Environmental Ethics Final
principle of social cooperation
"Justice increases when the benefits and burdens of social cooperation are born more equally, except when moral considerations or other values justify greater inequality" (Wenz 2007, 58)
sustainable development
"Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (WCED 1987)
What are the two core components of utilitarianism?
(1)Accept some version of the principle of utility (2)Endorse a particular value axiology
Why is the land ethic thought to favor native species prioritization, species conservation, and creation of ecological reserves?
1. Communitarian conception of ethics-ethical questions about how to behave at a community Expanded who we recognize as part of our community Who is part of community and what do we owe them 2. Human beings are plain members and citizens of the biotic community 3. Ought to regard biotic community as a moral community Environments in which people are located is important 4. Being a good member of a community involves at a minimum no destruction 5. Act in ways to preserve integrity, stability, and beauty of biotic community so don't do otherwise and if do, no value Term coined by leopold Philosophy that seeks to guide the actions when humans utilize or make changes to the land Ethics is about community
ecological argument for techno-intensification
1. The more productivity that can be gotten from the areas and resources that have been appropriated for human use, the less pressure there will be to expand into additional areas and appropriate additional resources. 2. Technological innovations are crucial to increasing efficiency and productivity. 3. Therefore, proponents of biodiversity and wilderness protection ought to support techno-intensification of production.
core argument for assistance
1. There is an ethical responsibility to assist people in deep poverty and suffering from chronic malnourishment if in a position to do so effectively and the costs of doing so are not overly onerous. 2. Affluent nations (and affluent individuals) can contribute to assisting people in deep poverty and suffering from chronic malnourishment in ways that are effective. 3. The costs to affluent nations (and affluent individuals) to assist people in deep poverty and suffering from chronic malnourishment are not overly onerous. 4. Therefore, affluent nations (and affluent individuals) have an ethical responsibility to assist people in deep poverty.
Evaluative Claim
A claim about something's value, particularly its goodness or badness in some respect or overall.
Empirical Claim
A claim about the world whose truth value is determined by observational or scientific investigation
Predictive Claim
A claim about what is likely to happen in the future.
Prescriptive Claim
A claim about what ought or should be done.
Explanatory Claim
A claim that proposes an account of why some aspect of the world is the way it is.
strong sustainability
A conception of sustainability on which it requires ensuring that future generations have access to the same resources as current generations.
weak sustainability
A conception of sustainability on which it requires ensuring that future people have the same capacity to meet their needs as present people, even with a diminished or different resource base.
morally relevant difference (or morally relevant property)
A factual difference that tracks or marks something ethically significant
ecofeminism (or ecological feminism or feminist environmental philosophy)
A family of views that identify and challenge myopic, gendered, and patriarchal features of Western philosophical thought regarding nonhuman nature and animals, and emphasize the connections between the ways in which women and nonhuman nature are conceptualized, characterized, (mis)valued, and (mal)treated.
global food system
A food system in which food production and delivery networks are transnational and industrial
reductio ad absurdum
A form of argumentation that aims to show that a principle or view is mistaken because its implications are absurd or unacceptable
distributive justice
A justified allocation of goods and burdens within and between societies
triple bottom line
A phrase commonly used to emphasize the interconnections between society, the environment, and economics (or people, planet, and profit), such that long-term prosperity requires accomplishing sustainability in each
tragedy of the commons
A situation in which there is a shared or "common" (or "common-pool") resource to which multiple agents have access, and each agent's acting in ways that are individual rationally self-interested would result in the depletion of the resource to everyone's detriment.
radical environmentalism
A term frequently used to refer to forms of environmentalism that advocate for or engage in direct environmental activism
character virtue
A well-justified character trait—i.e., a disposition to respond to considerations in the world in excellent ways
eudaimonistic virtue ethics
Accounts of what makes a character trait a virtue on which the virtues are character traits that a person needs to flourish or live well
capacities-based accounts of moral status
Accounts on which something's moral status is determined by its capacities - e.g., what the individual is capable of, what its interests are, how it can be harmed and benefited, and the relationships that it can have.
biological group membership accounts of moral status
Accounts on which something's moral status is determined by whether it is a member of a particular biological group - e.g., anthropocentrism
What is Leopold's reasoning in support of the land ethic?
Act in ways to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community
What makes a normative theory deontological, rather than consequentialist?
Actions, practices, and policies, are right or wrong according to rules
What is the device paradigm?
Albert Borgmann's view that the tendency of modern technologies and technological systems is to provide goods and service as efficiently as possible while hiding the means of production
device paradigm
Albert Borgmann's view that the tendency of modern technologies and technological systems is to provide goods and service as efficiently as possible while hiding the means of production
virtue theory
An account of what makes a character trait a virtue
Ethical Theory
An account of what sorts of things matter (or have value) and how things matter (or how we ought to consider them given their value) that is meant to give guidance for choosing well regarding actions, practices, and policies.
What is cost-benefit analysis?
An approach to analysis and decision-making, frequently used in environmental policy and regulation, which aims to identify all the social and economic benefits and costs of the available options and determine which option has the best balance of benefits over costs.
deep ecology
An approach to environmental ethics that emphasizes the interconnectedness of people with the nonhuman environment, as well as the importance of addressing the underlying ideological and systemic causes of ecological degradation
care ethics
An approach to ethics that emphasizes the role of attachment, emotion, connection, partiality, trust, dependence, openness, and empathy in good ethical engagement and reasoning; care ethics contrasts with approaches to ethics that emphasize impartiality and pure rationality
novel (or no-analog) system
An ecological space in which anthropogenic activities have resulted in a system in which the biotic features (e.g., species distributions) and abiotic characteristics (e.g., soil composition) significantly depart from those of the pre-impacted system.
fallacy of hasty generalization (or fallacy of hasty conclusion)
An invalid inference to a general conclusion from observation or consideration of too few or too unrepresentative of cases.
form of life conception of species
An understanding of species on which they are distinguished by their distinctive forms of life
What is the difference between animal rights views and animal welfare views?
Animal rights views- the view that sentient beings shouldn't be treated as a mere means to human ends Animal welfare views- view that the interests of sentient beings should be considered when determining which actions have the best outcomes
inadequacy objection
Any argument against an environmental ethic on the grounds that it will not provide a sufficient basis for advocating for and promoting environmentally sustainable practices, policies, and lifestyles.
extensionist argument
Any argument that aims to justify direct moral concern for an entity (or type of entity) on the grounds that there is no morally relevant difference between that entity or another entity (or type of entity) that is regarded as directly morally considerable. See also generalization argument.
environmental virtue
Any character trait that is justified as a virtue at least in part by environmental goods and values, that promotes environmental ends or goals, or that involves responsiveness to an environmental entity
factual difference (or descriptive difference)
Any descriptive difference between two things (or types of things)
goal-directed system
Any entity that has intentions or aims, or whose parts and processes are organized in ways and for reasons to do with accomplishing things or bringing things about.
objective final value (objective value)
Any type of final (Noninstrumental) value that exists independently of anyone's particular evaluative attitudes or stances
morally considerable
Anything that needs to be taken into account in deliberations regarding actions, practices, or policies that might affect them.
environmental pragmatism (or philosophical pragmatism)
Approaches to environmental ethics that deemphasize the importance of ethical theorizing in favor of more procedural or situational approaches to characterizing environmental problems and engaging in environmental decision-making
rewilding
Assisted colonization and/or reintroduction of multiple species in order to restore human impacted habitats
ecological consciousness
Associated with deep ecology, having an ontologically holistic and egalitarian worldview that enables identification with all aspects of the natural world - i.e., seeing that every entity, human and nonhuman, biotic and abiotic, is fundamentally relational, an equally significant node in the interconnected fabric that constitutes reality
self-realization
Associated with deep ecology, it is the awareness of oneself as deeply interconnected and interdependent with ecosystems, nonhuman animals, and other people, rather than conceiving of oneself as an isolated individual or ego
What is the difference between basic, serious, significant, and peripheral interests?
Basic- you need it to survive Serious- if these interests are not met ur quality of life is in danger Significant- if these interests are met a person life improves Peripheral- mere wants
Why do many environmental ethicists and conservation biologists believe that in situ preservation is the only true preservation?
Because these are conservation efforts that leave animals untouched and in their natural habitats
Why is being environmentally virtuous thought to beneficial to a person?
Because you focus on what is truly valuable in life. It opens you up to positive experiences and a relationship with nature
What are some of the ways in which species and biodiversity are instrumentally valuable?
Biodiversity- the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem Species- a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. Instrumental value- value something that has a means to an end (computers, erasers, exercise equipment) Different values to different people because ends to sought ecosystem value to us for food, water. Substitutable replaced improved Instrumental value that lets species adapt to changing environmental conditions and to form genetically modified species. Species and biodiversity are supposed to satisfy peoples economic medical material and recreational needs and wants
What are environmental burdens and benefits?
Burdens: Hazards, land uses, facilities, or activities that diminish the quality of the environment. Aka agricultural waste streams, air pollution, toxic waste sites, incinerators, etc. Benefits: the commodities, experiences, and wealth whose production generates the burdens
What is care ethics and what distinguishes it from other approaches to ethics?
Care ethics- an approach to ethics that emphasizes the role of attachment, emotion, connection, partiality, trust, dependence, openness, and empathy in good ethical engagement and reasoning; care ethics contrasts with approaches to ethics that emphasize impartiality and pure rationality
What is a character trait? What makes a character trait a virtue?
Character trait- dispositions to take certain types of considerations as reasons for action or emotion under certain types of circumstances. It is a virtue if it s well justified character trait
virtue
Character traits that dispose their possessor to respond excellently in emotion and action to considerations or events in the world
Descriptive Claim
Claims about the way the world is.
negative rights
Claims against things being done to a person (or other entity)—e.g., to not be exploited, not be discriminated against, and not be restricted in movement, association, or speech
moral rights
Claims that an entity has against things being done to them, or to something to which they are entitled, no matter the current law of the land
moral rights
Claims that an entity has against things being done to them, or to something to which they are entitled, no matter the current law of the land.
conservation cloning
Cloning animals for conservation purposes, such as increasing the genetic diversity or population size of a threatened species
What distinguishes consequentialist, deontological, and virtue-oriented ethical theories?
Consequentialist - tie the rightness and wrongness of actions, practices, and policies principally to their outcomes Deontological- tie the rightness and wrongness of actions, practices, and policies to the principles they embody or whether they conform to relevant rules, duties, or moral law. Virtue- ties the rightness and wrongness of actions, practices, and policies of the dispositions of the agent or the character traits that they embody
ex situ conservation
Conservation efforts in which a population of the target species is maintained outside of its natural habitat or historical range, such as in a zoo or aquarium
in situ conservation
Conservation efforts that aim to maintain populations of the target species in their natural habitats or historical ranges
What does addressing environmental injustice require (i.e., what are the goals involved in doing so?)
Cost benefit analysis is used to address environmental injustice, when making decisions it weighs social benefits over social costs.
How does Naess conceive of the difference between deep and shallow environmentalism?
Deep ecology is philosophically and morally flawed
What is the basis for the denial of human superiority on Taylor's view? What is the principle of species impartiality?
Denial of human superiority: no morally relevant difference bw humans and non humans that would justify ascribing inherent worth to humans but not nonhumans Principle of species impartiality: every entity that has a good of its own possesses inherent worth
logic of domination
Dichotomous (or hierarchical) conceptualizations of the world in which one side of the dichotomy is identified as superior and therefore justified in dominating or subordinating the other (or else a chain of superiority is asserted).
What is "dichotomous thinking" and the "logic of domination"?
Dichotomous Thinking-- black or white thinking Logic of domination- dichotomous conceptualizations of the world in which one side of the dichotomy is identified as superior and therefore justified in dominating or subordinating the other
What is the virtue ethics approach to environmental decision-making, and how does it differ from the approaches associated with consequentialism and deontology?
Different from consequentialism and deontology
Why are substantive specifications of virtues and vices so crucial to a virtue ethics normative theory?
Different from consequentialism and deontology A framework of how things matter rather than enumeration of duties (deontology) or consider of interest (consequentialism) Virtue ethics- the area of ethical theory that concerns what sorts of character traits people ought and ought not to have
What is the difference between direct and indirect consequentialism?
Direct - based on the policies of rightness and wrongness through direct policies indirect - actions, practices, and policies are not evaluated directly in terms of their consequences, but in terms of something else (rules) that are evaluated in terms of consequences
ecotage (or monkey wrenching)
Direct environmental action that involves destroying property or disrupting economic activities
character traits
Dispositions to take certain types of considerations as reasons (or as motivational) for action or emotion under certain types of circumstances
What is the argument to preserve all species?
Each species has unique and irreplaceable final value, therefore we have a duty to not destroy it and prevent others from doing so.
What are the historically effective ways of reducing fertility rates?
Economic Development: fertility rates are inversely related to national per capita incomes Opportunities for Women: The longer women stay in school; the fewer children they tend to have over the course of their lifetime. Access to Healthcare: There is a strong relationship between access to health care and lower fertility rates Access to Family Planning: There is a strong relationship between access to contraception and fertility rates.
Environmental Justice Movement
Efforts to address the unjustified distribution of environmental hazards, as well as the social, political, and economic factors that give rise to it.
environmental justice movement
Efforts to address the unjustified distribution of environmental hazards, as well as the social, political, and economic factors that give rise to it.
What is the alternative (noncommunitarian) interpretation of the land ethic?
Enlightened anthro Best way to promote human interest and protect what people vale about the environment overall and in the long run is by ensuring that the integrity and stability of the community is maintained
What is the core principle of the land ethic?
Enlightened anthropocentrism Communitarian ethics/ moral community We ought to be good members/citizens of the biotic community as we are a part of a biotic community And we should regard the biotic community as a moral community, and be non-disruptive members of this biotic community Based on the communitarian concept of ethics (being a good member of the community e.g. promoting environmental stability
What are free informed consent and environmental rights, and what is their relationship to environmental justice?
Environmental Rights: The rights that people have to environmental goods - e.g., to food or potable water - as well as the environmental conditions necessary for satisfying people's social, political, and human rights. Activists say that the government has a responsibility to provide environmental rights to its citizens. Free informed consent refers to the fact that citizens and communities are entitled to due process in environmental decision-making. This means giving's affected communities access to all the relevant information, and that their citizens can play a role in the decision making.
What are the different ways in which environmental considerations relate to virtue—that is, what are the different types of environmental virtues?
Environmental Virtue- any character trait that is justified as a virtue at least in part by environmental good or values, that promotes environmental end goals Sustainability Communion with nature Environmental activism Environmental stewardship
What is the relationship between consumption and environmental justice?
Environmental burdens only exist because they are the unintended byproducts of the industrial production of things that that people need. The more consumption there is the more environmental burdens there are.
What are the three types of concerns regarding ecocentrism and what are some examples of them?
Environmental fascism Misanthropic Ecosystem nominalism Organic Unity
What are environmental rights and what is their relationship to human rights?
Environmental rights- prerequisites for and/ or implications of basic human rights Human rights- rights to life and body integrity
What is the difference between equal consideration and same treatment?
Equal consideration-considering the individual Same Treatment- treating everyone the same
What are some of the prominent contributing factors to food insecurity and malnutrition?
Factors that contribute to chronic malnourishment involve suboptimal use of resources - aka - wastage, spoilage, underproduction, inefficient use, and underutilization. Population is also a relevant factory to food insecurity. The more people there are, the more food needs to be produced from planetary resources in order to feed everyone a nutritionally adequate diet.
gene drives
Genomic modifications that cause a genetic trait to spread rapidly through a sexually reproducing populations; they work by increasing the rate or frequency at which a gene sequence gets passed on to offspring
problem of inconsequentialism
Given that each person's contribution to addressing longitudinal collective action environmental problems is inconsequential, and may require some costs from the standpoint of their own life, why should a person make the effort to change their behavior in response to the problems?
What is the conservation dilemma generated by rapid anthropogenic change?
Habitat loss and climate change
environmental burdens
Hazards, land uses, facilities, or activities that diminish the quality of the environment - e.g., agricultural waste streams, air pollution, toxic waste sites, incinerators, waste transfer stations, refineries, transportation depots, mine tailings, and sewage treatment facilities
swamping problem
If we were to consider the interests of every future person the same as we do presently existing people, then their wants and needs would completely outweigh ours, since there will be so many more of them over time.
traditional ecological knowledge (or indigenous knowledge)
Indigenous peoples' knowledge about the biological world, ecological processes, and local ecological systems
What distinguishes a holistic approach to environmental ethics from an individualist approach?
Individualistic- Individual organisms are what have objective final value Only individual organisms are morally considerable, have interests and can be benefitted and harmed Holism- community- Rolston- species more important than individuals There are some environmental collectives, taken as a whole, that have objective final value e.g. biotic community Priority over individuals- believe individualism is wrong
moral patients (or moral subjects)
Individuals whose interests are directly morally considerable.
Ethical Evaluation
Inquiry into how we ought to live; ethical questions are about what actions we ought to perform, what policies we ought to adopt, what kind of people we ought to be, and what sort of society we ought to live in.
Ethics
Inquiry into how we ought to live; ethical questions are about what actions we ought to perform, what policies we ought to adopt, what kind of people we ought to be, and what sort of society we ought to live in.
assisted colonization
Intentionally moving individuals of a species beyond the species' historical range and establishing an independent population of them in order to prevent the species from going extinct.
significant interests
Interests that, if met, can improve a person's life or opportunities
serious interests
Interests that, if not met, will substantially diminish the quality of a person's life or the range of her opportunities
What are thought to be some of the difficulties with the lifeboat analogy?
It is ethically problematic and based on a mistake analysis of how to effectively reduce population growth.
What are some of the respects in which deep ecology is considered by its proponents to be "deeper" than other environmental ethics?
It persists to ask deeper questions of why and how and is thus concerned with the fundamental philosophical questions about the impact of the human species on the biosphere
geoengineering (or climate engineering)
Large-scale intentional interventions in climatic and ecological processes - such as solar radiation management, ocean fertilization, and atmospheric carbon dioxide removal - to counteract the effects of climate change
peripheral interests
Mere wants, or things that people desire to have, but do not materially impact the quality of their life
What are the core value commitments associated with deep ecology? What principles and practical commitments are they thought to support?
Metaphysical- interconnected and interdependence Sees that to address the problems-need to get to the underlying problems Dramatic changes to our economic, political and social systems We are all deeply connected in a holistic way beyond scientific perspective Not only isolated individuals but are metaphysically connected (beyond physical, part of nature) Meditation and spiritual language example are ways to connect with nature 2 things to learn: experience is valuable and worth cultivating and people who have experience more likely to promote natural protection
What are some of the different views on the extent of the responsibility to assist?
Moral rights argument: grounded in the worth of the individuals Historical argument: many places where there is significant poverty and food insecurity affluent nations contributed to creating the situation International order argument: assistance is based on the fact that international institutions are largely set up and dominated by powerful affluent nations
What is the difference between moral and legal rights?
Moral- have claims against things being done to them, no matter the current law Legal - rights that are recognized within the framework of a legislative matter
What is the difference between a descriptive difference and a morally relevant difference?
Morally relevant difference - a factual difference that tracks or marks something ethically significant Descriptive Difference- Biological differences bw humans and other species but this doesn't justify differential consideration
What is the predominant view on how interests should be prioritized and conflicts of interests adjudicated within utilitarian environmental ethics?
More basic interests should take precedence over less basic interests
What is the difference between natural-historical value and inherent worth?
Natural-historical value- that it has virtue from being wondrous forms of life arising from natural historical processes Inherent worth- it has interests or a good of its own that we ought to care about
basic interests
Needs that must be met in order for a person (or other living thing) to live and be healthy
What is the difference between positive and negative rights?
Negative- claims against things being done to a person Positive- rights to something instead of against
intrinsic value
Noninstrumental value, or the value that something has for what it is, rather than only what it does or provides; also sometimes referred to as final value.
indirect consequentialism
Normative theories on which actions (and practices and policies) are not evaluated directly in terms of their consequences, but in terms of rules (or motives or virtues) that are evaluated in terms of consequences
consequentialist normative theories
Normative theories that tie the rightness and wrongness of actions, practices, and policies principally to their outcomes
deontological normative theories
Normative theories that tie the rightness and wrongness of actions, practices, and policies to the principles they embody or whether they conform to the relevant rules, duties, or moral law
virtue-oriented normative theories
Normative theories that tie the rightness or wrongness of actions, practices, and policies to the dispositions of the agent or the character traits that they embody or express
What are the primary criticisms against the distinctive metaphysics and epistemology proposed by some deeper ecologists?
One of the oldest accusations against metaphysics is that it is a sterile, futile or empty practice there are no winners or losers. No- thing is decided once and for all, while in science, and due to its empirical experiments, the opposite supposedly happens.
What is pluralism with respect to direct moral considerability?
Pluralism- idea that there are degrees of direct consider ability, or else different forms or types of it
What is the difference between philosophical pragmatism and strategic pragmatism?
Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Strategic pragmatism- the view that in public discourse on environmental issues people ought to use whatever justifications or arguments are most effective in promoting environmentally acceptable practices and policies
What are the precautionary principle and the innovation presumption?
Precautionary Principle: The view that when there is scientific uncertainty about the risks of something, when we do not adequately understand the ecological and health risks of a new technology rather than presuming that it is acceptable, we should restrict it until it is demonstrated to be safe. Innovation presumption: the view that people should be allowed to create and adopt novel technologies from new materials to artificial intelligences unless good reasons are provided against their doing so.
priority principles
Principles that indicate which prima facie duties or responsibilities take precedence, and under what conditions they do so, when they come into conflict
Longitudinal Collective Action Problems
Problems that arise from the cumulative impacts of large numbers of people's seemingly insignificant actions over a long period of time, such as global climate change and fisheries depletion.
Philosophical Method
Reason-based empirically informed inquiry, or the use of arguments, reasons, justification, and evidence with the goal of gaining knowledge.
What are some of the macroscale strategies for reducing food insecurity and malnutrition?
Reducing Population Growth Increasing Productivity Changing Utilization Patterns Reducing Wastage Reducing Poverty
What are the particular duties and principles endorsed by Taylor and by Regan?
Regan claims that nonhuman animals have rights that moral agents need to respect. Taylor defends a biocentric account of moral considerability, on which all living things have inherent worth
technofix
Responses to environmental problems that aim to use technology to treat the problematic effects, rather than address their underlying causes.
legal rights
Rights that are recognized within the framework of a legislative or legal system
positive rights
Rights to something, rather than rights against something, such as the right to access potable water or a nutritionally adequate diet
prima facie duties
Rules or duties that ought to be followed unless there is a compelling reason to violate them—i.e., they come into conflict with another, stronger duty
secondary principles
Rules or guidelines developed from experience and careful study, which in general and for the most part orient people toward right actions
What are secondary principles and what is their role within consequentialist normative theory?
Secondary principles - guidelines developed from experience and careful study which lead toward the right actions. They best promote utility
What is self-realization and how does it relate to deep ecology?
Seeing yourself in others
What is the difference between sentientism and biocentrism?
Sentientism- The view that all and only sentient beings (aka have mental life and are capable of experience pleasure/ pain) have inherent worth Biocentrism- the view that ALL living things have inherent worth
directly morally considerable
Something that moral agents need to consider for its own sake.
prima facie wrong
Something that ought not to be done unless there are overriding considerations
What does it mean to describe something as a technofix?
Tendency to want to innovate technologies to address the problematic features of a situation but doesn't address the causes of it
moral wisdom
The ability of virtuous people with the relevant experience to see things differently and better than a nonvirtuous person
What makes an approach to environmental ethics "individualist"?
The approach is individualist when only individual organisms are morally considerable and that their rights are the primary concern
international order argument
The argument that affluent nations and people have a responsibility to assist those in poverty in less developed countries because international institutions are largely set up and dominated by powerful affluent nations, which frequently promote policies that serve their own economic and geopolitical interests to the disadvantage of less developed nations.
shared benefits argument for assistance
The argument that affluent people and nations have a responsibility to assist poor people in less developed countries on the grounds that affluent nations benefit from the economic position of less developed nations in numerous ways - for example, by having access to inexpensive labor, purchasing their natural resources, displacing environmental burdens onto them, and coercing them to open their markets and commodify their agriculture.
historical justice argument
The argument that affluent people and nations have a responsibility to assist very poor people in less developed countries because in many places where there is significant poverty and food insecurity affluent nations contributed to creating the situation through their past activities.
moral luck argument
The argument that affluent people and nations ought to assist the poor in less developed countries because no one deserves the situation into which they are born, so it is just a matter of luck (and not desert) that some people are born into a situation of affluence while other people are born into a situation of extreme poverty.
Ecosystem Services
The benefits that ecological processes provide to people - e.g., water purification, storm surge buffering, food provision, soil regeneration, pollination, protection from harmful solar radiation, disease and pest regulation, carbon sequestration, waste disposal, and conversion of carbon dioxide to oxygen.
rational agency (or moral agency)
The capacity to understand moral concepts and terms, reflect upon them, evaluate actions (or practices and policies) as right or wrong, and act on the basis of those evaluations. Also called moral agency.
moral agency
The capacity to understand moral concepts and terms, reflect upon them, evaluate actions (or practices and policies) as right or wrong, and act on the basis of those evaluations. Also called rational agency.
commons problem
The challenge of managing common-pool resources, such as fisheries or water supplies, in ways that do not result in their degradation.
environmental benefits
The commodities, experiences, and wealth whose production generates environmental burdens
food system
The complex network of processes, infrastructures, and actors that produce the food we eat and deliver it to where we eat it; food systems involve agricultural production or capture, processing, preparation, consumption, and waste disposal
What ethical considerations are thought to justify the view that affluent nations and people have a responsibility to address global poverty?
The cost of doing so is not overly onerous, and that affluent countries can assist in ways that are long term, sustainable, and empowering. Affluent nations have an ethical responsibility to assist people in deep poverty.
environmental fascism
The criticism sometimes made against ecocentric views that their subordination of the individual to the communal good leads to unacceptable implications - e.g., killing large numbers of animals or restrictive reproductive policies
indirect duties
The duties that moral agents have regarding nonhuman animals and the environment (or other entities) because of their relationship to people's interest or rights - i.e., the duties are regarding nonhuman animals or the environment, but not to them
What does Leopold mean by "ecological conscience" and why does he think perspective and perception are so crucial to ecological ethics?
The ecological consciousness is not a vague ideal, but one that is not recognized in modern society. It reflects a certainty of individual responsibility for the health and preservation of the land upon which we live, and all of its components. If the health of the land is upheld, its capacity of self-renewal and regeneration is maintained as well. To date, conservation has been our sole effort to understand and preserve this capacity. Leopold holds that if the mainstream embraces his ideals of a land ethic and an ecological consciousness, the beauty, stability and integrity of our world will be preserved. Perception is the key to ecological insight
What are the ethically relevant dimensions of consumption?
The energy intensity: how much energy is used per unit of economic activity The Carbon intensity: amount of carbon that is emitted per unit of energy production
natural
The extent to which something is independent of human control, impacts, or designs
unequal exposure
The fact that minority, poor, and disempowered peoples are frequently disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards
Why is unequal exposure to environmental hazards considered to be unjust?
The fact that minority, poor, and disempowered peoples are frequently disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards.
climate injustice
The fact that those who are most responsible for causing global climate change - i.e., affluent people with high-emissions lifestyles - are least exposed to its hazards, since they have comparatively large adaptive capacity - e.g., wealth and mobility; while those who are least responsible for causing it - i.e., the global poor with low-emissions lifestyles - are most exposed to its hazards because they often depend more directly on ecological stability and/or have the fewest resources for adaptation
environmental injustice
The fact that unequal exposure to environmental hazards very often is unjustified and caused, at least in part, by problematic social and political factors
What are some of the different conceptions of species biodiversity? What is the "form of life" conception of species employed by Rolston?
The form of life conception of species describes what biologically related individuals do and how they go about doing it. Form of life refers to how individuals of the biological group strive to make their way in the world How species are organized on how they migrate, hunt, and reproduce Species are separated by genus. Conspecific- two organisms are of the same species if they are capable of having offspring together. Species pluralism- view that there is a plurality of legitimate species concepts. Species monism- the idea that there is a single best way to divide organisms into species
integrating effect of virtue
The idea that those who are virtuous will take pleasure and meaning from doing the right thing, and will not see the "demands" of morality as involving large sacrifice
theoretical pluralism
The idea, associated with some pragmatist views, that we ought to recognize the legitimacy of a diversity of theories of environmental ethics and avail ourselves to whichever one is best suited to the environmental issue or situation at hand
fallacy of appeal to human nature
The invalid inference from "Behavior X has a biological or evolutionary basis (or humans have a proclivity toward X)" to the conclusion "We ought to do X."
fallacy of appeal to nature
The invalid inference from "Events of type X occur in nature" to the conclusion "It is permissible for us to do X."
perfectionist fallacy
The invalid inference from "It is not possible to do X perfectly" to the conclusions that "X should not be done at all."
fallacy of appeal to tradition
The invalid inference from "There is a history of people doing X" to the conclusion "It is permissible to X."
fertility rate
The number of children born per woman in a defined population
species richness
The number of species in a geographic area or system
Environmental Ethics
The part of ethics that concerns how we ought to value and engage with nonhuman animals and the ecological environment.
Interpersonal Ethics
The part of ethics that concerns interactions and relationships between people.
character ethics
The part of ethics that concerns what sort of person people ought to be or what sorts of traits they ought to have
ideal preferences
The preferences that people would have if they were sufficiently informed, inclusive, long-term, and rational.
harm principle
The principle that people ought to be able to engage in whatever activities they would like so long as it does not involve harming others
land ethic
The principle, advocated for by Aldo Leopold, that a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community, and is wrong when it tends otherwise
utility calculus
The process of determining in a concrete situation what course of action has the best overall outcomes by identifying the possible courses of action, identifying what the consequences of each of those actions would be, assigning appropriate values to those consequences, and then summing up each alternative to see which has the greatest balance of good over bad
wide reflective equilibrium
The process of developing a well-justified ethical theory by continually reassessing and revising theoretical views and particular judgments on their own merits and in light of each other
What is the proper approach to ethical evaluation and decision-making according to deontological theories? What are the roles of duties, rights, and principles in it?
The rightness and wrongness of an action is determined by its conformity to the relevant rules. This depends upon its account of who or what is directly morally considerable
environmental rights
The rights that people have to environmental goods - e.g., to food or potable water - as well as the environmental conditions necessary for satisfying people's social, political, and human rights.
environmental rights
The rights that people have to environmental goods—e.g., to food or potable water—as well as the environmental conditions necessary for satisfying people's social, political, and human rights
duty of restitutive justice
The rule, advocated by Paul Taylor, to "restore the balance of justice between a moral agent and a moral subject when the subject has been wronged by the agent .... It requires that one make amends to the moral subject by some form of compensation or reparation" (1986, 186)
duty of nonmaleficence
The rule, advocated by Paul Taylor, to refrain from inflicting harm on living things
hubris (environmental)
The tendency to overestimate our ability to predict and control the consequences of our alterations of complex ecological and biological systems
ecoterrorism
The term critics often use to refer to direct environmental activism, particularly ecotage
environmental racism
The term often used to refer to environmental injustice in the United States because high-minority communities are exposed to greater levels of hazards than are low-minority communities and the explanation for this in many cases involves social and political disempowerment, economic discrimination, and structural disadvantages faced by people of color and communities of color
focal things and practices
The term used by Albert Borgmann to refer to things and activities that enrich our lives and that often provide meaning and orientation to them
shallow ecology (or shallow environmentalism)
The term used by deep ecologists to refer to environmentalism that is oriented around treating the problematic effects of industrial activities and promoting sustainable practices, particularly insofar as they impact "the health and affluence of people in the developed countries" (Naess 1973, 95)
misanthropic
The term used to describe views or positions that take a negative view of people
. common but differential responsibility
The terminology used in United Nations climate change documents to refer to the fact that all nations have a shared responsibility to address climate change, but that the extent and form of the responsibility differs between nations
convergence thesis
The thesis that what is good for human beings overall and in the long run will typically converge with what is good for nonhuman nature
deextinction
The use of genomic and cloning technologies to create organisms with high levels of genetic similarity to individuals of a species that has gone extinct
natural value
The value that places or living things have in virtue of their being independent from human control, impacts, or designs
subjective final value (subjective value)
The value that something has because it is valued by people for noninstrumental reasons - e.g., for its beauty, creativity, or symbolism
final value
The value that something has for what it is, rather than for what it does or provides. Something has final value if its instrumental value is not exhaustive of its value. Often referred to in environmental ethics as intrinsic value.
instrumental value .
The value that something has in virtue of being an effective means to a desired or sought after end
option value
The value that something has in virtue of its being potentially useful in ways that we cannot currently predict.
absolute anthropocentrism
The view that all and only human beings have inherent worth. See also strong anthropocentrism.
ratiocentrism
The view that all and only robustly rational beings, particularly those with the capacity for moral agency, are directly morally considerable.
sentientism
The view that all and only sentient beings - those that have a mental life or are capable of experiencing pleasure and pain - have inherent worth. Also called psychocentrism.
psychocentrism
The view that all and only sentient beings - those that have a mental life or are capable of experiencing pleasure and pain - have inherent worth. Also called sentientism.
biocentric egalitarianism
The view that all life forms have equal intrinsic or final value
biocentrism
The view that all living things - animals and plants - have interests that are directly morally considerable and therefore possess inherent worth
biocentrism
The view that all living things - animals and plants - have interests that are directly morally considerable and therefore possess inherent worth.
teleological account of interests
The view that an entity can be benefited or harmed directly if it is a goal-oriented system, i.e., there is something it is striving for or aiming to accomplish
Non-anthropocentrism
The view that at least some nonhumans or environmental entities possess inherent worth or other types of final value.
biocentric pluralism
The view that both individual living organisms and the species/systems that they constitute and populate have intrinsic or final value
they-will-be-gods problem
The view that due to the high rate of technological innovation people in the future will live much better lives than current people do, therefore it would be unjustified for us to sacrifice our interests now for their benefit later
ecosystem nominalism
The view that ecosystems are not anything above and beyond the particular organisms, processes, and abiotic features that comprise them
Ethical Skepticism
The view that either there are not true ethical claims (ethical nihilism), ethical claims are not knowable or justifiable, or ethics does not have any special prescriptivity (amoralism).
procedural approach to ethics
The view that ethical decisions are not justified by their conforming to, expressing, or fulfilling certain norms or principles, but by the processes by which they are reached.
Amoralism
The view that ethics does not have any special prescriptivity or claim on what a person ought to do.
ontological holism and egalitarianism (or metaphysical holism)
The view that every entity, human and nonhuman, biotic and abiotic, is fundamentally relational, an equally significant node in the interconnected fabric that constitutes reality
human rights
The view that every human being has strong moral standing in virtue of their being human beings, regardless of what other people believe or what other people's attitudes toward them are
eco-social sustainability
The view that human economic and social systems are not separate from or adjacent to biological and ecological systems, but are instead embedded within them, such that ecological and social sustainability are intertwined with each other.
Holism
The view that in environmental ethics what has primary value (or should be of primary concern) are ecological collectives, such as species or ecosystems, rather than individual organisms
holism
The view that in environmental ethics what has primary value (or should be of primary concern) are ecological collectives, such as species or ecosystems, rather than individual organisms
unknown means problem
The view that it can be difficult for us to determine what to do now to ensure that the needs of people in the distant future will be met (even if we know what their needs will be)
unknown needs problem
The view that it can be difficult to predict what goods and resources people will need in future generations, particularly given the high rate of technological change.
relational accounts of value
The view that moral status is not entirely determined by an entity's capacities or internal properties, but also often depends on its relationships to others
problem of incommensurability
The view that not all social and environmental values (particularly final values) can be fully converted to or represented by an economic value.
Individualism
The view that only individual organisms are morally considerable, or that the rights, welfare, and good of individuals should be the primary focus of ethical concern.
innovation presumption
The view that people should be allowed to create and adopt novel technologies - from new materials to artificial intelligence - unless good reasons are provided against their doing so
actual preference anthropocentrism
The view that people should treat the environment and manage natural resources in whatever ways best satisfy people's actual or current preferences.
communitarian conception of ethics
The view that questions about ethics principally concern whether and how to moderate pursuit of one's own desires and self-interest out of respect for one's community and others in it
principle of utility
The view that something (e.g., an action or policy) is right to the extent that it brings about the greatest balance of good over bad (i.e., it maximizes utility) among the options available to the agent, considering everyone and everything impacted
environmental argument for reducing immigration
The view that sovereign nations have a legal right to control their borders and a responsibility to their own citizens to do so in ways that protect and promote important public goods, including environmental goods, and that this can justify placing limits on immigration.
Anthropocentrism
The view that the criterion for direct moral considerability (or having inherent worth) is being a member of the species Homo sapiens.
etiological account of interests
The view that the non conscious interests of organisms are established by the selection process that generated the teleology of their parts and processes
Ethical Nihilism
The view that there are not any true claims about how we ought to live.
species pluralism
The view that there is a plurality of legitimate species concepts
species monism
The view that there is a single best way to dived organisms into species
principle of commensurate benefits and burdens
The view that those who enjoy the benefits of some activity should also shoulder the associated burdens, and vice versa, unless there is good justification for them not doing so
conservation triage
The view that under some circumstances it can be permissible to let an endangered species go extinct rather than try to save it
enlightened anthropocentrism
The view that we ought to treat the environment in ways that are beneficial to all of humanity, now and in the future, even if that is different from what we currently do or would want to do.
pragmatic holism
The view that we should approach environmental issues from a holistic perspective, but only because that is the best way to serve the interests of the morally considerable individuals that populate biotic systems; it is holism at the decision-making level but individualism at the value level
ecocentrism
The view that when it comes to environmental ethics, we need to prioritize what is best for the biotic community as a whole
precautionary principle
The view that when there is scientific uncertainty about the risks of something - e.g., when we do not adequately understand the ecological and health risks of a new technology - rather than presuming that it is acceptable, we should restrict it until it is demonstrated to be safe
respect for nature
The view, advocated by Paul Taylor, that all living things are directly morally considerable, and that the primary way they ought to be considered involves treating them as ends by refraining from harming them or interfering with their pursuit of their good
What is the lifeboat ethic?
The view, defended by Garrett Hardin, that affluent nations should not send food aid to low-income nations with high levels of malnourishment, nor should they take in large numbers of immigrants from them.
lifeboat ethic
The view, defended by Garrett Hardin, that affluent nations should not send food aid to low-income nations with high levels of malnourishment, nor should they take in large numbers of immigrants from them.
denial of human superiority
The view, defended by Paul Taylor, that there is no morally relevant difference between humans and nonhumans that would justify ascribing inherent worth to humans but not nonhumans.
Why are consumeristic value orientations thought to be bad for the environment and bad for people?
The volume of consumption that affluent people engage in is problematic for our environmental. Our society has more cars than it does drivers.
normative theories
Theories that explicate how things matter or are to be taken into account in ethical decision-making; they provide an account of the relationship between value and right action, and supply an approach to evaluating actions, practices, and policies
If Taylor, Regan, and Kant are all deontologists, why do they endorse such different duties and principles?
They all have a slightly different idea on what things are morally considerable
Why is character ethics considered to be important to environmental ethics?
They're considered important bc environmentally problematic actives often have features that are not fully captured by consequentialist or deontological elation.
What does it mean to say of something that it is directly morally considerable or has inherent worth?
This means it has interests that moral agents ought to care about for its own sake
speciesism
Unjustified discrimination against nonhumans on the basis of factual differences that are not morally relevant.
fallacy of begging the question
When a premise in an argument is also the conclusion of the argument; sometimes called the fallacy of assuming the conclusion.
fallacy of assuming the conclusion
When a premise in an argument is also the conclusion of the argument; sometimes called the fallacy of begging the question.
fallacy of equivocation
When an inference in an argument is invalid because the meaning of a crucial term changes between premises, and if the meaning were consistent among premises then at least one of the premises would be false. See also fallacy of ambiguity.
fallacy of ambiguity
When an inference in an argument is invalid because the meaning of a crucial term changes between premises, and if the meaning were consistent among premises then at least one of the premises would be false. See also fallacy of equivocation.
organic unity
When the interconnected components of a system make up an integrated whole that is in a significant sense distinct from or greater than the sum of its parts
value axiology
Within a utilitarian (or broader consequentialist) normative framework, an account of what things are good and bad
What makes an argument "extensionist"?
any argument that aims to justify direct moral concern for an entity on the grounds that there is no morally relevant difference between that entity and another entity that is regarded as directly morally considerable
What is thought to be the connection between the exploitation of nature and the oppression of women?
ecofeminism
virtue ethics
he area of ethical theory that concerns what sorts of character traits people ought and ought not have
In what ways is "Anthropocene" a loaded term?
it marks a new age of humans.
What are the two descriptive uses of the term "Anthropocene"?
one involves a formal scientific designation, and one does not
What are the concerns about using "Anthropocene" in ethical analysis and evaluation?
people are concerned because they are questioning if the human/nature relationship has changed
artifactual / artifact
something that is the product of human design, control, and agency
