English Language AS Level
Present Tense
"I WILL buy a book today"
Past Tense
"I WOULD buy a book today"
Adjacency Pair
2 part structures which require interaction (e.g. APOLOGY requires FORGIVENESS, QUESTION requires ANSWER)
Corpus
A body of written texts
Inflections
A change in the form of a word to express a grammatical function or attribute (e.g. tense/mood/person/number/case/gender)
Electronic Language (Mode)
A combination of spoken and written language
Grapheme
A single letter or symbol
Consonant Sounds
A speech sound where the breath is partially obstructed (not a vowel). E.g. sCent and CyClops
Discourse Marker
A word or phrase (commonly an adverb) that marks the change of boundary between one topic to the next (e.g. Anyways)
Vowel Sounds
A/E/I/O/U, speech sound that is produced by open configuration of vocal tract, considered the nucleus of the syllable
Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Add meaning/modifies pre-existing verbs (e.g. might/must/will/can/could) to (e.g. stay/go). An easier definition would be 'hypothetical situations'
Convergency Theory (Giles)
Adjusts speaking patterns to MATCH with a particular social group
Divergence Theory (Giles)
Adjusts speaking patterns to be DISTINCT from a particular social group
Intensifier
Adverb that enhances or modifies a verb
Message-oriented
Aimed to communicate a message
Socially-oriented
Aimed to fit in a social context (the situation)
Black Vernacular English (BVE)
American and Caribbean English
Stress
Amount of emphasis put on a syllable
Descriptive Approach
Approach that describes the grammar
Prescriptive Approach
Approach that lays down the rules of 'correct grammar'
Backchannel Behavior
Background noises the listener makes to respond to what the speaker is saying, it also signifies they are listening
Politeness Theory
Brown and Levinson states that participants pays attention to what the other person needs, in order to succeed in the conversation
Maker of Sympathetic Circularity
Checking that the other person is still with you during the conversation
Sentence Structures
Classified in declarative/imperative/interrogative/transactional structures
Phrase
Combining singular words into meaningful groups
Lingua Franca
Common language between speakers of different languages
Compounding
Creating new words by joining independent words (e.g. GRAND + MOTHER and SKETCH + BOOK and RAIL + WAY)
Tone
Degree of formality on the kind of language chosen
Deixis
Describes words that rely on context to give meaning (e.g. here, there, then, they)
Regional Variation
Dialect differs in speech, sentence structure and lexis (according to region)
Phoneme
Distinctive sound with a function in a particular language (Capable of conveying meaning)
Estuary English
Distinctive type of pronunciation used by more and more people
Key Constituent
Essential part of something whole (the 'important bits' of language)
Prefix
Extras added to the beginning of words (e.g. DISadvantage)
Suffix
Extras added to the end of words (e.g. geoLOGY)
Register/Formality
Form of language appropriate to a particular situation/context (mode/tenor/function)
Acronym
Formation of word by taking first letters of the word (e.g. World War 2 = WW2)
Onomatopoeia
Formation of word that reflects the sound of the object (e.g. PUSH/BANG)
Filler
Gaps in between conversations which are filled with sounds (e.g. erm, uhm)
Interrogative Sentence Stucture
Grammatical form which expresses a question (?)
Imperative Sentence Structure
Grammatical form which expresses an order (do/don't)
Co-operative Maxims
Grice outlines that there are four maxims, and they are considered the ideal principles (Quantity, quality, manner and relation)
Semantic Field
Group of words that relate by meaning
Subject - Specific Lexis
Group of words which relate to the subject matter/topic
Conversation Analysis
How conversations work
Pronouns
I, she, he, you, it, we, they
First Person Pronoun
I/me/we/us
Connotation
Idea/feeling that the word creates aside from the literal meaning (e.g. DISCIPLINE expresses connotations of sadness, terror and repression)
Relation (Maxim)
If the subject is changed or the same
Spoken Language (Mode)
Immediate, no permanent record, no time for planning, informal
Mitigated Imperative
Indirect and subtle commands (e.g. 'I'd LIKE everyone to be quiet now')
Slang
Informal Language
Colloquial
Informal language typically used in speaking
Tag Questions
Interrogative structure attached to a declarative (e.g. Good day, ISN'T IT?)
Taboo Words
Language that is considered highly inappropriate in the social circumstance
Pitch
Level of the sound (her voice rising to a shriek)
Intonation
Level of tone (You should do it = low intonation/Do you think I should do it? = high intonation)
Addresser-Addressee Relationship
Listener/speaker or reader/writer
Zimmerman & West (1975)
Males interrupt more than females, suggests MALE DOMINANCE
Deborah Cameron Theory
Males pretend to be young girls in order to fit with the young girl age group
Associative Meanings
Meaning of a word that is connected with another concept (e.g. BABY would mean childish, scared, coward)
Figurative Meanings
Meaning of a word/phrase in a metaphorical sense (makes use of the 5 senses). E.g. It touched a nerve
Channel
Medium of communication of information
Literal Meanings
Most basic sense of the word (e.g. Drive me crazy is NOT an literal meaning)
Positive Face
Need to be liked and accepted
Schwa Sound
Occurs in every polysyllabic word, most common sound and considered weak
Standard English
Official, original word (e.g. REFRIGERATOR is Standard while fridge is abbreviated)
Elision
Omission of a sound in speech, may also refer to unstressed vowels/consonant/syllable (e.g. THEY'D)
Root
One morpheme, the basis where words are
Overlapping Speech
One speaker starts before the other finishes
Adverbials
Optional and movable words (e.g. the driver had SUPPOSEDLY been drinking)
Written Language (Mode)
Over a period of time, permanent record, time for plan and revision, for the public audience, formal
Footing
Participant's stance towards each other
Subject (Grammar)
Person responsible for the action
Covert Prestige
Previously considered inferior pronunciation, but now considered superior
Stigmatised
Pronunciation considered inferior
Prestige
Pronunciation considered superior
Face
Public, self-image
Function
Purpose of text
Audience
Receivers of written/verbal communication
Object (Grammar)
Recipient of action from the subject
Phatic Function
Refers to the social aspect rather than the message (e.g. YOU'RE WELCOME, which is the phatic response to being thanked)
Interpersonal
Relates to relations between people
Ideational
Relates to the ideas/concepts
Semantics
Relationship between words and meanings
Tenor
Relationship between writing and audience in situation
Borrowed
Root words taken from other languages (e.g. Latin)
Quantity (Maxim)
Says more or less
Manner (Maxim)
Says something in polite/obscure manner
Quality (Maxim)
Says something untrue/true
Grammar
Sentence Structure
Clause
Sentences that must at least have a subject and a verb (e.g. PIGS may FLY)
Abbreviation
Shortened form of word or phrase
Morpheme
Smallest, meaningful unit of language (e.g. UN-LADY-LIKE = 3 morphemes in total). They are classified by 3 basic types: Roots/Prefix/Suffix
Negative Face
Someone's right to not be degraded
Phonology
Sounds of Language
Field-related Jargon
Specialized, technical words that are specific to certain subjects
Dialect
Speech habits of a group of people
Idiolect
Speech habits of an individual
Glottal Stop
Speech sound produced by closure of throat (Britain is pronounced BRIT'IN)
Positive Politeness
Strategies to decrease social distance, e.g. informal lexis, shared dialect, informal grammar
Negative Politeness
Strategies which emphasize respect, e.g. indirect requests, idiolect, formal lexis + grammar
Empatic Stress
Stress on a grammatical word, causing the meaning to change (e.g. Mary IS staying in PRAGUE/Mary is staying IN Prague)
Discourse
Structure of the whole text
Deriavation
Taking a basic word + prefix and suffix to create new ones
Ephemeral
Temporary, short-time
Neologisms
Term for new words or expressions
Mode
Text type
Received Pronounciation
The accent of words (considered standard), also considered a marker of social status (e.g. sounds POSH)
Predicator (Grammar)
The action that follows the subject
Demotic
The language of the people, what language society uses
Context-Dependent Language
The message is made as clear as possible
Context
The situation which affects/explains the way language is used
IPA Symbols
The symbols you see after a dictionary definition
Field
The topic of the text
Formality
The way individuals adjust their tone of language to fit the situation they are in
Greetings
The way people acknowledge each other (e.g. DEAR...)
Salutation
The way people sign off (e.g. REGARDS...)
Turn-Taking
The way speakers can exchange communication without colliding or awkwardly pausing
Terms of Address
The way the participants in a conversation name each other
Text Structure
The way the text is put together
Lexical Item
The word
Function of Texts
To entertain, persuade, inform, describe
Nominalisation
Transforms verbs into nouns (e.g. instead of COLLECTING money, the COLLECTION of money)
Declarative Sentence Structure
Used to make a statement
Transactional Sentence Structure
Used to pass on information
Hedge
Used to soften or intensify a statement (e.g. I ONLY wanted to find out/I REALLY wanted to find out)
Intranstivity
Using verbs that do not need a direct object
Inquit/Quotative
Verb that introduces direct speech (e.g. he SAID)
Transitive
Verbs need a direct object
Graphology
Visualization of Text (e.g. spelling, punctuation marks, fonts, layout and logos)
Beattie (1982)
Went against Zimmerman & West's theory, believes it was not male dominance but sign of SUPPORT and UNDERSTANDING
Denotation
What a word/phrase literally refers to (a definition)
Presupposition
What is already known or assumed
Utterance
What is said during conversation
Inference
What the reader/listener understands
Pragmatics
What the speaker means rather than what the sentence means
Implicature
What the speaker/writer was implying
Ellipsis
When speakers leave out parts of the sentence because they assume the listener understands (e.g. AMAZING PARTY! It was an...amazing party!)
Connected Speech
When spoken language joins words as the continuous sequence (e.g. I want to, I WANNA)
Interruptions
When the speaker is interrupted
Performing Gender
Where the other sex performs the persona of the other gender
Passive Voice
Where the subject is the recipient, not the source of action (e.g. THE POSTMAN = subject and recipient, WAS BITTEN = verb, BY THE DOG )
Active Voice
Where the subject performs the action of the verb (e.g. THE DOG = subject, BIT = verb, THE POSTMAN)
Etymology
Where words come from
Lakoff Theory
Women use more tag questions and interrogatives due to social inequality
Lexis
Word choice
Morphology
Word structure
Postmodification
Words after the noun (description), e.g. the big teddy IS SITTING IN MY ROOM
Premodification
Words before the noun (e.g. BIG teddy)
Framing Moves
Words or phrases which indicate a change in direction (e.g. MOVING ON...)
Jargon
Words that are specific to certain subjects
Word-Class
Words that have similar function (e.g. from noun to verb), e.g. 'if authorities PASSPORT on...'
Antonym
Words that mean the opposite
Synonym
Words that mean the same
Homphone
Words that sound the same but mean different (e.g. RIGHT and WRITE)
Collocation
Words typically grouped together (fast, food, fast, car, fast, train)
Modal Expressions
Words/phrases which indicate the speaker's attitude towards the situation they are in (e.g. I SUPPOSE it must be, SORT OF difficult to phone or WHATEVER)
Second Person Pronoun
You (Singular/plural)/Thee/Thou
