English Language AS Level

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Present Tense

"I WILL buy a book today"

Past Tense

"I WOULD buy a book today"

Adjacency Pair

2 part structures which require interaction (e.g. APOLOGY requires FORGIVENESS, QUESTION requires ANSWER)

Corpus

A body of written texts

Inflections

A change in the form of a word to express a grammatical function or attribute (e.g. tense/mood/person/number/case/gender)

Electronic Language (Mode)

A combination of spoken and written language

Grapheme

A single letter or symbol

Consonant Sounds

A speech sound where the breath is partially obstructed (not a vowel). E.g. sCent and CyClops

Discourse Marker

A word or phrase (commonly an adverb) that marks the change of boundary between one topic to the next (e.g. Anyways)

Vowel Sounds

A/E/I/O/U, speech sound that is produced by open configuration of vocal tract, considered the nucleus of the syllable

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Add meaning/modifies pre-existing verbs (e.g. might/must/will/can/could) to (e.g. stay/go). An easier definition would be 'hypothetical situations'

Convergency Theory (Giles)

Adjusts speaking patterns to MATCH with a particular social group

Divergence Theory (Giles)

Adjusts speaking patterns to be DISTINCT from a particular social group

Intensifier

Adverb that enhances or modifies a verb

Message-oriented

Aimed to communicate a message

Socially-oriented

Aimed to fit in a social context (the situation)

Black Vernacular English (BVE)

American and Caribbean English

Stress

Amount of emphasis put on a syllable

Descriptive Approach

Approach that describes the grammar

Prescriptive Approach

Approach that lays down the rules of 'correct grammar'

Backchannel Behavior

Background noises the listener makes to respond to what the speaker is saying, it also signifies they are listening

Politeness Theory

Brown and Levinson states that participants pays attention to what the other person needs, in order to succeed in the conversation

Maker of Sympathetic Circularity

Checking that the other person is still with you during the conversation

Sentence Structures

Classified in declarative/imperative/interrogative/transactional structures

Phrase

Combining singular words into meaningful groups

Lingua Franca

Common language between speakers of different languages

Compounding

Creating new words by joining independent words (e.g. GRAND + MOTHER and SKETCH + BOOK and RAIL + WAY)

Tone

Degree of formality on the kind of language chosen

Deixis

Describes words that rely on context to give meaning (e.g. here, there, then, they)

Regional Variation

Dialect differs in speech, sentence structure and lexis (according to region)

Phoneme

Distinctive sound with a function in a particular language (Capable of conveying meaning)

Estuary English

Distinctive type of pronunciation used by more and more people

Key Constituent

Essential part of something whole (the 'important bits' of language)

Prefix

Extras added to the beginning of words (e.g. DISadvantage)

Suffix

Extras added to the end of words (e.g. geoLOGY)

Register/Formality

Form of language appropriate to a particular situation/context (mode/tenor/function)

Acronym

Formation of word by taking first letters of the word (e.g. World War 2 = WW2)

Onomatopoeia

Formation of word that reflects the sound of the object (e.g. PUSH/BANG)

Filler

Gaps in between conversations which are filled with sounds (e.g. erm, uhm)

Interrogative Sentence Stucture

Grammatical form which expresses a question (?)

Imperative Sentence Structure

Grammatical form which expresses an order (do/don't)

Co-operative Maxims

Grice outlines that there are four maxims, and they are considered the ideal principles (Quantity, quality, manner and relation)

Semantic Field

Group of words that relate by meaning

Subject - Specific Lexis

Group of words which relate to the subject matter/topic

Conversation Analysis

How conversations work

Pronouns

I, she, he, you, it, we, they

First Person Pronoun

I/me/we/us

Connotation

Idea/feeling that the word creates aside from the literal meaning (e.g. DISCIPLINE expresses connotations of sadness, terror and repression)

Relation (Maxim)

If the subject is changed or the same

Spoken Language (Mode)

Immediate, no permanent record, no time for planning, informal

Mitigated Imperative

Indirect and subtle commands (e.g. 'I'd LIKE everyone to be quiet now')

Slang

Informal Language

Colloquial

Informal language typically used in speaking

Tag Questions

Interrogative structure attached to a declarative (e.g. Good day, ISN'T IT?)

Taboo Words

Language that is considered highly inappropriate in the social circumstance

Pitch

Level of the sound (her voice rising to a shriek)

Intonation

Level of tone (You should do it = low intonation/Do you think I should do it? = high intonation)

Addresser-Addressee Relationship

Listener/speaker or reader/writer

Zimmerman & West (1975)

Males interrupt more than females, suggests MALE DOMINANCE

Deborah Cameron Theory

Males pretend to be young girls in order to fit with the young girl age group

Associative Meanings

Meaning of a word that is connected with another concept (e.g. BABY would mean childish, scared, coward)

Figurative Meanings

Meaning of a word/phrase in a metaphorical sense (makes use of the 5 senses). E.g. It touched a nerve

Channel

Medium of communication of information

Literal Meanings

Most basic sense of the word (e.g. Drive me crazy is NOT an literal meaning)

Positive Face

Need to be liked and accepted

Schwa Sound

Occurs in every polysyllabic word, most common sound and considered weak

Standard English

Official, original word (e.g. REFRIGERATOR is Standard while fridge is abbreviated)

Elision

Omission of a sound in speech, may also refer to unstressed vowels/consonant/syllable (e.g. THEY'D)

Root

One morpheme, the basis where words are

Overlapping Speech

One speaker starts before the other finishes

Adverbials

Optional and movable words (e.g. the driver had SUPPOSEDLY been drinking)

Written Language (Mode)

Over a period of time, permanent record, time for plan and revision, for the public audience, formal

Footing

Participant's stance towards each other

Subject (Grammar)

Person responsible for the action

Covert Prestige

Previously considered inferior pronunciation, but now considered superior

Stigmatised

Pronunciation considered inferior

Prestige

Pronunciation considered superior

Face

Public, self-image

Function

Purpose of text

Audience

Receivers of written/verbal communication

Object (Grammar)

Recipient of action from the subject

Phatic Function

Refers to the social aspect rather than the message (e.g. YOU'RE WELCOME, which is the phatic response to being thanked)

Interpersonal

Relates to relations between people

Ideational

Relates to the ideas/concepts

Semantics

Relationship between words and meanings

Tenor

Relationship between writing and audience in situation

Borrowed

Root words taken from other languages (e.g. Latin)

Quantity (Maxim)

Says more or less

Manner (Maxim)

Says something in polite/obscure manner

Quality (Maxim)

Says something untrue/true

Grammar

Sentence Structure

Clause

Sentences that must at least have a subject and a verb (e.g. PIGS may FLY)

Abbreviation

Shortened form of word or phrase

Morpheme

Smallest, meaningful unit of language (e.g. UN-LADY-LIKE = 3 morphemes in total). They are classified by 3 basic types: Roots/Prefix/Suffix

Negative Face

Someone's right to not be degraded

Phonology

Sounds of Language

Field-related Jargon

Specialized, technical words that are specific to certain subjects

Dialect

Speech habits of a group of people

Idiolect

Speech habits of an individual

Glottal Stop

Speech sound produced by closure of throat (Britain is pronounced BRIT'IN)

Positive Politeness

Strategies to decrease social distance, e.g. informal lexis, shared dialect, informal grammar

Negative Politeness

Strategies which emphasize respect, e.g. indirect requests, idiolect, formal lexis + grammar

Empatic Stress

Stress on a grammatical word, causing the meaning to change (e.g. Mary IS staying in PRAGUE/Mary is staying IN Prague)

Discourse

Structure of the whole text

Deriavation

Taking a basic word + prefix and suffix to create new ones

Ephemeral

Temporary, short-time

Neologisms

Term for new words or expressions

Mode

Text type

Received Pronounciation

The accent of words (considered standard), also considered a marker of social status (e.g. sounds POSH)

Predicator (Grammar)

The action that follows the subject

Demotic

The language of the people, what language society uses

Context-Dependent Language

The message is made as clear as possible

Context

The situation which affects/explains the way language is used

IPA Symbols

The symbols you see after a dictionary definition

Field

The topic of the text

Formality

The way individuals adjust their tone of language to fit the situation they are in

Greetings

The way people acknowledge each other (e.g. DEAR...)

Salutation

The way people sign off (e.g. REGARDS...)

Turn-Taking

The way speakers can exchange communication without colliding or awkwardly pausing

Terms of Address

The way the participants in a conversation name each other

Text Structure

The way the text is put together

Lexical Item

The word

Function of Texts

To entertain, persuade, inform, describe

Nominalisation

Transforms verbs into nouns (e.g. instead of COLLECTING money, the COLLECTION of money)

Declarative Sentence Structure

Used to make a statement

Transactional Sentence Structure

Used to pass on information

Hedge

Used to soften or intensify a statement (e.g. I ONLY wanted to find out/I REALLY wanted to find out)

Intranstivity

Using verbs that do not need a direct object

Inquit/Quotative

Verb that introduces direct speech (e.g. he SAID)

Transitive

Verbs need a direct object

Graphology

Visualization of Text (e.g. spelling, punctuation marks, fonts, layout and logos)

Beattie (1982)

Went against Zimmerman & West's theory, believes it was not male dominance but sign of SUPPORT and UNDERSTANDING

Denotation

What a word/phrase literally refers to (a definition)

Presupposition

What is already known or assumed

Utterance

What is said during conversation

Inference

What the reader/listener understands

Pragmatics

What the speaker means rather than what the sentence means

Implicature

What the speaker/writer was implying

Ellipsis

When speakers leave out parts of the sentence because they assume the listener understands (e.g. AMAZING PARTY! It was an...amazing party!)

Connected Speech

When spoken language joins words as the continuous sequence (e.g. I want to, I WANNA)

Interruptions

When the speaker is interrupted

Performing Gender

Where the other sex performs the persona of the other gender

Passive Voice

Where the subject is the recipient, not the source of action (e.g. THE POSTMAN = subject and recipient, WAS BITTEN = verb, BY THE DOG )

Active Voice

Where the subject performs the action of the verb (e.g. THE DOG = subject, BIT = verb, THE POSTMAN)

Etymology

Where words come from

Lakoff Theory

Women use more tag questions and interrogatives due to social inequality

Lexis

Word choice

Morphology

Word structure

Postmodification

Words after the noun (description), e.g. the big teddy IS SITTING IN MY ROOM

Premodification

Words before the noun (e.g. BIG teddy)

Framing Moves

Words or phrases which indicate a change in direction (e.g. MOVING ON...)

Jargon

Words that are specific to certain subjects

Word-Class

Words that have similar function (e.g. from noun to verb), e.g. 'if authorities PASSPORT on...'

Antonym

Words that mean the opposite

Synonym

Words that mean the same

Homphone

Words that sound the same but mean different (e.g. RIGHT and WRITE)

Collocation

Words typically grouped together (fast, food, fast, car, fast, train)

Modal Expressions

Words/phrases which indicate the speaker's attitude towards the situation they are in (e.g. I SUPPOSE it must be, SORT OF difficult to phone or WHATEVER)

Second Person Pronoun

You (Singular/plural)/Thee/Thou


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