regulated.
Some experts recommend a three-level approach to combating school aggression and violence. In three paragraphs, describe each of the three levels and the students for whom they are appropriate.
Three different levels of intervention are appropriate for different types of students. All students benefit from the first level, creating a nonviolent school environment. Such an effort (which must be maintained on a long-term basis) includes a schoolwide commitment to supporting all students' academic and social success, caring and dependable faculty-student relationships, equal respect for students of diverse backgrounds and ethnicities, clear guidelines for behavior, student participation in decision making, opportunities for students to communicate their concerns without fear of reprisal, and so on. The second level, early intervention, is appropriate for the 10% to 15% of students who may be at risk for social failure. Such intervention must be tailored to students' individual needs; for instance, it might include social skills training, systematic efforts to encourage and reinforce productive behaviors, and the like. The third level, intensive intervention for students in trouble, is appropriate for a small minority of students who may be predisposed to be aggressive and violent (e.g., students with serious mental illness and those with a long history of violent behavior). Such intervention typically requires close collaboration with other agencies (e.g., mental health clinics, probation departments, social services)
How do schemas and scripts develop? Provide an example of each.
Through the teaching of others, learning experiences on one's own, repetition of activities, and understanding how concepts are related to one another or not related to one another.
George does not know the days of the week. You want him to be able to recite all seven days in order, beginning with Sunday. Devise a superimposed meaningful structure you might use to help George remember the days.
To help George be able to know and recite the days of the week we could teach him: Sallie Mae taught Wendy Turner flamenco salsa.
One of your objectives for the coming school year is to foster your students' creative thinking and/or behavior in a subject area you will be teaching. Basing your discussion on at least four different factors known to influence creativity, describe four strategies you might use to promote such creativity. Illustrate each strategy with a concrete example of what you might do.
Value creativity. Encourage and reward unusual ideas. Engage in creative behavior yourself. Focus on internal rewards. Provide opportunities to explore special interests. Downplay the importance of grades. Focus students' attention on the internal satisfaction that creative efforts bring. Promote mastery of a subject area. Help students master course content. Ask thought-provoking questions. Ask higher-level questions Look for answers and behaviors that, although not what you had in mind, are legitimately correct.
Define the concept of vicarious reinforcement and give a concrete classroom example to illustrate its effects on students' behavior
Vicarious reinforcement is a phenomenon in which an individual's behavior increases after he or she observes someone else being reinforced for that behavior.
Choose a topic with which you are familiar and imagine that you have to give a half-hour lecture on that topic. Describe your topic, then explain in concrete terms four different things you should do in your lecture to facilitate students' ability to process the information effectively.
• An advance organizer • Connections to students' prior knowledge • Analogies • Assessment of existing misconceptions • A coherent organization • Signals about what's important • Visual aids • Appropriate pacing • A summary at the end
It's the first day of class, and you want to start off the school year on the right foot. Describe five different strategies that the textbook recommends for establishing a productive classroom—one in which students are working consistently toward achieving your instructional goals and objectives. Describe each of these strategies in a short paragraph, being specific and concrete as to what you might do.
• Arrange the classroom in a way that minimizes possible distractions (e.g., one that establishes appropriate traffic patterns). • Arrange furniture to facilitate your interaction with all students. • Place misbehaving and/or uninvolved students near you. • Situate yourself where you can see all your students. • Communicate your care and concern for students. • Actively work to repair nonproductive teacher-student relationships. • Maintain a businesslike atmosphere, focusing on students' achievement of instructional goals and objectives. • Refrain from threatening behaviors. • Communicate the value of classroom subject matter in students' own lives; focus students' attention on mastery goals rather than performance goals. • Let students control some aspects of classroom life. • Minimize competition among students. • Create a sense of community and belongingness among students. • Establish a few rules for appropriate classroom behavior at the beginning of the school year. • Create routines for accomplishing classroom tasks. • Describe rules and procedures in an informational rather than controlling manner. • Involve students in decision making about classroom rules and procedures. • Acknowledge students' feelings about unpleasant tasks. • Be consistent and equitable in your enforcement of rules. • Plan classroom activities in advance. • Keep students productively engaged. • Choose tasks and assignments appropriate for students' ability levels. • Begin the school year with easy and familiar tasks; introduce more difficult ones only after a supportive classroom climate has been established. • Provide some structure for classroom activities. • Give students something to do during transition times. • Monitor what students are doing at all times
Modeling can be a very effective teaching strategy. Choose a specific behavior you might teach your students through modeling. Then describe how you would take into account the four conditions necessary for student modeling to occur. • Attention • Retention • Motor reproduction • Motivation
• Attention—The response should include some means of capturing students' attention. • Retention—The response should include some way of helping students remember what they observe. • Motor reproduction—Students must be physically capable of executing the behavior. • Motivation—Students must have a desire to demonstrate the behavior.
As teachers, we should keep in regular contact with parents about how their children are performing and progressing in our classrooms. Describe four different strategies that you might use to open and/or maintain lines of communication with your students' parents.
• Hold parent-teacher conferences. • Conduct conferences and other discussions at times and locations convenient for families. • Send notes or newsletters home. • Call parents on the telephone. • Communicate by email if working in a relatively affluent community. • Conduct parent discussion groups. • Invite parents to school events (possibly w/ personal invitations). • Request parents' assistance with fund-raisers. • Seek volunteers to help with field trips, tutoring, homework hotlines, etc. • Use parents as resources to give the class a more multicultural perspective. • Make an effort to get parents' trust and confidence. • Encourage parents to be assertive when they have questions or concerns. • Keep other important family members involved
Identify a topic you might teach that your students could eventually use as adults in the outside world. With the factors affecting transfer in mind, describe four different strategies you can use to help students transfer what they learn to situations outside the classroom. For each strategy, be specific and concrete as to what you would do.
• Promote meaningful learning. • Examine a few topics in depth rather than many topics superficially. • Make sure students master classroom material. • Relate classroom material to the outside world. • Develop school tasks that resemble real-world situations (e.g., authentic activities). • Promote multiple associations between classroom material and real-world situations. • Teach general principles. • Provide many and different examples and opportunities for practice. • Show students how concepts and/or procedures associated with one academic discipline have applicability to other disciplines as well. • Regularly encourage and expect transfer
Mary, a student in your class, has difficulty keeping her attention on classroom activities. Describe four different strategies you might use to help her keep her attention better focused on class. Base your strategies on those presented in the textbook as being effective.
• Seat Mary near the teacher's desk. • Cue Mary when she's off task. • Discuss the problem privately with Mary. • Teach Mary self-regulation techniques (e.g., self-monitoring, self-reinforcement). • Consistently reinforce Mary for paying attention. • Confer with Mary's parents about possible reasons for the inattentiveness and possible solutions to the problem. • Conduct a functional analysis (i.e., identify and address any purposes that Mary's inattentive behavior may serve for her).
Identify a grade level at which you might teach. Pick a topic you might teach at that grade level and explain how you might teach it through discovery or inquiry learning. In your explanation, incorporate at least three strategies that the textbook recommends for these approaches.
• Students have the knowledge they need to interpret their findings appropriately. • The teacher provides some structure to guide students' discovery activities. • Puzzling results arouse students' curiosity or in some other way to motivate students. • The activity is sufficiently structured that students can proceed logically to the desired discoveries. • Students record their findings. • Students are encouraged to relate their findings to academic concepts and principles.
