English 201 Midterm

THE ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD

(1066- 1200 CE): Norman French armies invade and conquer England under King William I. This invasion marks the end of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy and the emergence of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance (c. 1100 onward). French chivalric romances-such as works by Chretien de Troyes -Breton lais and French writings-such as the works of Marie de France and Jeun de Meun-spread in popularity. Abelard and other humanists produce great scholastic and theological works.

HOMERIC or HEROIC PERIOD

(1200-800 BCE) Greek legends are passed along orally, including Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey. Epics and hymns of the time period mix history and mythology.

Early Tudor Period

(1485-1558): The War of the Roses ends in England with Henry Tudor (Henry VII) claiming the throne. Martin Luther's split with Rome marks the emergence of Protestantism, followed by Henry VIII's Anglican schism, which creates the first Protestant church in England. Edmund Spenser is a sample poet.

Elizabethan Period

(1558-1603): Queen Elizabeth saves England from both Spanish invasion and internal squabbles at home. The early works of Shakespeare, Marlowe, Kydd, and Sidney mark Elizabeth's reign.

Jacobean Period

(1603-1625): Shakespeare's later work, Aemilia Lanyer, Ben Jonson, and John Donne.

Caroline Age

(1625-1649): John Milton, George Herbert, Robert Herrick, the "Sons of Ben" and others write during the reign of Charles I and his Cavaliers.

Commonwealth Period or Puritan Interregnum

(1649-1660): Under Cromwell's Puritan dictatorship, John Milton continues to write, but we also find writers like Andrew Marvell and Sir Thomas Browne.

CLASSICAL ROMAN PERIOD

(200 BCE-455 CE) Greece's culture gives way to Roman power when Rome conquers Greece in 146 CE. The Roman Republic was traditionally founded in 509 BCE, but it is limited in size until later. Playwrights of this time include Plautus and Terence. After nearly 500 years as a Republic, Rome slides into dictatorship under Julius Caesar and finally into a monarchial empire under Caesar Augustus in 27 CE. This later period is known as the Roman Imperial period. Roman writers include Ovid, Horace, and Virgil. Roman philosophers include Marcus Aurelius and Lucretius. Roman rhetoricians include Cicero and Quintilian.

invocation of the muse

A prayer or address made to the one of the nine muses of Greco-Roman mythology, in which the poet asks for th inspiration, skill, knowledge, or appropriate mood to create a poem worthy of his subject-matter. The invocation of the muse traditionally begins Greco-Roman epics and elegies

meter

A recognizable though varying pattern of stressed syllables alternating with syllables of less stress. Meter requires a poet to organize the syllables of a line into feet.

Volkerwanderung

Also called the Germanic migration this term refers to the mass migration of Germanic tribes westward across Europe between 375 CE and 750 Ce. This influx was a contributing factor in Rome's fall.

heroic age

Also known as the Homeric Age, this is the period of time between 1200-800 BCE

epic

An epic in its most specific sense is a genre of classical poetry. It is a poem that is a long narrative about a serious subject, told in an elevated style of language, focused on the exploits of an epic hero or demigod who represents the cultural values of a race, nation , or religious group in which the hero's success or failure will determine the fate of that people or nation.

Aphrodite (Roman Venus)

Aphrodite is the goddess of sexuality and desire. Note that in Greek and Roman mythology, the goddess of sexual desire is a completely separate entity from Hera, the goddess of marriage. Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus (Roman Vulcan), the god of the forge and fire, but she has an ongoing affair with Ares, the god of war. (That makes perfect sense, since love and conflict are often intermixed!) Sometimes Aphrodite is referred to as the Cytherean, because she was born in the sea-foam off Cyprus when Zeus threw the severed testicles of the Titan Chronos into the ocean. These testicles spontaneously impregnated the sea, and Aphrodite sprang from the ocean full-grown and naked. In other versions, Aphrodite is one of Zeus's daughters.

Athena

As goddess of wisdom and battle, Athena naturally has a soft spot for the brave and wily Odysseus. She helps him out of many tough situations, including his shipwreck in Book 5 and the mismatched battle of Book 22. She does not merely impart sense and safety to her passive charge, however. She takes an interest in Odysseus for the talents he already has and actively demonstrates. Although she reassures Odysseus during the battle with the suitors, she does not become fully involved, preferring instead to watch Odysseus fight and prevail on his own.

laws of hospitality

Called xenia in Greek, the term refers to the custom in classical Greece and other ancient cultures that, if a traveler comes to a town, he can ask any person there for food, shelter, and gifts to help him on his journey. In Greek tradition, the host was considered responsible for his guest's comfort and safety, and a breach of those laws of hospitality was thought to anger Zeus the king of gods

Aurora (The Dawn)

Commonly called "rose-fingered," this colorful goddess lives on the Isle of Aeaea. Her hobby is to paint the morning sky beautiful colors, apparently, and the traces linger on her hands.

Cupid (Roman Eros)

Cupid, or Desire, is the son of Aphrodite. He was a rather sadistic god who carried a bow of arrows--gold tipped ones that made people fall in love or lead-tipped ones that dulled passion. He also frequently carried a torch, which he would shove against people's hearts or genitals to burn them with arousal. All in all, he was something of a sadistic child. He later settles down and marries Psyche.

Dionysus (Roman Bacchus)

Dionysus is the god of wine, inebriation, and ecstatic loss of the self in wild frenzies. His preferred sacrifice is a libation of wine. Dionysus is not, however, a bright and happy deity. He is also the god of tragedy. The oldest Greek tragedies were originally performed as religious rituals in his honor, and the plays may have begun with the sacrifice of a goat on stage.

Zeus (Roman Jupiter)

Father and ruler of the gods on Mount Olympus, he is the god of the sky and lightning. He once led the young Olympian gods in a rebellion against the older Titans, and he married his sister, Hera (Roman Juno). Unfortunately, sexual fidelity has never been his strong point, and Zeus fathered many demigods by seducing a string of humans, nymphs, and other beings while wearing shape- changing disguises.

Telemachus

Just an infant when his father left for Troy, Telemachus is still maturing when the Odyssey begins. He is wholly devoted to his mother and to maintaining his father's estate, but he does not know how to protect them from the suitors. After all, it has only been a few years since he first realized what the suitors' intentions were. His meeting with Athena in Book 1 changes things. Aside from improving his stature and bearing, she teaches him the responsibilities of a young prince. He soon becomes more assertive. He confronts the suitors and denounces the abuse of his estate, and when Penelope and Eurycleia become anxious or upset, he does not shy away from taking control.

Hermes (Roman Mercury)

Light-footed, slender, and clever, Hermes is the god of travelers, messengers, thieves, tricksters, and gamblers--basically the god of anybody who must move quickly or make fast getaways. He wears sandals with wings on the heel-straps that let him fly with arrow-like speed wherever he willed, and he carries a caduceus to identify himself to spirits of the dead, whom he guides into Hades' realm where Charon carries them across the river Styx. Hermes was quite the delinquent in his youth, stealing the sacred cows of Helios.

moria

Moria was the name given at the beginning of the late Third Age to an enormous and by then very ancient underground complex in north-western Middle-earth, comprising a vast network of tunnels, chambers, mines and huge halls or mansions, that ran under and ultimately through the Misty Mountains.

The Nine Muses

Nine spirits responsible for creativity and inspiration. When someone has a sudden burst of insight or feels especially creative, that person might say, "A Muse has visited me." Traditionally, epic poems begin with a prayer to one of the muses.

wyrd

Often translated as "fate, word is an Anglo-Saxon term that embodies the concept of inevitability in Old English poetry. Unlike, destiny, in which one imagines looking forward into the futures toes the outcome of one's life, word appears to be linked to the past, duties, responsibilities, and bloodfeuds inherited from one's ancestors

Athena (Roman Minerva)

Often we think of Athena as the goddess of wisdom, but more technically she is the goddess of intelligence and anything that requires skill or cleverness--including both military strategy and weaving cloth. Like Aphrodite, she had an unusual birth. She sprang full-grown and armored from Zeus' skull after he had a splitting headache. (After all, where else should wisdom originate if not in the head of a ruler?) She is described as having grey eyes, and her sacred bird is the owl. In Greek mythology, she rewards those she favors with good ideas.

Hera (Roman Juno)

Queen of the gods, Hera, is a goddess responsible for happy and loyal marriage. Ironically, her husband Zeus isn't a very good husband himself. She is a rather vengeful and spiteful deity in some ways, and she spends much of her time tormenting Zeus' many lovers and his illegitimate children. Nobody can hold a grudge like Hera.

peer-reviewed journal

Scholarly peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work, research, or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field, before a paper describing this work is published in a journal or as a book.

Persephone (Roman Proserpine)

She is the goddess of plant-life and fertility. Hades fell in love with her and abducted her, but her mother Demeter's grief caused all plant-life on earth to die. To save the world, Zeus worked out a deal with Hades. The deal is that Persephone spends six miserable months of the year (fall and winter) in the earth with her cold husband, Hades. The other six happy months of the year, Persephone is free to roam around the earth creating new life in the spring and summer.

polis

The Greek city-state, a small, independent government consisting of a single town and its immediate environs

Agamemnon

The King of Argos, the husband of Clytemnestra, and the commander of the Greek armies during the siege of Troy. Agamemnon is the older brother of Menelaus, whose wife Helen was stolen by a Trojan prince, thus igniting a decade-long war. A great warrior, he sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia in order to obtain a favorable wind to carry the Greek fleet to Troy. During the ten-year conflict, his Queen has plotted his death in order to avenge the killing of their daughter. He appears on stage only briefly, and behaves arrogantly. He goes to his death unaware of his fate.

The Winds

The Winds were minor spirits that spent much of their time imprisoned by the gods. Occasionally, Hera or other deities would bribe their jailor to let the winds loose to cause disaster. These spirits included Boreas (south wind), Notus, (north wind), Zephyr (west wind), Volturnus (southwest wind), Eurus (east wind), and Aeolus (northeast wind).

fame/shame culture

The anthropological term for a culture in which masculine behavior revolves around a code of martial honor These cultures embody the ideas of death before dishonor. Such civilization often glorify military prowess and romanticize death in battle. Typically, such a society rewards men who display bravery by engaging risk-taking behavior to enhance one's reputation, facing certain death in preference to accusations of cowardice, and displaying loyalty to one's king, chieftain, leige lord, or other authoritative figure in the face of adversity.

Poseidon (Roman Neptune)

The chaotic god of the sea, the oceans, and earthquakes, Poseidon is one of Zeus's younger brothers. He is very good at creating sea-monsters, but not very good at making land animals. (Camels and elephants, for instance, are attributed to his making; the only land animal he made that turned out okay was the horse.) He is also prone to dangerous mood swings and temper tantrums that manifested as sea storms. His children are shapeshifters and giants that plague sailors and coastlines.

in medias res

The classical tradition of opening an epic not in the chronological point at which the sequence of events would start, but rather at the midway point of the story. Later on in the narrative, the hero will recount verbally to others what events took place earlier. Usually, in medias res is a technique used to heighten dramatic tension or to create a sense of mystery.

Hades (Roman Pluto or Dis Pater)

The gloomy god of death and the underworld, he runs around with a helmet that turns him invisible. (This makes a great deal of sense; nobody can ever see death coming....) The very name Hades is often used as a synonym for hell and death. Hades is married to a young goddess he abducted, Persephone. He is often equated with Plutus, the god of wealth, in later mythology.

Hyperion / Helios (Roman Apollo or Phoebus Apollo)

The god of the sun, of light, of sacred music, and healing. Apollo would send prophecies through Oracles at sacred shrines. He is very possessive, however, of his sacred golden cows, as Odysseus's crewmen learn to their detriment.

Ares (Roman Mars)

The god of war, Ares is usually depicted as something of a coward and a braggart bully in Greek mythology. In Roman mythology, his equivalent Mars is something much more fierce, and along with Venus, Mars serves as one of the two great patrons of Rome.

Demeter (Roman Ceres)

The goddess of grain harvests, she is a rather plain and nondescript deity with an important job economically speaking. Her daughter Persephone was kidnapped by Hades.

tragic hero

The main character in a Greek or Roman tragedy. In contrast with the epic hero, the tragic hero is typically an admirable character who appears as the focus in a tragic play; but one who is undone by a hermits-a tragic mistake, misconception, or flaw. The hermits leads to the downfall of the main character. In many cases, the tragic flaw results from the character's hubris, but for a tragedy to work, the audience must sympathize for the main character. Accordingly, in many of the best tragedies, the tragic flaw grows out of some that we find admirable.

epic hero

The main character in an epic poem-typically one who embodies the values of his or her culture.

Clytemnestra

The play's protagonist, Clytemnestra is Agamemnon's wife and has ruled Argos in his absence. She plans his murder with ruthless determination, and feels no guilt after his death; she is convinced of her own rectitude and of the justice of killing the man who killed her daughter. She is, a sympathetic character in many respects, but the righteousness of her crime is tainted by her entanglement with Aegisthus. Even so, Aeschylus makes it clear that Agamemnon's death must be avenged.

comitatus

The term describes the tribal structure of the Anglo-Saxons and other Germanic tribes in which groups of men would swear fealty to a hlaford in exchange for food, mead, and heriot.

classical

The term in Western culture is usually used in reference to the art, architecture, drama, philosophy, literature, and history surrounding the Greeks and Romans between 1000 BCE and 410 BCE. Works created during the Gerco-Roman period are often called classics.

allegory

The term loosely describes any writing in verse or prose that has a double meaning. This narrative acts as an extended metaphor in which persons, abstract ideas, or events represent not only themselves on the literal level, but they also stand for something else on the symbolic level. An allegorical reading usually involves moral or spiritual concepts that may be more significant than the actual. literal event described in a narrative.

nostos

The theme or motif of the homecoming-a return to one's family, community , or geographic origins after al on time away. Traditionally, this Greek designation refers specifically to homecoming after the Trojan War, including both Odysseus's return to Ithaca and Agamemnon's return to Mycenae

Penelope

Though she has not seen Odysseus in twenty years, and despite pressure the suitors place on her to remarry, Penelope never loses faith in her husband. Her cares make her somewhat flighty and excitable, however. For this reason, Odysseus, Telemachus, and Athena often prefer to leave her in the dark about matters rather than upset her.

Nike

Winged victory, she is a goddess presiding over military triumphs and accompanying Athena.

epic simile

a formal and sustained comparison appearing over multiple lines in an epic poem

flyting

a ritual, poetic exchange of insults practiced mainly between the 5th and 16th centuries. The root is the Old English word flītan meaning quarrel (from Old Norse word flyta meaning provocation).

mythology

a set of stories, traditions, or beliefs associated with a particular group or the history of an event, arising naturally or deliberately fostered

lyric

a short poem of songlike quality

prudentia

first declension acquaintance, knowledge sagacity, prudence, discretion foresight

arete

implies a humble and constant striving for perfection and self improvement combined with a realistic awareness that such perfection cannot be reached. As long as an individual strives to do and be the best, that individual has aerie. As soon as the individual believes he has actually achieved arete, however, he or she has lost that exalted state and fallen into hubris, unable to recognize personal limitations or the humble need to improve constantly

iusticia

justice?

cyning

king

hlaford

lord

moderatio

moderation self-control guidance government, regulation

close reading

reading a piece of literature carefully, bit by bit, in order to analyze the significance of every individual word. image. and artistic ornament

platonic forms

realities that you cannot see ex: perfect justice Allegory of the Cave

alliteration

repeating a consonant sound in close proximity to others, or beginning several words with the same vowel sound.

Hephaestus (Roman Mulciber or Vulcan)

Hephaestus is the god of fire, craftsmanship, and the forge. He is a crippled being whose legs were broken after Zeus flung him from the heavens to the earth in a rage. Assisted by a trio of cyclopean assistants, he forges magical weapons and armor for the gods-- including Zeus' javelins of lightning--and knick-knacks like walking chairs and animated mechanical servants.

primary text

In the study of history as an academic discipline, a primary source (also called original source or evidence) is an artifact, a document, a recording, or other source of information that was created at the time under study

propaganda

Information, rumors, ideas, writings, and artwork spread deliberately to help or harm another specific political movement, belief, institution, or government

imagery

A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion , simile, or metaphor.

chorus

A group of singers who stand alongside or off stage from the principal performers in a dramatic or musical performance

play

A play is a form of literature written by a playwright, usually consisting of dialogue between characters, intended for theatrical performance rather than just reading.

THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

12000 BCE-455 CE 4 under this catagory 1. HOMERIC or HEROIC PERIOD (1200-800 BCE) 2.CLASSICAL GREEK PERIOD (800-200 BCE) 3.CLASSICAL ROMAN PERIOD (200 BCE-455 CE) 4.PATRISTIC PERIOD (c. 70 CE-455 CE)

pietas

4 pagen virtues 1. justice 2. toughness 3. prudence 4. moderation

Plato

(427-347 BCE): Socrates' favorite student, Plato, founded the Academy as a place for philosophers to teach. He recorded all of Socrates' dialogues he could remember. It's hard to say where Socrates' ideas end and Plato's ideas begin, but generally Plato's philosophy is more systematic and more mystical than Socrates' ideas. Plato's philosophy basically suggested that the world of true ideas (Justice, Beauty, Goodness, Virtue, Numbers, Geometry) had a reality of its own beyond the physical world. In a way, these concepts were even more real than the physical world of the senses. Physical reality was at best a shadow or dim outline of these abstract concepts, and at worst it was a distraction or lie that removes our attention from more important spiritual truths. This doctrine led Plato to some interesting conclusions. It logically followed that paintings, sculptures, drama, and literature were even further removed from reality, since they were merely false images of the already false physical world. This is why Plato suggests a perfect society (such as the one he postulates in The Republic) would banish artists, musicians, and writers and set up philosophers as kings.

THE OLD ENGLISH (ANGLO-SAXON) PERIOD

(428-1066) The so-called "Dark Ages" (455 CE -799 CE) occur when Rome falls and barbarian tribes move into Europe. Franks, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Goths settle in the ruins of Europe and the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrate to Britain, displacing native Celts into Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Early Old English poems such as Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer originate sometime late in the Anglo-Saxon period. The Carolingian Renaissance (800- 850 CE) emerges in Europe. In central Europe, texts include early medieval grammars, encyclopedias, etc. In northern Europe, this time period marks the setting of Viking sagas.

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

(455 CE-1485 CE) 3 under this category THE OLD ENGLISH (ANGLO-SAXON) PERIOD THE ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

CLASSICAL GREEK PERIOD

(800-200 BCE) Greek writers, playwrights, and philosophers such as Gorgias, Aesop, Aeschylus, Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Euripides, and Sophocles. The fifth century (499-400 BCE) in particular is renowned as The Golden Age of Greece. This is the sophisticated period of the polis, or individual City-State, and early democracy. Some of the world's finest art, poetry, drama, architecture, and philosophy originate in Athens.

THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

(c. 1066-1450 CE) Late or "High" Medieval Period (c. 1200-1485 CE): This often tumultuous period is marked by the Middle English writings of Geoffrey Chaucer, the Pearl Poet, the Wakefield Master, and William Langland. Other writers include Italian and French authors like Boccaccio, Petrarch, Dante, and Christine de Pisan.

THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

(c. 1485-1660 CE) (The Renaissance takes place in the late 15th, 16th, and early 17th century in Britain, but somewhat earlier in Italy and southern Europe, somewhat later in northern Europe.) There are 5 in this catagory

PATRISTIC PERIOD

(c. 70 CE-455 CE) Early Christian writings appear such as Saint Augustine, Tertullian, Saint Cyprian, Saint Ambrose and Saint Jerome. This is the period in which Saint Jerome first compiles the Bible, when Christianity spreads across Europe, and the Roman Empire suffers its dying convulsions. In this period, barbarians attack Rome in 410 CE and the city finally falls to them completely in 455 CE.

dramatic personae

1 : the characters or actors in a drama. 2 singular in construction : a list of the characters or actors in a drama.

beôt

A ritualized boast or vow made publicly by Anglo-Saxon warriors known as thens before the hlaford in a mead-hall the night before a military engagement. A typical warrior's boast might be that he would be the first to strike a blow coming battle, that he would kill a particular champion among the enemy, that he would bot take a single step backward in retreat during the battle, that he would claim a renowned sword from an enemy warrior as booty, and so on. This vow or boast as often accompanied by stories of his past glorious deeds. While later Christianized medieval culture might disdain boasting as sign of arrogance or sinful pride, the pagan Anglo-Saxons valued such behavior. The beot was not so much a negative sign of arrogance as positive sign of determination and character. Examples of the best can be seen throughout Beowulf such as when Beowulf vows to fight Grendel without using any weapons

tragedy

A serious play in which the chief character, by some peculiarity of psychology, passes through a series of misfortunes leading to a final, devastating catastrophe. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragedy.

choragos

A sponsor or patron of a play in classical Greece. As a reward, this sponsor served as the lead singer of the chorus

parable

A story or short narrative designed to reveal allegorically some religious principle, moral lesson, psychological reality, or general truth.

hamartia

A term for greek tragedy the literally means "missing the mark". Originally applied to an archer who misses the target, a hamartia came to signify a tragic flaw especially a misperception, a lack of some important insight, or some blindness that ironically results from one's own strengths and abilities. In Greek tragedy the protagonist frequently possesses some sort of hamartia that causes catastrophic results after he fails to recognize some fact or truth that could have saved him if he recognized it earlier. The idea of hamartia is often ironic; it frequently implies the very trait that makes the individual noteworthy is what ultimately causes the protagonist's decline into disaster.

anagnorisis

A term used by Aristotle in the Poetics to describe the moment of tragic recognition in which the protagonist realizes some important fact or insight, especially a truth about himself, human nature, or his situation. Aristotle argues that the ideal moment of anagnorisis in a tragedy is the moment of peripeteia, the reversal of fortune

Artemis (Roman Diana)

A tomboy goddess of the moon, the hunt, and virginity, she is Zeus's favorite daughter. She made Zeus swear never to make her marry and let her spend her nights in the forest hunting. She likes skinny-dipping, but if men spy her bathing, she tends to turn them into stags.

alliterative verse

A traditional form of Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse poetry in which each line has at least four stressed syllables, and those stresses fall on syllables in which three or four words alliterate.

thegn

A warrior who has sworn his loyalty to a lord in Anglo-Saxon society. In return for a gift of weaponry and provisions of food and drink at the mead hall, the throng vows to fight for his lord and die in his service. He also takes up the task of avenging his lord's death if that lord should die.

plagiarism

Accidental or intentional intellectual theft in which a writer, poet, artist, scholar, or student steals an original idea, phrase, or section of writing from someone else and presents this material as his or her own without indicating the source via appropriate explanation or citation.

Anglo-Saxon

Historically, the term refers to a group of Teutonic tribes who invaded England in the Fifth an Sixth Centuries following the departure of Roman legions in 410 CE. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, came from the northern parts of Europe and gave their name to England, driving the native Celtic peoples into the farthest western and northerns regions of Britan. We can also refer to the time period of 410 CE up until about 1066 Ce as the "Anglo-Saxon" historical period in Britain. In linguistics, the term Anglo-Saxon is also used to refer to Old English, the language spoken by these tribes and the [recursor of Middle English and Modern English. Many medievalists prefer to distinguish between the two- reversing "Old English" for the language "Anglo-Saxon" for the culture.

Odysseus

Homeric leader: strength, courage, nobility, a thirst for glory, and confidence in his authority. His most distinguishing trait, however, is his sharp intellect.

strophe

In classical Greek literature like the play Antigone and the pindaric Odes, the strophe and the antistrophe were alternating stanzas sung aloud. In drams, the chorus would sing the strophe , probably with rhythmic pantomime or dance involved and the chorus would switch to the antistrophe

cardinal virtues

In contrast to the three spiritual or Christian virtues of fides (faith), sees (hope), and caritas (love) espoused in the New Testament, th e four cardinal or pagan virtues consisted of prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice. These were popular Roman and stoic vales before the coming of Christianity.

epithet

In epic poems, a short, poetic nickname-often in the form of an adjective or adjectival phrase-attached to the normal name. Frequently, this technique allows a poet to extend a line by a few syllables in a poetic manner that characterizes an individuals or a setting within an epic poem .

Socrates

Socrates is famous for his claim that he didn't know anything. According to the Oracle at Delphi, this claim proved Socrates was the wisest thinker in Athens. Socrates wrote no books, but his student Plato recorded his conversations. The typical Socratic dialogue had three divisions. (1) In the first section, Socrates would pose a problem, such as "What is virtue?" or "What is justice?" He would ask strangers about it, and he would become excited when they claimed to know the answer. (2) In the second section, Socrates would find "minor flaws" in his companions' definitions and begin to unravel them, forcing his partners to admit their ignorance. In one dialogue, in fact, the target is so shaken up he ends in tears. (3) Socrates and the other conversationalists agree to pursue the truth seriously and further refine their definitions. The dialogues almost all end inconclusively. Socrates' most famous quotation, as recorded in Plato, proclaims "the unexamined life is not worth living." Unfortunately his tendency to question established beliefs in the government and in religion created many enemies--especially since he encouraged young people to do the same. He was eventually put on trial for "corruption of the youth," and condemned to die by drinking hemlock. Many modern people hold up Socrates as a martyr for the truth.

Circe

Technically a sorceress rather than a goddess, the distinction is insignificant given her great powers. She was eternally young and beautiful through her magic, and she had the power to turn men who displeased her into pigs.

Aristotle

ristotle spent twenty years at Plato's Academy, but he later left and founded his own school, the Lyceum. He taught Platonic philosophy to his students, but he also criticized it. He rejected Plato's dualism (the way Plato separated the world of ideas or forms from the physical world). He argued that some perfect, unchanging force or entity (a Prime Mover) outside of causality must have initiated the sequence of cause and effect in the material world, and he suggested that things in the material world are teleological (goal-oriented or purpose-oriented) in nature. Aristotle almost single-handedly founded symbolic binary logic and he wrote a series of important works on rhetoric, ethics, philosophy, art, drama, and poetry. If Plato was a "lumper" who tended to see similarities and generalize from these points to reach a greater truth, Aristotle was a "splitter" who tended to break subjects down into subdivisions to reach a greater truth.

periodization

the division of literature into chronological categories of historical period or time as opposed to the categorization of literature according to genre

stoicism

the endurance of pain or hardship without a display of feelings and without complaint.

catharsis

the purgation of pity and fear an audience experiences while watching a tragedy

philosophy

the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct.

antistrophe

the second section of an ancient Greek choral ode or of one division of it.