Education

eval: cultural or material factors?

*fact some wc do well suggests material deprivation only part of the problem *cultural, rel and political views may play part in creating and sustaining childs motivations MORTIMORE&WHITTY: material inequalities- greater effect on edu achievement than skl factors ROBINSON: tackling child poverty - most effective way to boost achievement

Successful working class girls - id class and girls achievement

*girls in wc in general more likely to under achieve - BUT some do succeed -however may be disadvanataged by gender/class id EVANS: 21 wc 6th form girls -girls-uni to increase earning power BUT not for selves - to help fam SKEGGS: motivation reflected wc fem ids - 'caring' cruical part of id - girls evans study remain at home and care for fam instead of moving out to uni ECONOMIC NECESSITY ANOTHER REASON FOR STAYING AT HOME: -Results in self-exclusion from elite unis -places limit on their success -cost/fear of debt - major issues on wc deciding which uni to go to -living at home more affordable but limited choice of their uni and market value of their degree

Bowels and gintis rejection of role allocation

-B&G reject this functionalist claim -their r/search found obediant got best grades not non conformists or creative thinkers - so edu syst rewards those who conform to qualities required of future work force

What way is functionalism a new right similar

-Believe edu should socialise people into shared values and provide sense of national identity -leave some people are naturally more talented -agree functionalism education should be run on meritocratic principles open competition Difference between new right and functionalism: -do you write don't believe they can run efficient education system

Ethnic differences in achievement : cultural deprivation -external factors

-CD Theory sees underachievement of some ethnic groups result of lack of adequate socialisation @ home 3 MAIN FACTORS 1. Intellectual/language skills: -CD theorists - lack of intellect/lang skills major part of underachiving -low income, black fams lack intellectual stimulation/enriching experiences - makes them poorly equipped for edu bc unable to develop reasoning/prob solving skills BEREITER & ENGLEMANN: -lang spoken in blk fams (low income) inadequate for edu success bc ungrammatical, disjoiinted, uncapable expressing abstract ideas -concern ppl who don't speak eng at home held back educationally -o.s how not major factor e.g: 2010 - pupils eng first lang only 3.2 points ahead hose whos not -GILLBORN & MIRZA: indian pupils, do well despite eng not first lang 2. attitudes and vlues: -CD - lack of motication = major cause of failure blk children -most socialised into mainstream cul - instill ambition, competitiveness and willingness to make sacrafices fro long term goals - equips them for edu success -CD:by contrast some soialised into subculture tht instills fatalistic live for today attitude - leaves them unequiped for success 3. Fam structure and parental support: CD - faiure to socialise children adequately = result of dysfunctionional fam structure (nr agree) -MONYHAN: bc blk fams headed by lone mother - children deprived of adequate care bc she struggles financially in absence of male breadwinner - absence of father = boys lacke adequate role model of male achievement -MONIYHAN: CD is a cycle - inadequatelly socialised form unstable fams - go on to fail skl - become inadequate parents themself -NR - similar explanations: -MURRAY: high rate lone parents = underachievement in some minorities -SCRUTON: low achievement from some minorities failure to embrace brit culture -PRYCE: fam structure - contribution of underachievement - blk carribbean lone parents -Argues asian higher achievers bc culture more resistant to racism, gies greater sense of self worth -Contrastingly blk carribbean clture = less resistant to racim = low self steem & underacievement -PRYCE: this diff result of impact on colonialsm on the 2 groups: -slavery experiences = clturally devistating for blks - transported, sold into slavery lost lng, rel and family syst -Asian family structure , lang and rel not disrupted by colonial rule

Marxists and education

-Capitalist own means of production (land/factories) - profit by exploiting wc labour -soc instintutions e.g edu syst reproduce class ineqaulities - lay ideological role - persuades workers who are exploited that inequality justified and acceptable

New right-CHUBB and MOE consumer choice

-Data shows low income pupils do 5% better in private school-suggest state education is not meritocratic -State edu failed to create equal opportunities BC doesn't have to respond to pupils needs -parents/communities can't do anything about failing schools when they're being controlled by the state-private schools deliver higher quality education because they are answerable to paying consumers-parents • CHUBB and MOE the solution -introduce market system to state education -give control to the consumers-parents and local communities -voucher system-each family given a voucher to spend on buying education from school of choice-effective BC voucher would be school source of income-have the answer to consumers-so standards raised

Ethnic differences internal - pupil response and subculture

-Pupils may respond to teacher racism/sterotypes by becoming disruptive/withdrawn - some may refuse label and work hard to turn it around MAC AN GAHIL: -studied black/asian at a level - reached sim conclusions to FULLER *pupils who believed teachers labelled them - didn't necessarily accept it - their response dependant on factors e.g ethnic group, gender and nature of former school e.g some girls - all girl school - gave them greater academic commitment, helped to overcome negative labels at college -As w FULLERS study, shows label doesn't necessarily produce SFP FULLER & MAC (rejecting neg labels) FULLER - studied black girls, yr 11 london comprehensive - high achievers in school where most blk girls in low streams Fuller: girls channelled anger ab being labelled into persuit of edu success - did not seek approval of teachers, regard many as racist & didn't limit friendship - had friendship w other girls in lower streams -work hard, but gave appearance they didn't - showed deliberate lack of concern ab school routines -had pos attitude on success, rather than teacher approval, relied on effort and extrn exams FULLERS STUDY SHOWED: -May still succeed e/when refusing to conform -neg labels doesn't always lead to SFP/failure - girls able to reject label and succeed, no SFP

Cultural deprivation theory

-Studies argued-values/attitudes/aspirations of parents-important effect on child educational success -cultural deprivation theory argues WC + black children-inadequately socialised-therefore lack right culture needed for educational success -see language, parents education, and working class subculture as responsible for WC underachievement

Marxism: Willis case study 'learning to labour'

-Using qualitative (interpretivist) data - studied the 'lads - 12 boys from wc - transitioning from edu to work -rejects b&g's correspondance principle - r/than lads passively accepting rc ideology - fond wc may resist attempts to indoctrinate - able to partially see thru merticratic ideology *lads formed distinct culture -opposed to school -flouted skl rules - smoking, truant, disrupting - such acts defiance ways of resiting rc ideology/skls authority -they're similar to shopfloor clture - male manual workers - lads ID strongly w male maunal workers - explains why they see them self as superior to girls.cibfirnuss pupils (ear'oles) - who aspire non manual jobs -for willis - irony - resisting skl ideology - lad culture garuntee's failure -ensures they end up in manual work that cap needs someone to perform -resistance to SKL reproduces class inequality

Class differences external factors in achievement - cultural deprivation

-Working-class children achieve less than MC -Children of higer professionals are 2 to 3 times more likely than non-manual workers to get more a stars to C at GCSE and are 5x times more likely to go to uni -EYESNK: suggests working class-lower intelligence than middle class - argue intelligence is inherited from parents-explains the child's educational performance and low social status from their parents -class diffs @ home May play a role in achievement

Explain in class differences

-better of parents can send their children to private school -The schools only educate 7% Britain's children-nearly all 90% go on to uni-this accounts for over one half of Oxford/Cambridge students

Bowels and Gintis - education

-cap needs workers who are obedient , submissive willing to accept hard work, low pay and authority -Like althusser see role of edu in cap as reproducing obedient workforce - accept inequality as inevitable and fair -edu syst socialises to accept inequality as fair -BOWELS AND GINITIS CORRESPONDANCE PRINCIPLE: Argues close correspondance (similarity) b/tween rels of school and work - create new gen of workers, ready to accept/serve cap B&g: School takes plce in shadow of work rls and structure found in skl mirrors workplace HOW SCHOOL MIRRORS WORK? *SKl: alientation-lack of control over edu -Work: alienation - lak of control over production # *SKL: hierarchy-head-teachers-pupils -work: hierarchy-boss-supervisor-workers *SKL: extrinsic rewards - r/than from interest in subject studied -Work: extrinsic rewards-pay not satisfaction for work itself *SKL: fragmentation of knowledge into unconnected subjects -Work: fragmentation of work int smal meaningless tasks *SKL: comp & divison among pupils -Work: comp and division aong workers - diffs in status and pay correspondance principle operates through hidden cirriculum: HIDDEN CIRRICULUM: -All lessons learned in skl w/o being taught -thru everyday working of skl pupils accept hierarchy, competition alienation etc -becomes the norm of thinking

Intellectual development/stimulation

-development-thinking/reasoning skills (E.G solve problems and use concepts) -many WC homes lack books, educational toys/activities that I needed to stimulate development of intellectual skills -Douglas: WC scored lower and test of ability than MC-because parents are less likely to support intellectual development through reading/other educational activities in the home -Burnstein & young: MC mothers-more likely to choose toys that encourage thinking and reasoning skills to prepare them for school

Criticisms of cultural deprivation

-ignores importance of material factors-poverty -ignores impact of school factors-negative labelling by teachers -blames victim for their Failure

Tripartite system

-intro 1944 -two main types of secondary school -selection by 11+ IQ exam -most WC failed-went to secondary modern schools-had practical skill curriculum -most MC past this went to grammar schools, you had academic pretty limb-because all people took same test, then it legitimated inequality

Comprehensive system

-intro 1985-abolished 11+ -all pupils attended same local comprehensive school-but some errors didn't go comprehensive, still grammar schools -Marxist argue comprehensives reproduce inequality through labelling and streaming -due to my inequality through myth of meritocracy (bowels and gintis) making it look like everyone has equal opportunity -functionalists argue comprehensive now to Cratic, gives people longer to develop-by not selecting at 11+ -some promote integration-bringing all social classes together in one school -Ford; found a little mixing of social class

Material deprivation - ethnic differences external

-lack of physical necessities others have -wc more likely in poverty &material deprivation -MD results from unemployment, overcrowding and low pay -MD expalains edu failure resulting from poor housing/low income - EM more likely to face these problems *PALMER: 1/2 all em children - low income fams - 1/4 white children -2x m/likely unemployed compared w whites -3x likely homeless - almost 1/2 bangladeshi, pakistani work l/than £7/ph comp w. whites -EM do shift work - bangladeshi and pakistani women do low paid home work

Why are EM m/likely at risk of material deprivation?

-live in economically depressed area - w unemployment and low wages -cultural factors - some muslim trads prevent women working outside the home -lack lang skills - foreign qualifications not recognised by Uk employers -Asylum - not allowed to take work -racial discrimination in housing and employment

New Labour policies-1970-2010

-maintained marketisation policies but introduced policies to reduce inequality -included city academies, education action zones and aim higher programs in disadvantaged areas, EMA for poor 16 to 18 years years old and increased spending on state education • evaluation of new Labour policies -Contradictive-how can competition work without producing inequality all markets produce winners and losers -left the private education systems untouched -policies are contradictory-EMA help poor people stay on post 16-but now have to pay uni fees -on the other hand more education spending and focus on learning society have been genuine achievements -evidence academies higher standards is mixed some Show. Improved results, others don't

Evaluation of new right

-marxist-education imposes culture of ruling class not shared culture/national identity as argued by the new right -GEWITZ: comp between schools benefits MC-they can get their children into desirable schools -although school standards-measured by exam results seem to be rising, there are other possible reasons for this improvement on the introduction of the market -no standards in some state schools result of inadequate funding than the state control of education

External factors in achievement - class differences material deprivation

-poverty/lack of necessities such as lack of adequate housing and income -poverty closely linked w edu underachievemnt - 2006- only 33% of children on FSM gained 5+ A*-C FLAHERTY: money probs in fam significant fact for non attendance at skl -90% of all failing skls in deprived areas -close link b/tween poverty and social class -wc fam - m/likely to have low income and inadequate housing

MIRZA - black girls and teacher racism

-racist teachers discouraged blks through advice ab careers and option choices(discouraged them aspiring professional careers) MIRZA: 3 TYPES OF TEACHER RACISM: 1. colour blind: believe all pupils are equal,but allows racsim to go unchallaged 2. Liberal chauvinists: believe blks culturally deprived, have low expectations of them 3. Overt racist: believe blks inferior, actively discriminate against them Mirza's study: -girls time @ skl spent trying to avoid effects of teacher neg attitude they did this by: -being selective of staff to ask for help -getting on in class w/o taking part -not choosing certain options to avoid teachers w racist attitudes although girls had high self esteem, these strategies put them at disadvantage - restricted their opportunities - they were unsuccessful strategies

Pupils sexual and gender ID

-school experiences may reinforce gender and sexual ids CONNEL: skl- reproduces hegemonic masculinity (dominance of heterosexual masculine id and subordination of female and gay id) FEMINIST: many skl experiences - form of social control - reproduce patriarchy happens in several ways: 1) VERBAL ABUSE: name calling - puts girls down if behaving certain way - acts as form of social control to make them conform to male expectations LEES: boys- call girls slags if appear sexually avaliable - but no male equivialnt - PAETCHER: pupils police each others sexual IDs thru neg labels MACH AN GAHIL: anti skl wc boys subcul- use verbal abuse to maintain their definitions of masculinity - called other wc boys who worked hard 'dickhead achievers' 2) TEAHCERS: HAYWOOD AND MAC AN GAHIL: male teachers reinforce gender ids by telling boys off for behaving like girls and ignoring boys verbal abuse of girls 3)MALE GAZE: form of social control, males and teacher look girls up and down as sexual objects, boys who don't participate may be labelled as gay (another form of social control) 4) DOUBLE STANDARDS: One set of moral standards apply to one group, but diff set to another e.g LEES: boys boast ab sexual exploits - label girls neg for same behaviour 5) FEMALE PEER GROUPS POLICE IDS: female peers police this heterosexual id - risk being called tramp if don't conform RINGROSE: wc girls - tension between idealised fem id and being loyal to peer group and sexualised ids - slut shaming and frigid shaming - form of social control

Marxism - business and edu

-some marxists argue recent edu policies make their analysis of role of edu more relevant today -marketisation policies, privatisation of some edu services, buiness of state skls (academies) result in more direct cap control over edu and training -not only does edu syst function to provide willing work force, does so by making profit for cap (marketisation policies - APPLY AS EVIDNCE)

Pupil identities - ethnic differences internal

-teacher often define pupils as havving sterotypical ethnic ids -Pakistani-do worse than indian/white -Indian- achieve abv avg-better off bg - ethnic group m.likely to go to private school -ARCHER: teachers dominant discourse(way of seeing something) defines em pupil identities- lacking favoured ids of ideal pupils -Archer- dominant discourse constructs 3 diff pupil ids: 1. ideal pupil - -white mc, -masculine id, -normal sexuality, -seen as achieving right way - through natural ability/initiative 2. Patholised pupil -Asian -deserving poor -feminised id -seen as plodding, -conformist, culuture bound overachiever -slogger - succeds through hard work rather than natural ability 3. demonised pupil -black/white -wc -hyper-sexualised ids -uninteligent, peer led -culturally deprived underachiver -ARCHER- ethnic minoritie pupil likely seen as demonised or pathologised - from her studies shows blacks demonised as loud, challanging excessively sexual w unaspirtional home cultures -asians seen as quiet/passive -SHAIN when asian girls challanged stereotype, punished more seriously CHINESE PUPILS: -teachers - sterotyped chinese fams 'tight' & 'close' - wrongly steroetyped them as mc -ARCHER: only proper achievement is seen to be natural preserve of priviledged white wc ARCHER - even successful em (chinese) can be pathologised (seen as abnormal) -Chinese pupils - simutaneously praised & viewed neg by teachers - saw them as *homeogenous (all the same) passive, hard working mass *chinese girls too passive/quiet/repressed *boys subordinate, not properly masculine *seen as achieving success in wrong way, hard work rather than natural ability

Cultural deprivation - ethnic differences in achievement - compensatory education

-was main policy aimed to tackle CD, -Operation head start - compensate children for cultural deficit they suffer bc deprived bg OPERATION HEAD START: multi billion $ scheme - pre skl edu in pooere areas -introduced in 60s -Aim = planned enrichement of eprived childs environment - to develop skills/intill achievement and motication incs improving paental skills, nursery classes, home visits by edu psychologists -sessame st - orginally part of head start - means of transmitting skil/values needed for edu success e.g importance of punctuality, numeracy and literally COMPENSATORY EDU IN BRITIAN: -edu priority areas -action zones -sure start centres provided integrted edu, care, fam support, health services, support w parentl employment -2011 significant cuts in funding, many centres closed

FACTORS AFFECTING CHILDS EDUCATION MATERIAL DEPRIVATION CLASS DIFFS

1) DIET AND HEALTH: young ppl in poorer homes, lower intake of energy, vits and minerals. -poor nutrition effects health (poor nutrition = poor immune sytst = more absences) -children from poorere homes m/likely to have emotional/behaviour probs WILKINSON: research 10y/o - lower the social class, higgher rates of hyper activity, anxiety and conduct disorders (all likely to have neg effect on edu) 2) HOUSING: poor housing can effect achievement directly and indirectly *young esp effected - development can be impared through lack of space for safe play and exploration (direct) *fams in temp accomodation -move mroe frequently -children change skls more often, disrupts edu (direct) *may affect health and welfare - crowded homes = greater risk of accidents, temp accomodation - pshycological distress, infections and absences (indirect) 3)FINANCIAL SUPPORT AND COST OF EDU: lack of finacial support - children poor fams - do w/o equipment - miss out on experiences which would enhance their edu achievement BULL: COST OF FREE SCHOOLING: TANNER ET AL : cost of uniform, transport/books =heavy burden -as a result children may have hand-me-downs - may be stigmatised or bullied fo rthis FLAHERTY: fear of stigma helps to explain why 20% of those elegable for FSM do not take up entitlement -lack of funds= children for low income wc fams need to work RIDGE: children in poverty - take up jobs like baby sitting = negative impact on their school work (these financial restrictions helps to explain why many wc leave school at 16 and few go to uni) CHANDLER AND JACKSON: wc students- more debt adverse more cost than benefits in going to uni

Examples of institutional racism

1). Selection & segregation: Gillborn: BC marketisation gives more scope to select pupils-negative stereotypes can influence admissions 2) assessment: Gillborn; assessment rigged-validate dominant white cultures superiority-E.G baseline assessment-show black pupils a head-replaced in 2003 by foundation stage profile-based on teachers judgement-give scope for stereotyping-as results black appear doing worse than whites 3) access to opportunities: whites over two times likely Than black to be gifted/talented Tickly & strand: fun black small like the entity for Lawrence arms-BC placed in lower sets due to teachers expectations, leading to SFP 4) The new IQism: Second dairy schools, increasingly using old style intelligence IQ test to allocate peoples different streams on entry based on false assumptions that potential is fixed quality that can be measured-black pupils likey in lower streams as a result

Internal factors - gender and achievement

1. Equal opportunities policies: BOOKER: - impact of equal op policies - key reason for changes in girls achievement - barrierss removed - school more meritocratic - so girls, who work harder than boys achieve more -fem ideas major impact on edu syst: -policy makers more aware of gender issues -teachers more sensitive to the need to avoid stereotyping -beleif boys/girls entitled to = opportunities now part of mainstream thinking, influincing edu policies - e.g edu policies GIST(Girls into technology) & WISE (women into science and engineering) - encourage girls to pursue career in these non trad areas -similarily into of nation cirriculum - removed a source of gender inequality - making boys/girls study same subjects which wasnt the case previously 2. positive role models in school: -increase in female teachers/heads -women in senior position = role model for girls -shows women can achieve positions of importance, gives them non-trad goals to aim for) -women teachers - role model for girls - bc to become teacher, need successful edu herself 3. GCSE & coursework: -greater use of oral exams - benefit girls - better developed lang skills - skills result of early gender role socilaisation - girls encouraged to be tidy and patient -become advantage in todays assesment syst helps girls achieve better than boys -However, EDWOOD: course work had some influence, unlikely to be only cause of gender gap - bc exam much more influential of final grade -changes in ways assessed argued to favour girls and disadvantage boys -GORARD: -gender gap in achievement steady 1975-89 when increased sharply - yr GCSE introduced - bringing in coursework -concludes gender gap is produvt of changed syst of assesment than failing of boys -MITOSIS & BROWNE: support this view -girls more successful - course work bc concieniou/beter organised than boys -spend more time on work -care with presentation -better @ meeting deadlines -bring right equipment/materials MITOSIS & BROWNE: these factors benefit girls frm into of coursework 4. Teacher attention: -Jane & Peter French: analysed clasroom interaction -boys more attention bc attract more repremids (expression of disapproval) -Francis 2001 - boys more attention but punished more harshly, felt picked on teacher tend to have low expectations of them -SWANN: -boys dominate class discussion -girls prefer paird/group work - better @ listening / cooperating -when working in groups girls speech take turns in talking not hostile interruption like boys -may explain teachers pos response towar girls - see boys disrupitive -can create SFP - successful interactions w teacher, promote self esteem and raise achievement 5. Challanging stereotypes in the cirriculum -sociologists argue - removal of gender stereotypes from learning maerial removed barrier in girls achivement -Research 70s/80s found: -reading schemes porrayed women as housewives and mothers - physics books showed women frightened by science - maths books showed boys as more inventive 6. Selection and league tables: -Marketisation policies - creaed more competitivie climate -girls more desireable to schools bc better exam results - JACKSON: introduction of exm league tables imorived opportunities for girls - high achieving girls - attractive to schools - low achieving boys not -this tends to create SFP - bc girls m/likely to be recruited to good schools, more likely to do well

Two views of girls achievemnt

1. Liberal feminists: -celebrate progrsss so far, further progress made in edu thru equal opportunity policies - encouraging positive role models - over coming sexist attitudes/stereotypes 2. Radical feminists: -syst remains patriarchal -conveys clear message this is mans world - e.g sexual harrassment still continue in school -edu still limits gils subject choices and career options -now more female head teachers, mae teacher m/likely to be heads of secondary schools

SEWELL - boys 4 responses ethnic diffs internal

1. REBELS - most visable/infuential - but only small minority of blks, reject goals/rules of skl, expressed opposition thru peer membership - believed own superiorty - idea black masculiinity =sex and virtility - hated white mc 2. CONFORMIST: largest group - keen to succed, accepted skl goals, friends from diff ethnic groups, not part of sub cul, anxious to avoid being labelled/steroetyped by teachers & peers 3. RETREATIST: tiny minority - isolated individuals - disconnected by skl & subcul - despised by rebels 4.INNOVATORS: 2nd largest group, pro edu, anti school (e.g fullers girls) - conformed only as far as skl work - this distanced them from conformist - maintained credibility w rebels whilst remaining pos ab achievement SEWELL: shows only small min fit black macho lad stereotype - teachers still see blk boys this way - contributes to underachievement -many of the boys neg attituteds response to racsim -SEWELL - Factors ext to school e.g peer groups, street cul and lack of nuturing father more important in producing underachievement

alternatives for cultural deprivation

1. multifcultural edu policy - recognises and values minority cultures and includes them in edu 2. anti - racist edu policy challanges predjuidce and discrimination that exists in schools/wider soc

IDENTITY, CLASS AND GIRLS ACHIEVEMENT

ARHCER ET AL (FEMINIST): use bordieu concept of symbolic cap in study: - reasons for wc girls grade diffs : *condlict btween wc fem id and ethos of school *by perfoming wc fem id, gained symbolic cap from peers - but brought conflict w school, preventing edu and economic cap ARCHER: GIRLS STRATEGIES TO GET SENSE OF SELF 1. HYPER ETEROSEXUAL FEM ID: invested time/effort/money constructing desireable/glam apperance -id combined blk urban stles, sexy clothes, sportswear and makeup/hair styles -brought status from peers, avoided being ridiculed for wearing wrong brand -also brough conflict w school - punished for wrong apperance, too much makeup ec - school: girls preoccupation w apperance a distraction preventing edu success -lead to skls 'othering' the girls 'not one of us' - incapable of success, less worthy of respect BORDEU:this symbolic violence (harm by denying symbolic cap and defining their culture as worhtless) 2. BOYFRIENDS: lost intrerest in uni & studying masculine subjects e.g science -brought them symbolic cap - but got in way of school work -lowered girls aspirations -no longer wanted to go to uni have a professsion -wanted to settle down, have children, local work .eg childcare fem jobs 3. BEING LOUD: some wc adopted loud fem id, outspoken independant, assertive. e.g questionning teachers authority -failed to conform to skls stereotype if ideal fem pupil(passive and submissive to authroity) -conflict w teachers, saw behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive these strategies lead to wc girls dilemma: 1. either symbolic cap from peers - conforming to hyper heterosexual id or 2. edu cap by rejecting their wc id- conforming to skls mc notion of respectable, ideal pupil *tried to cope 'good underneath' - this reflects struggle of self worth with edu syst that devalues wc fem ids -ARCHER: wc fem id and edu success conflict w each other - wc girls investment in fem id major cause of underachievement

WC ID and educational success

Archers study deals with relationship between WC I D + educational failure-but some WC succeed Ingram: studied two groups WC catholic boys-same highly deprived neighbourhood in Bellfast -One group past 11+ exam and went to grammar school-other failed and went to local secondary school -grammar school-strong MC habitus-high expectations of educational achievement -Secondairy school-low expectorations of its underachieving pupils Ingram: having WCID-inseparable from belonging to WC locality neighbourhood network of family/friends-strong part of boys habitus gave them intense feeling of belonging However Ingrahm notes WC community has a great emphasis on conformity-boys experience great pressure to fit in-problem for grammar school boys-experience tension between WC neighbourhood + habitus of MC school -One boy ridiculous ridiculous goodbye classmates-what tracksuit on nonuniform day-but opted to fit in with neighbourhood habitus (tracksuit)-made to feel worthless by school MC habitus

Myth of meritocracy - Marxism(Bowels and Gintis)

B&G: its a myth used to justify inequality -edu syst helps prevent ppl becoming aware of their expolitated position & rebellion against the syst - by legiting class inequalties - produces ideologies why inequlity is fair etc Functionalists: edu meritocratic - everyone has equal opportunity - those who gan highest rewaeds deserve them bc most able and work hard Bowels and gintis: but this is MYTH - in rl, success based on class bg not ability/edu achievement -But by promoting claim rewars based on ability - myh of meritocracy helps persuade workers to accept inequality and subordinate positions as legit

Cultural deprivation - language

Burnstein and Engelman: Lang used in LC homes is deficient-communicate by gestures, single words and disjointed phrases • as a result-children-failed to develop necessary language skill-group incapable of abstract thinking/use language to compare, describe and explain-and cannot take part in opportunities schools offer BERNSTEIN : Two types of speech code that differs between classes-this InSpeech code-MC advantage over WC pupils-because at school-elaborated code used by teachers, textbook + exams RESTRICTED CODE: -typically use by WC -Limited vocab-based on use of short, gramarically unfinished and simple sentences -context bound ELABORATED: -use by MC -wider vocabulary -longer more complex sentences -speech more varied, communicate abstract ideas and context free

Marketisation + segregation

Commission for racial equality-racism in school admissions = ethnic minority more likely end up in unpopular schools because: -primary schools report stereotype minority pupils - racist bias in interviews for school places -lack of info/language of forms they can read -ethnic minority parents unaware of how the waiting list work + importance of deadlines •Gillborn: marketisation allows schools more scope to select pupils-negative stereotypes influence decisions about admissions • more and Davonport: -selection process = segregation -em pupils fail to get into schools bc discrimination -admission procedures favoured white pupils, disadvantaged those with minority backgrounds -conclude selection leads to ethnically stratified education system

criticisms of cultural deprivation

DRIVER: Ignores positive effects of ethnicity on achievemnt -shows blk caribbean far from dysfunctional provides girls w pos role models of strong independant women -driver argues this is why blk girls tend to be moe successful in edu than blk boys KEDDIE: CD is victim blaming, argue em children cultrually dif not deprived, underachieve bc skl is ethnocentric LAWRENCE: challanges pryce's view - blks fail bc weak clture/lack of self-esteem lawrence argues pupils underachieve bc racism not low self esteem

Functionalism-education

Davis and more role allocation: • selection/allocation for future work roles • some people are more talented • some roles more complex-greater skill needed • most talented need to be allocated most important role for society to function properly-high rewards offer for these jobs = motivates people to strive for them • meritocratic system allows people to compete equally-sifts and sorts most talented - get best qualifications + allocated important jobs-result in society more productive because most people are able to do important jobs • Parsons socialisation + meritocracy: • School is focal socialisation agent of modern society • in primary socialisation individual treated as someone who is special-wider society cannot function this way-everyone has to be treated same (equal before the law)-education teaches these universalistic standards act as a bridge between family & wider society • meritocratic society based on two values 1) individual achievement: achieved status through own efforts/abilities-it's not where you come from but what you can do that gives your position in Society 2) equal opportunity: for every individual to achieve their full potential • Parsons argues school is a mini version of wider society both Meritocratic • Durkheim solidarity and skill: education performs 2 basic functions 1) promotes solidarity: -without it society would fall apart -by transmitting societys shared culture (norms and values) education bonds-people together and enables them to cooperate-teaching common history and shared rituals-important in showing pupils they share same past + have common purpose-also teaches them to follow universalistic rules-essential for cooperation in society 2) prepares young for work: -industrial societies-specialised division of labour-requires people to have a long period of training for specific occupations-education equips individuals with specialist skills needed to participate in work in modern society

Class ID + self exclusion

Despite education inequalities-more working-class go to uni -class of WC I D + HE habitus-barrier to success-partly due to self exclusion • Evans; study group-21WC girls-south London comprehensive-found reluctant to apply to elite UNi-those who did felt sense of hidden barriers + not fitting in -bordieu: mini WC think of elite unis not for the likes of us-this feeling comes from habitus-including beliefs of what opportunities truly exist for them-and if they would fit in This thinking became part of their IDs and lead to self exclusion • Archer-girls strong connection to home-don't want to move away to study •Raey: self exclusion from elite uni is reduces opportunities of WC + limit success

Cultural deprivation attitudes and values

Douglas; working-class parents-less value on education -less ambitious of the children-gave less encouragement-children had lower levels of motivation and achievement Fernstein- WC parents-lack of interest-main reason for child underachievement + even more important that financial hardship factors within school -MC more successful-parents provide them with motivation, discipline and support Hyman: values and beliefs-WC subculture-self-imposed barrier to education/career success-sub cultures believe/values insured they neither want/know how to get educational success Sugar man; Wc children-internalise beliefs-values-of subculture through socialisation-lead to them underachieving at school Working class subculture for key features -fatalism -collectivism -immediate gratification -present time orientation

Gender and subject choice

EARLY SOCIALISATION - GENDER ROLE SOCIALISATON: gender role socialisation - learning behaviour expected of females/males in the fam: -Early age b&g dress differently -diff toys -boys rewarded for being active, girls for being passive at school: BRYNE: teachers encouraged boys to be tough, girls to be quiet healpful clean and tidy leisure reading and subject choice: MURPHY AND ELWOOD: boys- hobby books and info texts - preferred science subjects girls- books aout people so prefer english GENDERED SUBJECT IMAGES: -related to gender domain -subject gender image - seen male/female e.g science mainly taught by ment, use boys interests as examples as result seen as masculine subject, part of gender domain so mainly taken by boys GENDER DOMAINS: tasks/activities seen as male/female terriroty e.g looking after elderly seen as female - these views are shaped by early experiences and expectations of adults VOCATIONAL SUBJECTES: -gender segregation at greatest 1% construction apprentices are female AS/A LEVEL: More choice avaliable and bigger gender gap -boys maths and physics -girls mod language and english and sociology -patterns continue into HE (uni) GENDER ID AND PEER PRESSURE: Other boys/girls pressure individuals to conform -boys- opt out of music bc seen as fem subject and neg peer pressure -girls choose sports - boys accuse them as butch/lesbian GENDERED CAREERS: Many jobs seen as men/women -tend to be dominated by one gender e.g nursing and construction wokr -WC pupils may make decisions about carreers based on trad gender identity -Vocational courses prepare yound for specific careers, tend to be dominated by one gender

External factors - gender and achievement

FEMINISM: -Equal rights for the sexes -challanged trad stereotype of women -not yet achieved equality b/tween sexes -feminism- raised womens expectations/self-esteem MCROBBIE: girls mags 70s, emphasised getting married and not getitng left on the shelf *now concentrate on images of independant women changes encouraged by feminism may effect girls self image and ambitions - may explain improvement in education 1. CHANGES IN WOMENS EMPLOYMENT: *proportion of women in employment risen - part time work offered opportunities for women to work - women are now breaking thru glass ceiling *encourage girls to see future in terms of paid employment, r/thn housewife - career opportunities encourage girls to get qualifications - role models *1970 - equal pay act, illegal to pay women less than men for equal value of work - since 1975 - men and women pay gap 1/2 from 30% - 15% 2. CHANGES IN THE FAMILY *increase in divorce rate - may suggest to girls - unwise to rely on husband to be provider - may encourage girls to look to self and qualifications to make a living *increase in lone parents - more women need to take role of breadwinner, creates new adult role model for girls - financially independant women *increase in cohabitation, decrease in marriage 3. GIRLS CHANGING AMBITIONS: change in the fam and employment, producing change in girls ambitions -supported by evidence: *SHARPE: 1994- 70s/90s shift in way girls see future -in 1974 - had low aspirations - education success seen as unfeminine - being ambitious unattractive - priorities were - love - marriage - husband - children - jobs and careers (in that order) -1990s - Ambitions changed - diff order of priorities - careers and being able to support self SHARPE: girls m/likely see future as independant woman w a career - r/than dependant on husbands income BECK & BECK-GERSHEIM: -trend of individualism in mod society- independance valued more strongly than past -career became part of womens life project - bc promises recognition and self sufficientcy *in order to achieve recognition/self sufficientcy girls recognise they need good edu FULLER 2011: girls edu success central aspect of their ID -creators of own future -individualised notion of self -believed meritocracy todays asiprations require qualifications. 70's did not. O'CONNOR: study of 14-17y/o marraiage and children not major part of life plan CLASS GENDER AND AMBITIONS: *Theres class diffs in how far girls ambitions changed- wc girls con to have gendered stereotyped aspirations *marrigae and children *expect to go into low paid work RAEY: this reflects reality of class position - limited aspiratons bc limited career opportunities - by contrast trad gender id attainsble and offers source of status BIGGART: girls face precarious position in labour mrkt & see mother hood only viable option for future - so see less point in achieving education - most wc, low aspiring girls - fullers study not interested in staying on at skl and expressed desire for low paid jobs

Black pupils and streaming

GILLBORN AND YOUDELL: A-C ECONOMY - creates edu triage(sorting) thus neg stereotypes ab blks some teachers hold = mlikely to put blks in lower sets/streams FOSTER: stereotypes - thsose badily behaved placed in lower sets than others of same ability *neg stereotypes ab ability/behaviour can result in SFP of underachievement WRIGHT: study of multiethnic prim school - asian pupils can be victims of labelling -School 'commitment' to equal opportunities- but teachers had ethnocentric views: *tooken forgranted british culture, standard english as superior *effected how they related to asian pupils *assumed poor eng - left them out in class *used simplistic, childish lang when speaking to them Asian pupils: felt isolated when teachers expressed disapproval of their customs/minsinterpretated thier names -teachers didn't see asians as threat, but problem they could ignore *resulted in asians, esp girls pushed to edge/marginalised, prevented from participating fully

Labelling/teacher racism - ethnic differences internal

INTERACTIONALISTS: focus on diff labels techers give to children from diff ethnic bg - e.g often see blks/asian pupils far from idea (asians - passive, blk disruptive) -neg labels disadvantages em, results in their failure BLACK PUPILS: DISCIPLIN GILLBORN & YOUDELL: teachers quick to disciplin blks than others for same behaviour -argue this is result of teachers racialised expectations *expected blk more disciplin probs *misinterpretated their behaviour as threatening/challanging authority (teahcers act on misinterpretations - pupils respond neg - further conflict) GILLBORN AND YOUDELL: conflict resulr of teachers racial stereotypes, not pupils behaviour -teacher stereotypes may explain high lvl exclusions of blk boys BOURNE: schools- see blk boys as threat - label them neg - leads to exclusion - effects achievement * only 1/5 excluded recieve 5 GCSEs OSLER: in additon to exclusions, they m;likely suffer unrecorded/internal exclusions where they're sent out of class - more likely placed in pupil referal units - excludes access to main stream cirriculum

Althusser neo marxism - ISA/RSA

RSA: when necessary to protect capitalist interests state uses force to repress wc through police, courts army ISA: Controls ppls thoughts ideas values and beleifs inc rel, mass media and edu syst

myth of cultural deprivation

Keddie: cultural deprivation a myth-victim blaming explanation. -Phalia at school cannot be blamed and culturally deprived background-children can't be deprived of own culture -WC simply culturally different not deprived-fail because put at a disadvantage-education system dominated by MC values -Robinson Colchester fission-school should recognise + build on its strength + should challenge teachers anti working-class prejudices Troyna + Williams : problem is schools attitudes towards the child's language-teachers have speech hierarchy-labelling-MC highest-WC-black speech

Marxism - 2 functions perfomed by edu system as an ISA

LEGITIMATION: Justfies class inequalities by producing ideologies that disguise the cause - edu tries to convince ppl inequality is inevitable and failure is fault of individual nnot fualut of cap syst REPRODUCTION: Edu reproduces class inequalities - failing each wc gen in turn - ensures end up in same jobs as parents

Boys and achievement

MORAL PANIC AB BOYS: RINGROSE: moral panic ab boys failure lead to neglect of problems faced by girls -sexual harrassment still continues -stereotyped subject choices MORE MALE TEACHERS NEEDED? -READ: criticises claim only males can exert firm dicsiplin boys need -studied types of lang teacher uses *teacher authroity made explicit through shouting - usually associate w masculinity -yet read found female teachers also use this style of lang - this disproves claim only male teachers can create strict classrooms LADDISH SUBCULTURE: -may lead to boys underachievement - peer pressure on boys to show masculinity by being anti-social FRANCIS: boys more concerned than girls ab being labelled by peers as swots, bc threatens masculine ID -WC culture see non manual work (icl skl work) as inferior EPSTEN: pro skl wc boys likely to be harrassed, labelled gay and subject to veral abuse BOYS LITERARCY: -likely to affect achievemnt -gov introduce programmes to help -DCSF: gender gap bc boys poorer lang and lit skills reasons for this: *parents spend less time reading to songs *mainly mothers who do the reading, may see it as fem activity *boys leisure pursuits foot ball - do littl to improve lang and lit, where as girls bedroom culture - staying in and communicating with friends FEMINISATION OF EDU: SEWELL: boys fall behind bc edu now feminised - doesnt nuture masculine traits - competitive and leadership -instead qualities more associated w girls - methodological working and attaintive in class SEWELL: coursework major cause of underachievement - argues there should only be some coursework but greater emphisis on outdoor adventure in cirriculum SHORTAGE OF MALE PRIMARY SKL TEACHERS: *Only 14% of prim skl teachers male *YOUGOV: 39% of 8/11yr o boys no classes w male teachers -most boys surveyed said male teacher help them behave and work harder - some argue this is bc prim skl now feminised - largelly staffed fem teacher who unable to control male behaviour - male teachers better able to impose strict disciplin boys needed -lack of role models at home and school cause of underachievement GLOBALISATION AND DECLINE OF TRADITIONAL MENS JOBS -Since 80s significant decline in heavy industries (mining and steel) these are tradtional and mainly employed men -bc of globalisation, manufacturing industries relocated to developing countries - cheap labour and more profit MITOSIS &BROWNE: decline in male meployment opp - lead to id crisis for men - believe they have no prospect of getting propper job - undermines motication/self esteem = give up trying in school *but the decline mainly manual wc work, typically require little/no qualifications - seems unlikely disapperance of these would have much impact on motivation

Ethnocentric Cirriculum

Prioritises culture of one group disregard others • sociologists argue curriculum of British schools ethnocentric •Troyna & Williams: gives priority to white culture/English language • David: national curriculum specifically British, teaches culture of host community • ball: history in British schools recreate a mythical age of empire + past glories-ignores history of black/Asian pupils • as a result ethnic minorities feel them and their culture not valid in education-diminishes self-esteem = negative effect on educational achievement

test of bordieu's ideads

SULLIVAN: questionnaires - conducted survey 48 pupils in 4 skls to assess cultural cap -asked ab range of activities -tested vocab/knowledge of cultural figures -found those who read complex fiction and serious tv documentaries developed wider vocab and greater cultural knowledge. indicating greater cultural capital -children w greater cultrual cap, children of graduates more likely to be successful at GCSE HOWEVER, Sullivan found cultural cap only accounted for part of class diffs in achievement -greater resources/aspirations of mc explin remainder of class gap in achievement

Streaming class differences internal

Separation into different ability groups/classes-taught separately for each subject-studies show SFP likely when streamed • Becker (labelling theorists) -teachers-don't CWC as ideal pupils-see them as lacking ability + have Low expectations of them-WC more likely to be put in lower streams -Once streamed, difficult to move up-locked into the low expectations of themselves -lower streams pupils-get the message-teachers written them off as no hopers -this creates SFP-live up to teachers like dictations-underachievement • Douglas: found working-class pupils placed in lower streams aged eight-decline in IQ score by 11 &. Those in high streams at aged eight improve the IQ but age 11 -MC tend to benefit from streaming-put in high streams, reflecting teachers view of them is ideal pupil -that's-gain positive self-concept, confidence, work harder + improve their grades

EVALUATION of marxism

Willi's study un rep bc only 12 boys , cant make generalisations of wider pop Willis is criticised for romanticisation of the lads - presenting them as wc heros, despite anti soc behaviour and sexist attitudes Feminists: skl not only reproduces cap bt patriarcy -MCROBBIE: girls largely absent from willis study Postmodernism -Marxism out of date, correspondance principle no longer operates or at least too simplistic of a view -Where marxists see inequality - theres just really diversity and choice Marxist: Disagree among self: -on how reproduction an legitimaion take place -B&G deterministic view - assume pupils passively accept indoctrinisation -Willis: reject this simple brain washing view of B/G and shows how pupils may resist schol and end up w wc jobs

External factors in achievement class differences - cultural capital

cultural capital is the knowledge, attitudes and values language and tastes and abilities of the mc BORDIEU: cul/material factors - contribute to edu achievement - are interelated uses concept of capital to explain why mc moe successful 1. Cultural capital: -sees mc culture type of capital bc like wealth, advantages those who possess it -argues thru socialisation mc children gain abilit to graps, analyse and express abstract ideas -more likely to develop intellecutal interests and understanding what is needed for success -gives mc advantage in skl - abilities are values and rewarded w qualifications -edu syst favours mc values -wc children culture devalued by skl as inferior - lack of cultural cap leads to failure -many wc pupils get the message edu not for them - respond by truantng , early leaving or not trying -BORDIEU: edu and cul cap can be converted into each other - mc - cultural cap - better equipped to meet demands of cirriculum and gain qualifications wealthier parents convert economc cap into edu cap sending kids to priv skl and extra tuition -LEECH & CAMPOS: mc parents able to afford houses in desireable skl catchement areas - selection mortage - drives up demand for houses near successful skls - excludes wc

People class identities and the school-internal factors

• Archer Et al : -Focus on interaction between WC pupil identities and school-how this produces underachievement -uses bordiue concept of habitus • Habitus Disposition and/learning taking for granted ways of thinking, and acting-shared boy particular social classes -include-taste/preferences about lifestyle and consumption (fashion/leisure pursuits) -Outlook on their life + expectations about what is normal/realistic for people like us • groups habitus (ways of thinking)-formed as a response to position to social class structure -MC-power to impose habitus/define their own as superior-imposing in education system-results in them valuing MC tastes preferences ETEC (link to bordieu -cultural capital-BC school MC habitus-gives MC advantage-working-class regarded as inferior) • symbolic capital/violence -because school-MC hepatis-people socialised at home to MCTACE/preferences-gain symbolic capital/status-recognition from school-deemed to have more worth/value -School devalues WC habitus-WC tastes-clothes/accents ETEC-deemed tasteless/worthless -bordeui: calls this with holding of symbolic cap-symbolic violence-defining WC + their tastes inferior-symbolic violence-reproduces the class structure-keep LC in their place

Institutional racism ethnic differences internal

• critical race theory The education system at is it usually racist-racism is ingrained feature of society-involves individual intentional actions/institutional racism • carmicheal and Hamilton Institutional racism, less overt, more subtitle-originate from operation of established/represented forces insociety •Locked in inequality -critical race theorist Rathmayr: Institutional racism-looked in inequality scale of historical racism so large, no longer need conscious intent to discriminate-it becomes self-perpetuating it feeds on itself • Gillborn: looked in inequality + education: Ethnic inequality so deep rooted, it's now practically inevitable feature of education system

Class differences in achievement-internal-labelling

• Becker; carried out interactionist study of labelling based on interviews of 60 Chicago school teachers -found they just pupils according to how closely they fitted the image of ideal pupil • work • conduct • appearance Key factors in influencing teachers judgements •cicourel & kituse: carried out study of educational counsellors--American high school-found inconsistencies in way counsellors assessed ability for courses -claim they judge student on the ability but largely judge them on the basis of social class or race -MC students-more likely labelled as students with potential to get on higher level courses and go to college •Rist: labelling occurs at the very beginning of child education-studied American kindergartens -teachers use info about social class BG and appearance-placed them in separate groups at different tables -fast learners-label tigers-MC/neat appearance-seated at table nearest teachers-encourage them more -other groups are labelled as Cardinals and clowns-seated further away-more likely WC-given low-level books to read-few opportunities to demonstrate abilities-read in groups not as individual •keddie: both pupil and knowledge can be labelled as high or low status -comprehensive school classes were streamed by ability-teachers found to be adapting teaching to A stream-giving them more complex and theoretical, high status knowledge --less able C stream-given more descriptive commonsense, low status knowledge-often had more WC pupils and this holding back of high status knowledge meant increase in class differences in achievement more likely •Gillborn & Youdell: Found WC and black pupils less likely to be believed to have ability and so more likely to be entered into lower tier GCSEs and places into lower set-shows how teachers use own perception of ability to dictate which pupils have potential to reach 5A*-C at GCSE

Institutional racism criticism of Gillborn

• Gillborn: institutional racism-maincourse to underachievement-sewell rejects this view-need to focus on external factors E.t. boys anti-school attitudes, peer groups + lack of nurturing father Role • Indian + Chinese achievement -as well as underachievement of Blackboys, also overachievement of model minorities - Indian + Chinese students perform better than white majority -if these two groups do so well, how can there be institutional racism in education as critical race theory claim •Gillborn: responds by arguimg image of Chinese & Asians as hard-working model minorities perform ideological functions-conceals fact education system is imstitionally racist -make system appear fair & meritocratic that Indian/Chinese succeed BC they make effort + take up opportunities -justifies failure of minorities E.G blacks-fail because they're unable/unwilling due to an unaspirational home culture -ignores the fact model minority still suffer racism in school- Chinese students report similar levels of harassment to black Caribbean's

Neo liberalism and new right perspective on education

• New right market versus state "One size fits all " -State run edu end up as one size fits all-the state cannot meet people's needs-doesn't meet individual and community needs-or needs of employers for skilled and motivated workers -lower standards -State run schools can not account for those who use them (pupils parents employers) -this makes them inefficient -Schools with poor results don't change bc they don't answer to their consumers-results in low standards and less qualified workforce • neo liberalism -State should not provide education -should be free market economy-it drives up standards-create competition-school should be more like businesses operating in educational market

Variety of people responses

• Pro/anti-school subcultures-two possible responses to labelling/streaming -Woods (1979) other responses possible; -ingratiation: teachers pet -ritualism: going through motions, staying out of trouble -retreatism : day dreaming/mucking about -rebellion: rejection of everything school stands for • furlong: pupils not committed to any one response-may move between responses-acting differently in different lessons with different teachers

Criticisms of labelling theory

• Study is useful in showing schools aren't neutral fair institutions as cultural deprivation theories assume • interactions with schools actively create social class in equality • uaccused of determinism-assumes those labelled have no choice but to live up to it-Mary fullers study showed this isn't always true • marxist-ignore wider structures of power with in which labelling takes place-tends to blame teachers for labelling pupils, fail to explain why they do so-labels not result of teachers individual prejudices-stem from fact teachers work ins syst that reproduces class division

Stephen Ball: abolishing Streaming

• Study of beachside a comprehensive which was in process of abolishing banding (streaming) in favour of mixed ability • Ball: when banding abolished basis for pupils to polarise into subs largely removed-influence of anti-sub declined -but differentiation continued even when polarisation disappeared-teachers just categorise differently, more likely to label MC-cooperative and able -positive labelling reflected in better exam results-suggesting SFP occured -balls study showed class inequalities continue as a result of teachers labelling even without effects of subculture /streaming -since education reform act 1988- trend towards streaming and varieties of schools-some which have more academic curriculum than others-this created new opportunities for schools/teachers to differentiate pupils on the basis of class/ethnicity/gender and treat them unequally as studies from Guildbourne and youdell Show

Conservative policy since 2010

• conservative gov from 2010- accelerated move away from comprehensive system run by local authorities -policies, strongly influenced by neoliberal ideas about reducing the role of state through marketisation and privatisation • privatisation of education-edu as a private community: -ball; education setting to be a public good-being privatised instead-commodity owned by private companies and bought and sold in an education market-education becomes source of profit from capitalism-include school building ofsted inspections providing supply teachers and even running local education authority is-hall; this is the long march of neoliberal revolutions -globalisation of policy: Nationstates are becoming less important in policy-making which is becoming globalised Many education companies of foreign owned some UK education businesses work overseas -privatising and putting UK education policy for sale abroad Ethnicity and policies: Policies relating to Ethnicity gone through three stages -1960/70-aim was to encourage assimilation (through English as a second language programs) -nineteen eighties/nineties aims were valuing all cultures through multicultural education policies such as black studies in the mainstream curriculum -recently the focus has been on social inclusion-legal duty on schools tomorrow night racial equality-Miza criticises even the more recent policies as being limited onscope • neoliberal and privatisation: -two types of marketisation, internal market within education system and privatisation of state education, where state isn't for provider of education, private companies are -privatisation growing trend in recent years -free schools-state funded but set up and run by parents, teachers, religious groups or businesses - academies; all schools encouraged to become academies, funded by central government. Some are part of private owned chairs removing academies from local authority control means loss of democratic accountability -fragmented centralisation: -BALL : we now have a fragmented patchwork instead of comprehensive system-leading to greater inequality -education also now more centralised-government can requires schools to become academies and allow free schools to be set up -spending cuts -since 2010-made and cuts in government spending-E.G on sure start , school building, EMA, and increase in uni fees

Educational policies

• gov strategy for education-intro through legal changes + instructions to schools • marketisation policies -introduction of market forces of consumer choice + come into areas run by the state E.t. education-creating education market -become central theme since 1988 education reform act Marketisation policies include: -League tables, formula funding, opting out of LEA control, free schools, academies, business sponsorship -parentocracy supporters argue policies give greater choice and raise standards • reproduction of inequality: 1. League tables-main schools with good results can cream skim-the best-mainly MC -less successful schools end up with less able pupils- silt shifting 2. Funding formula-schools funded on how many people they recruit, so good schools get more money, can improve staffing/facilities and attract more pupils 3. Parental choice -GERWITZ: identifies MC privileged skilled chooses with economic and cultural capital to take advantage of the system -WC, disconnected local chooses who lack capital and have to settle for the nearest school -ambitious WC, semiskilled choosers frustrated by their inability to get the school they wanted 4. Myth of parentocracy -marketisation also legitimate inequality by making it look as though parents are equally free to choose a good school

Nike identities

• many pupils-conscious-schools/society look down on them -this is symbolic violence-lead to seek alternative ways of self worth, status/value • constructived meaningful class ID-investing heavily in styles especially branded clothing E.G Nike -wearing brands-way of being me-without feeling inauthentic -pupils ID-strongly gendered-E.G girls-adopted hyper heterosexual feminine style this was heavily policed by peers not confirming meant social suicide -right appearance = symbolic capital approval from peers and safety from bullying -Nike ID lead to conflict with schools dress code : Schools MC habitus-teachers opposed street clothes-see it as a threat/bad taste-pupils have adopted street styles risk being labelled as rebels • Archer-school MC habitus-stigmatises WC pupil IDs -pupils performance of style-struggle for recognition • Nike Styles play part OF WC rejection of HE - so education as un realistic/undesirable -Unrealistic BC "not for people like us ", for richer, posher, clever people-they would not fit in -also seen as unaffordable risky investment -undesirable BC would not suit preferred lifestyle/habitus-E.G did not want to live on student loan-BC unable to afford street style that gave them their ID • Archer; WC investment in Nike ID is not only cause of educational marginalisation-expresses positive preference for particular lifestyles -as a result WC may choose to self exclusion from education-not only do they get the message education is not for the likes of them-but actually choose to reject it because does not fit their ID/way of life

New right solution to educational underachievement

• marketisation -intro to areas run by state of market forces of consumer choice and comp between institutions -creating an edge to market forces schools to respond to the needs of peoples, parents and employees (consumers)-E.G comp w others schools mean teachers have to be more efficient -School survival depends on its ability to raise achievement levels of its pupils New right does see two roles of the state 1. Should create framework -should create framework for comp between schools (publishing league tables of exam results and setting national curriculum all schools should teach) 2. Should insure to transmit shared culture/values -need to ensure schools transmit set values/culture of society through curriculum which emphasises national identity-for example through teaching of British history

Evaluation of functionalism

• marxist: values transmitted by education not societies shared values but those of the ruling class • education not meritocratic, discriminates against some groups-black/working-class doesn't give them equal opportunities to achieve • Hargreaves: schools place more value on competition and developing individuals that developing social solidarity • interactional lists: deterministic-not all passively accept schools values-some reject and rebel • ascribed characteristics class, ethnicity-more important in determining income later on in life than achievement in school • sometimes difficult to see direct link about subjects studied + what is required of workers and their jobs-doesn't necessarily equip for future work roles

Class differences in achievement internal-self fulfilling prophecy

• prediction which causes it self to become true • interactionist argue labelling can affect pupils achievement by creating a SFP • rosenthal & Jacobson: Study primary school-told teachers they have designed a test that would identify spurted -just standard IQ test - fabricated results-pick 20% at random-told school test identified them as spurters -return one year later-47% had made significant progress Suggested that teachers belief about peoples influence by the results-result in teachers conveying belief three way they interacted with the children -demonstrate self for filling prophecy-school accepted prediction that some Would spurt ahead and the teachers bought it about -if teachers believe the pupil to be a certain type-they can make the pupil into that type

Gillborn and youdell a to C economy

• studied 2 London secondary schools-shows how teachers use stereotypical notions of ability -teachers are less likely to see working-class/black pupils as having ability-more likely enter them in lower streams + lower tier GCSEs • this denies them knowledge/opportunity for good grades-widens class gap in achievement •Gillborn & Youdell: link streaming to the league table policy (rank school according to performance)-need good league table position to attract pupils/funding •Gillborn & Youdell: publishing league table create a to C economy in schools -System where school focuses their time/effort/resources on people they see having potential to get five A*-C-boosts league table position •GILLBORN AND YOUDELL EDUCATIONAL TRIAGE: A *-C economy process is educational triage triage=sorting Triage: used to describe battlefield/disasters Med staff sort casualties three categories: 1) walking wounded-ignored BC will survive 2) die anyway-also ignored 3) chance of survival-given treatment in hope of saving School also creates three people categories: 1) pass anyway left to get on with it 2 potential helped to get grade C/better 3) hopeless cases doomed to fail Need to get a good league table position drives educational triage-becomes basis of streaming-teachers believe-WC lack of ability-uses segregate them into lower streams - receive less attention/support and resources this results in lower levels of achievement of working-class

Pupil subcultures-class differences-internal

• subculture = group of peoples share similar values + behaviour pattern emerge from labelling/reaction to streaming in particular • lacey polarisation and differentiation: -this helps to explain how subcultures develop • differentiation: process - teachers categorise according to how they perceive pupils ability, attitude/behaviour -streaming = form of differentiation-categorises into separate classes -deemed more able = high stream (high status given) -less able = low stream (inferior status) • polarisation: process-pupils respond to streaming-they move towards one of two opposite poles or extremes (pro or anti school subculture) LACEY • Pro school subculture characteristics: 🖋 hi stream, MC 🖋 remain committed to values of school 🖋 gain status in approved manner-ademic success 🖋 values are often that of schools- hard work etc LACEY: • anti-school subculture characteristics 🖋 lower streams, WC 🖋 suffer loss of self-esteem school undermine self worth-placed them in inferior status 🖋 label them-failure-pushed to find alternative way of status-involve inverting (turnin upside down) schools values of hard work, obedience and punctuality 🖋 from anti-school subculture-means of gaining status from peers-Cheeking teachers, truanting, not doing homework Etc

Lacey: problems with anti-school subcultures

🖋 May solve lack of status but create further problems for the ppupil -LLacey joining anti-school subcultures-SFP for educational failure -Hargreaves: found similar response to labelling/streaming-mod secondary' school 🖋 education system POV-boys in lower streams = triple failures -failed 11+ exams, placed in lower streams, labelled as worthless louts