Environmental Management Principles and Practice

What would the task of business environmental manager be? What would be a general definition of a business environmental manager?

Education of employees to be aware of environmental issues. Updating management on current environmental regulations, and laws. Ensuring waste management is satisfactory. Risk and hazard assesment, avoiding legal costs. 'Efforts to minimize the negative environmental impact of the firm's products throughout their life cycle.'

What are some definitions of sustainable development?

Environment 'care' married to development. Improving the quality of life of humans while staying within the bounds of the carrying capacity of the Earth. An environmental 'handrail' to guide development.

What are the new branches of environmental management?

Environmental law, green business, impact, hazard and risk assessment, eco-auditing.

When was the European Environmental Agency established?

In 1992. It's role is develop a means of applying the precautionary principle, but not enforcement of environmental policy.

How does most legislation evolve? What does this legislation enable?

In response to problems, thus there is a natural lag between need and the establishment of satisfactory law. This allows regulation, as well as the ability of public and bystanders to sue.

When did popular protest arise and how was public awareness increased?

In the 1960s. This was a time when people had increased standards of living and free time such that they became aware of the lobby for environmental issue. There awareness was increased due to accidents like the Torey Canyon oil-tanker spillage.

Where has environmental management been able to be implemented and why?

In the US due to the freedom of information act.

How have environmental managers begun to express their overall ideas? What has been argued to be the two questions environmental management asks?

In the form of a policy statement. What kind of planet do we want? What kind of planet can be get?

What is a common hindrance to environmental management? What is the ideal?

Inadequate data. Accurate date presented in real time.

What did NEPA require? What was happening to business?

It required developers to meet environmental standards, and in essence developed the precautionary principle. Business was being prompted to by legislation and other things to look after the environment. Some companies saw it as profitable to promote a green image. People were realising that clean up was more costly than prevention.

What does the coordination of the environment and development require?

It requires an awareness of environmental and human limits, potential, and risks or hazards.

As of late how has European legislation been trending?

It seems to be increasingly aligning itself with global conventions such as those relating to global warming. Since 1993 EU law has been made which supports more freedom of information, better standard setting, the precautionary principle, and the polluter pays principle.

What did the sequel to The Limits to Growth, Beyond the Limits do.

It threw down a challenge to environmental management and indicated a timescale for action.

What was the Earth Summit?

It was a conference in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro and is short for the EN Conference on Environment and Development. It sought to reach a consensus between international political and legal orders. Several new declarations were made and conventions were established. There was a follow up to this 1997 in New York.

Describe the precautionary principle as it relates to environmental legislation.

It's meaning is still not firmly established in law. The principle implies that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. In application this means that progress should not occur until all the risks are known, or cautious progress. Some environmental problems become costly or impossible to solve if they are delayed so waiting for research or proof is not costless. Some believe that the principle should be upheld when the probability and the costs of impact are unknown.

What have some environmentalists argued is the cause of western peoples view that man has dominion over nature, and to seek exploitation rather then stewardship?

Judaeo-Christian ethics.

What are some problems associated with pigouvian taxes? What is a way to avoid such problems?

Large companies can pay for the fines but small companies can not. Polluter pays is only viable if the fines are high but smaller companies can't afford it. This can be avoided by the use of licences. An example would be in Germany where you must pay a fee to display a green dot which indicates that you recycle. As this fee is passed on to the consumer this encourages companies to use recyclable efficient packaging.

What can only business do to achieve sustainable development? How can environmental concern and economic activity be integrated?

Make a drastic shift to a restorative economy, based on industrial ecology. Through industrial ecology.

What did Fordism advocate?

Mass consumption, mass production.

What are challenges faced in ensuring sustainable development is a realistic objective.

Misuse of the term by politicians, and media. Also carelessness on the part of academics and environmental managers.

How does global warming provide an example of the limitations of the reductionist approach?

Modern science is often reductionist, with disciplinary specialists often avoiding any judgement or advice until there is adequate proof. This is shown by the way that environmental managers often have to make decisions based on incomplete information. The reductionist approach can often be too slow when there is pressure to make a decision.

What do standards playt a crucial role in? What fields of activity make use of standards?

Monitoring, modelling, negotiation, enforcement of rules. Pollution control, health and safety, consumer goods.

What had changed between the 1972 UN conference on the Human Environment and the Earth Summit by the UN in 1992?

Most countries has environmental ministries and media interest had increased.

Due to the nature of law what has this meant for the encouragement of the pre-cautionary approach?

Most laws are corrective therefore are not geared towards a precautionary approach. Laws also need to be enforceable.

What countries have seen indigenous peoples try to make claim to land?

NZ, Aus, US, Brazil.

What is NEPA and EPA? When did this happen? What can be considered the decade for increased environmental concern?

National Environmental Policy Act, and Environmental Protection Agency. These were established in 1970. The 60s and 70s.

What is an example of the difficulty of polluter pays in the Pacific?

Nauru, this island supplied phosphates for about 90 years. The question is asked who pays for the pollutants, and environmental damage caused/

What often affects decisions making?

Polarized perceptions. Decisions based on greed not objectivity.

What often makes decision make difficult? What are the two temporal challenges faced by environmental managers? What has been a solution proposed for this?

Politics, lobbying, media, public and NGOs attention, lack of funding. 1 - Problems may suddenly demand attention and allow little time for solution. 2 - The desirability that planning horizons stretch further into the future than has been usual practice. For example a temperature increase over 100 years is less difficult to manage then a temperature increase over a 30 year period. An adaptive assessment and management strategy.

What did Hawken et al. argue and what is a danger of this occuring?

Post-fordism or post-modernism or whatever the future economy should be organized with guiding principles coming from industrial ecology. Some suggest that environmental motives are supplanting profit. There is a danger that greening of business can be in words not form.

Though an environmental manager is objective what can influence the decisions made.

Powerful special interest groups. This causes problems when sovereignty and politics and taken into the decision making process as this makes it difficult for transnational problem solutions to be implemented.

What motivates environmental management?

Pragmatic, cost cutting, compliance, a shift in ethics, macro-economics.

What are the three things which are important in environmental legislation?

Precautionary principle, polluter pays principle and the Freedom of Information.

Describe how NEPA came into effect. What is EIA? What were the three main elements of NEPA? What is the EPA?

The US lacked federal law in terms of land use which some other countries had. This was brought into law in the 1970s. An environmental impact assessment. This is required before federally funded projects were done. 1 - NEPA announced a US national policy for the environment. 2 - It outlined procedures for achieving the objective of that policy. 3 - Provision was made for the establishment of a US council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) which was to advise the president on environmental issues. The Environmental Protection agency was essentially an overseer which made sure EIA's were followed etc. This was the first time the environment was given precedence over economics.

What is UNEP?

The United Nations Environment Program. It was developed in Nairobi. They have very little power to enforce policies and rather rely heavily on strength of argument.

What were the worries in the last century of human history, and how has this now changed?

The acquisition of inputs namely food, water. This has now changed to a worry about outputs, such as pollution and waste.

What is the interplay between war and environmental management?

The affect on environment of wars needs to be more stringently managed. This is evidenced in the pollution to Kuwait by Iran during the Gulf War. This type of hostile environmental modification is covered in the 1977 Environmental Modification Convention.

What model is increasingly being used in environmental management?

The consultative model has been favoured in the US and Canada and is increasingly being chose by Japan and Europe. This reflects a trend towards freedom of information.

What have new developments and understanding enable environmental management to do?

The developments namely in monitoring, data gathering, etc. These enable environmental managers to move from a corrective to anticipatory approach.

What are the key sections of the introduction?

The evolution of environmental management, the definitino and scope of environmental management, problems and opportunities, criticisms of environmental management, the establishment of environmental management.

What created the ability for class actions to be done?

The fact that a class action needed to be taken by an individual and thus they lacked equivalent resources to a corporation. This was a deterrent for anyone to tackle large companies or corporations for their wrongdoings. This was won by NGOs such as the Sierra Club, Environmental Defense fund and Joseph Sax and environmental lawyer to bring the right for class actions in the 1970s.

What issues has globalization raised?

The globalization of patent rights has seen MNCs and TNCs seek to recoup research costs and control markets. Poor countries fear bio-piracy due to corporations patenting intellectual rights to genetic resources.

What are some mainstream definitions of sustainable development?

The maintenance of ecological integrity. The integrations of environmental care and development. The adoption of a long term view.

What is the current situation of environmental management and business?

The majority of businesses are aware that environmental issues are important. Some businesses are doing something whether it be for public relations or profit motives. Business still develop a react and repair approach, rather then following the precautionary principle. Businesses need strategies like industrial ecology, but will need to be forced or encouraged to implement them.

What are the challenges that international law faces?

The management of the global commons, namely oceans, atmosphere.

What must be standardized, and why?

The methods of data collection as well as the agreed units. Scoping is needed to evaluated exactly what needs to be measured as data collection can be costly.

What are the key topics of environmental managements fundamentals and goals?

The nature of environmental management. The implications of human population growth. Limits to growth, sustainable development and environmental ethics. Environmental management: problems and needs.

In the late sixteenth century what did the protestant ethic espouse?

The need for self improvement through good acts and hard work. This was not moved towards environmental management until the 1960s.

What are some way in which sustainable development can lose trust from the public?

Some use rhetoric about sustainable development as a way to deceive people, and ill thought out appeals are made which are unrealistic.

Where did the general acceptance that economic development and environmental issues should be approached together?

Somewhere between the 1972 UN conference on the Human Environment and the 1992 UN conference 'Earth Summit'. In the 1990s natural resources management gave way to a philosophical and poorly-defined environmental management.

What is essential for pursuing stewardship and prudence? What has been the one of the most important achievements of western civilization?

Standards(benchmarks), monitoring. The establishment of widely applicable scientific standards.

Introduction - What are the common themes that run through the various areas of the application environmental management?

The precautionary principle, the 'polluter pays' principle, a multidiscplinary and anticipatory approach, what the goal of sustainable development is, assesment of risks, hazards and impacts, and environmental stewardship

What are some criticisms of environmental management?

The problem of definition. It being prescriptive and insufficiently analytical. It also requires subjective judgement as well as scientific enquiry thus it is more of an art and a science. Eco-fascism has come about as a result of over zealous efforts. Failing to see the wood for the trees has lead to environmental managerealism. The way it is pursued as a piecemeal, reactive approach, looking to mitigate rather than avoid environmental problems.

What are stewardship and a multidisciplinary approach?

Stewardship is a characteristic of environmental management which has developed to the the relaxed style of this approach and looks at a long term role. This approach can be multi or interdisciplinary, as well as holistic, and the style can be either precautionary and participatory. A multidisciplinary approach relies on information from a variety of disciplines, but does not seek and integrated understanding. Interdisciplinary does seek integration. These two approaches are conscious of transnational, global environmental, politics, perceptions, and ethics.

What is another main goal of environmental management?

Sustainable development, another being human welfare.

What is success of environmental management dependent on?

Sustainable institutions.

What is a summary of the range of environmental ethics?

Technocratic - resource exploitation, growth orientation. This is anthropocentric and places faith in the capacity of technology to overcome environmental problems. Managerial - resource conservationalist, oriented towards sustainable growth. Communalist - resource preservationalist, oriented towards limited to zero growth. These two ethics are more likely to support sustainable development and provide guidance for environmental management. Bioethicist or deep ecology - extreme preservationalist, anti growth. This ethos is likely to gain support from enough people to be viable approach and offer little guidance to environmental managers.

What did Boserup argue?

That necessity is the mother of invention.

What placed environmental management on the world's political agenda? What did it also advise in terms of world poverty?

The Brundtland report Our Common Future. It mentioned that without a reduction in poverty environmental degradation was difficult to stop.

What was occuring in the late 17th Century?

The Caribbean, Mauritius and many other countries were exporting sugar, timber, and other commodities. This was done by Dutch East Indies Company and others. This lead to deforestation and soil erosion. Various authors began complaining about the degradation of human pollution and shoddy products in the 1830s.

What do most environmental managers agree upon following the 1992 Earth Summit?

The Earth Summit in 1992 looked at poverty being a cause of environmental degradation, and that aid is an essential component of this.

What were the agreements made at the Earth Summit?

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, this was an updated version of the Stockholm Declaration. This published general principles for future international action on environment and development. There was a framework Convention of Climate Change which was a framework for negotiation of the protocols to control greenhouse gas emissions. Convention of Biodiversity looking at biodiversity loss. Declaration of Forests a principle. Agenda 21, a 40 chapter book looking at an action plan for the coming century. Global Environment Facility, this was developed under the auspices of the World Bank, UNEP, was a fund to support Biodiversity and Climate Change conferences.

Give a basic outline of the evolution of environmental management, Pt 2.

The role of environmental management is to coordinate and focus the advances in the understanding of the structure and function of the environment, monitoring impacts, data handling and analysis, modelling, assessment and planning. People were optimistic about technology from the 1830s until around 1945 when problems with the environment became apparent to the public.

What is ekistics? What are the two main groupings of environmental management?

The science of planning settlement in balance with nature. Garden Earth and Spaceship Earth.

Who nowadays enacts environmental law? How are most UN-prompted multilateral treaties developed?

The UN and it's specialist agencies such as UNESCO. NGOs such as greenpeace also lobby for environmental law. Most have been developed by a two step process. 1 - A relatively vague framework convention which acknowledges a problem, most countries will sign this as there is no binding agreement. 2 - This then prompts action, especially data collection, discussion and propaganda, this reduces opposition and raises interest so that a protocol can be introduced and agreed to.

How do indigenous people relate to environmental law?

There are approximately 250 million who enact with it in various ways. Often they have very good knowledge on environmental management.

Who are environmental managers?

There are heaps, from global NGO's to research institutes, to public.

What are the trends apparent in the development of treaties and agreements since 1977.

There has been a move towards the precautionary principle. There has been little progress in developing environmental rights. There have been no consequences of transnational catastophes such as Chernobyl, which shows that these agreements have not been readily penalized and cost of damages have not been sought. Antarctic law has been established which limits the exploitation of resources of the Antarctic only under very strict environmental assessments.

What does there need to be for effective environmental management?

There must be a means of resolving controversies regarding proper conduct. This is enable to a large degree by ethics, this can be defined as a system of cultural values motivating people's behaviour.

What is surveillance, what can it be used on, and what can it do?

This is the repetitive measurement of selected variables over time, it does not have a clearly defined purpose unlike monitoring. Surveillance can focus on environment, people, or the economy. It can detect unexpected changes, asses environmental quality, provide information for systems control or management.

What is Green Marketing and what are some examples?

This is where a company sells itself as being environmentally friendly. Such as Body Shop. Another example would be McDonalds after an audit making the change from plastic packaging to cardboard which cut costs.

What is life-cycle analysis?

This is where an operation is looked at from a life cycle point of view not a snap shot approach such as power plants accumulating waste over time. Or machinery being subject to wear and tear being safe or dangerous at different periods of their life.

What is the Law of the Sea?

This looked at limiting oceanic pollution. This included rivers, effluent outfalls, air pollution as these run into the sea. This saw the development of regional treaties such as the Mediterranean, South Pacific etc. The UN launched a Convention of the Law of the Sea, which saw agreements effective to 2500, depth.

What are pigouvian taxes?

This makes manufacturers responsible for some or all of the costs of recycling or waste disposal. This is done by use of these taxed which ensures manufactures pay or costs from raw material and energy provision to final collection and recycling.

What did the Club of Rome argue in their The Limits to Growth?

This publication reported on studies done to determine future scenarios. They looked at accelerating industrialization, population growth, rates of malnutrition, depletion on non-renewable resources. They concluded that the limit would be reached by 2072.

What is a state of the environment account? What is a criticism of environmental accounting? What is the difference between EIA and environmental assessment? What is Environmental Appraisal? What is the difference between an eco audit and impact assessment?

This sets out a nation or region's environmental, social or economic assets. That it is just stock-taking and doesn't encourage the precautionary approach. EIA has more of a focus on impacts. This is a generic term used in the UK for the evaluation of environmental implications of proposals. An eco audit looks at actual effects of established activities, and impact assessment looks at future effects.

What was the significance of the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer?

This was the first time nations agreed to impose significant costs on their economies in order to protect the global environment.

What is an eco audit?

This would appear to be the latest snapshot provided by monitoring, but however is more complex. It can be done at different levels, and may mean - 1 An auditing approach to the environment. 2 - Studies aimed at avoiding or reducing environmental damage. 3 - A means by which a body systematically and holistically monitors the quality of the environment it interacts with or is responsible for.

How will environmental management achieve it's policy goals?

Through a mix of moral pressure, the spread of appropriate ethics, and by ensuring economics, business and law are sufficiently sensitive to the environment. It will need to make use of media and education to alter social attitudes. It must have effective institutions and draw on a range of other fields.

How does law aid environmental management?

Through regulation of resource use, protection of the environment and biodiversity, mediation, conflict resolution and conciliation, formulation of stable, unambiguous undertakings and agreements.

What must environmental management do as it relates to the causes of today's problems?

Today's problems are caused by consumerism, poverty, and population growth. Environmental managers must separate what is real from what are fashionable attitudes.

What are trade-offs how can their damage be mitigated?

Trade-offs call for long term solutions which often involve drastic measures over the short term. These can be lessened by foreign aid.

What is the significance of sovereignty and environmental management? What did the Stockholm Declaration of the Human Environment in 1977 do?

Transboundary and Transnational environmental problems can exist which require cooperation and the forfeiture of some rights of sovereign states and countries. Most are reluctant to give up these powers. MNCs and TNCs exist that can bribe and threaten their way around these sovereigns. It confirmed the right of states to exploit their own resources but not to pollute outside of their jurisdiction.

Where is eco-auditing increasingly being practiced, what had given it further impetus? What did the later of these two seek to promote? What is eco-auditing part of?

US, EU, and Aus. Further impetus was given by Agenda 21, and the European Commission's Fifth Environmental Action Programme. The later sought to promote 'shared responsibility' for the environment, popular green awareness, and a move towards sustainable development. It is part of a growing shift from mere compliance with regulations to developing forward-looking environmental management strategies.

What are environmental managers increasingly likely to face?

Unproven threats, transboundary and global challenges, and problems demanding rapid decisions.

Environmental managers may not achieve their objectives and subsequently may be sued. What risk-aversion strategies do they follow to mitigate this?

Working to safe minimum standards, adopting sustainability constraints, following a win-win or least regrets approach.

What are the key topics in the law and business of environmental management?

Environmental management and business. Corporate environmental management in the 1990s. Corporate visions of stewardship in the 1990s. Corporate visions of stewardship - a paradigm shift to environmental management ethics? Approach adopted to promote environmental management in business. Environmental management and business: the current situation. Environmental management and law. The 1969 US National Environment Policy Act(NEPA) - 'environmental Magna Carta'? European Law and environmental management. International law and environmental management. Indigenous peoples and environmental law. The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development. International law and sovereignty issues. Alternative dispute resolution.

What is the current trend of Law as it relates to MNCs and TNCs?

Environmental management increasingly involves transboundary problems that reach beyond traditional sovereignty sovereignty issue this has been looked after by international law. Often times MNCs and TNCs have enormous power and make decisions which don't benefit everyone.

Give a basic outline of the evolution of environmental management, Pt 1.

Environmental management is not a new thing, past cultures have developed taboos or laws to restrict resource exploitation. In the late 1900s developments such as global pollution, soil degredation, loss of biodiversity, and urban growth have ensured that environmental management needs to be done correctly.

Due to the fact that environmental solutions not having simple solutions what dilemmas to environmental management face?

Ethical - What to conserve? Inuits or whales. Efficiency - How much environmental damage is acceptable? Equity - Who benefits from environmental management and who pays? Liberty - How much do people need to be restricted to protect the environment? Uncertainty - How do we choose a course of action without sufficient data? Evaluation - How do we compare the effects of various options or actions?

What leads to crisis management? What is a danger of this approach? And what is a better way of executing sustainable development?

Human beings usually respond to crisis, rather then assessing the situation and looking to prevent problems. This approach seeks to solve problems once they have arrived which often makes them difficult to solve due to the long term cause of the these problems. A better way is to use the precautionary principle because it changes a solution to an environmental problem into a dynamic process rather then static and changes the burden of the developer as a developer rather than a victim. This is good because environmental management often deals with inadequate data.

What can damage to the environment be a function of?

Human population numbers, high levels of consumption, technology used to satisfy consumption.

What are the laws of Ecology?

1 - Any intrusion into nature has numerous effects, many of which are unpredictable. 2 - Everything is connected. 3 - Care needs to be taken to ensure substances produced by humans do not interfere with any of Earth's biogeochemical processes.

What are the issues around the Freedom of Information?

If the players involved in environmental legislation are unable to get information, environmental planning and management are hindered. The US is one of the leading countries for this. The EU and UK are moving towards this. Some governments and MNCs fear industrial secrets will leak to competitors if too much disclosure, these leads to situations where authorities declar 'strategic' needs and suspend disclosure.

What are some ways in which disagreements about resource exploitation and environmental management?

1 - Through legal measures, these rely on courts, litigation, and protocols. 2 - Through political measures, these rely on elected or established representatives to make decisions. 3 - Through administrative measures, these can be used to improve resources and environmental management. 4 - Through alternative dispute resolution measures, this can be through a range of measures, such as negotiation or mediation.

What are the two broad categories of eco-audits?

1 - industrial, private sector corporate eco-audits. 2 - local authority or higher level government eco-audits these are more standardized then private sector eco audits.

What had occured by the 1970s?

American NGOs and groups of lawyers interested in environmental issues began to fight group court actions against those damaging nature and lobbied for environmental legislation. In Europe and NZ green politics began to emerge.

What does an environmental manager need to have? What is environmental accounting? What do these appoaches seek?

An idea on the state of the environment, any threats, and future problems or opportunities. State of the environment accounts and environmental quality evaluation use knowledge of how the ecosystem is structured and functions to collect data showing the state of an area. These approaches seek to establish the current status of an ecosystem. Eco evaluation seeks to establish what is of value.

In many respects what can be considered the cutting edge of environmental management?

Business and legal aspects. This is because business can drive alot of human activity, and can degrade people and the environment. It can also offer routes to new development ethics and sustainable development. Law provides the guidelines and rules, these stop chaos ensuing.

What are some of the first question business ask as it relates to environmental practices? What is the answer?

Can they improve financial performance as well as leading to sustainable development? Yes.

What does environmental management face over the coming 50 years? What holds the most promise?

Complex problems, which it will have to deal with these while coping with population growth, social unrest, increasing poverty, and natural disasters. Anticipatory action.

What are the points listed in the Business Charter for Sustainable Development as put out by the International Chamber of Commerce in 1993.

Corporate priority, Integrated management, process of improvement, employee education, prior assesment, products and services, customer advice, facilities and operations, research, contractors and suppliers, emergency preparedness, transfer of technology, contributing to the common effort, openness of concerns, compliance and reporting.

Why is it important that big businesses follow environmental practices?

Due to the fact that they have larger expenditure that most developing nations.

What causes environmental managers to focus on a region, ecosystem, sector or activity?

Due to the variety of challenges and the fact that many different actors are involved.

What is industrial ecology?

This is an approach which looks at economics and resource activities from an ecological and biological point of view rather than a monetary point of view. It views waste and pollution as uneconomical, and tries to use by products for other purposes such that it is self sustaining.

What are the types of environmental approaches with examples?

Ad hoc approach: developed in response to a particular problem. Problem solving approach: follows a series of logical steps to identify problems and needs. Systems approach: examples ecosystem mountain. Regional approach: this mainly deals with ecological zones or biogeophysical units. These can often be international. Examples are watershed, river basin, coastal zone. Specialist discipline approach: these are often adopted by professionals. Examples being air quality management, water quality management. Strategic environmental approach. Voluntary sector approach: environmental management by or encouraged by NGOs. Examples being debt for nature, private reserves. Commercial approach: environmental management for business/public bodies. Political economy or political ecology approach. Human ecology approach.

Who are the neo-Malthusians?

A 1970s group of ecologists, systems analysts, demographers, and 'environmentalists' who are named thus due to their resemblance to the work of Thomas Malthus is which he looked at limiting factors to population growth. They looked at the way population grows until it reaches a limiting factor imposed by nature in which it then begins to decline or shifts into a cyclic boom or bust pattern.

What caused the development of most aid agencies to have environmental guidelines and rules?

A class action by an NGO to require USAID(US Agency for International Development) to insist on pre-development environmental assessments before granting funds.

What is a standard? What are some issues associated with regional standards? What are some examples of standards changing over time?

A set requirement. They may not be applicable to other countries for example, standards in a temperate climate may not be applicable in a tropical climate. CFCs. DDT. Both were considered non factors until science discovered that these caused harm.

In modifying the ethics of individuals, groups, and societies what three main approaches can environmental management use to achieve this?

Advisory through education, demostration, and media. Economic or fiscal through taxation such as carbon tax, subsidies and grants. Regulatory through standards, laws by laws, licensing.

How has remote monitoring developed? What is a model? What are some types of models? What can hydrologists do?

For the last few decades it has evolved at a gathering pace. A simplification of reality. Computer models, analogue models, conceptual models. Hydrologists may set up scale models of a river or estuary and release flows of water to study tides, currents, flooding etc.

What are the typical major decision-making steps in an environmental process?

Formulation of values, perception and identification of a problem, formulation of principles and assessment of overall resources and risks. Formulation of goals and setting of overall timetable. Formulation of objectives. Formulation of alternatives. Evaluation of alternatives. Selection of actions. Implementation of adopted strategy. Monitoring progress. Evaluation of effectiveness.

What were some other factors which prompted business interest in environmental management?

Globalization, glasnost(increasing public demand for information), avoidance of litigation.

What are covenants and how are they carried out? What is an example of this?

Governments or the like can request companies adhere to EMS through a covenant. This is written and voluntary. In the Netherlands a company would be expected to produce a development plan every 4 years, which would be reviewed by local authorizing bodies. This approach encourages company self-regulation.

What does the author argue in terms of the reductionalist vs. over-all aproach?

He feels there should be both.

What are some treaties and agreements developed relating to environmental management?

Internationally shared resources - US and Canada signed and agreement to uphold the water quality of the Great Lakes. Protection of Endangered Species - 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. 1973 Convention on Interntional Trade in Endangered Species. Protection of Environmentally important areas - This is where scientists agree there are areas which are key to maintaining the well being of the planet. The Antarctic - There was an Antarctic Treaty signed in 1960 to maintain that any country deemed to be conducting scientific reseach can do so. This has come under increased pressure due to people wanting to exploit minerals and oil, as well as krill and squid. There has been a move to enable all countries not just those who signed the rights to research there. This zone is limited to a latitude > 60 S. Transboundary Pollution - This was developed and finalised in the 1991 UN Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, this obliged signatory states to act to stop pollution which would affect bordering countries.

What is the EEA and how does it compare to the EPA?

It doesn't have as much power but rather provides info.

Give a brief overview of ethics.

It draws upon human reasoning, morals, knowledge of nature, and goals to act as a sort of plumb-line for development and shape a worldview. It operates at the level of individuals, institutions, societies and internationally.

How did eco-audit evolve in the US? What ensured that bodies made commitments to continual environmental improvement?

It evolved as a management tool in the 80s as companies were held more responsible for the damage they caused. The establishment of eco audit standards which was first developed by the British Standards Institution in 1992.

What are the issues of the polluter pays principle?

It implies that the polluter pays for monitoring and policing. The problem with this is that it's fines may bankrupt small businesses while larger ones can afford these. Also how far back does it go in that most of the western world produced the C in the atmosphere during the industrial revolution whereas other countries are forced to pay taxed for this.

What is the nature of environmental management and what are it's goals?

It is an approach to environmental stewarship which integrates ecology, policy making, planning and social development. It's goals are the prevention and resolution of environmental problems, establishing limits, establishing and nurturing institutions, warning of threats, improving the quality of life, identifying new technologies or policies which are useful.

What has happened to the spending of large corporations on environmental management and why?

It is increasing, due to the large cost of cleaning up post an environmental accident.

What is the long term goal of environmental management?

It is to move toward considering aspects in an integrated fashion in all aspects of the business. This has caused several fields to develop such as industrial ecology, green marketing etc.

What is a key question of how sustainable development will look?

It is whether sustainable development is going to act just as a guiding principle or whether it generates practical strategies that improve the human condition without degrading the environment.

What benefits can population growth cause? What questions does this raise

It may prompt social and technological changes leading to improved quality of life. Which not only make the quality of life better but reduce environmental impacts. How can this pattern be achieved? What must be done to achieve such a pattern?

What does the application of the ecosystem concept to industry mean? What is an example of this?

It means linking the metabolism of one company or body to that of others. Kalundborg in Denmark has a coal fire power station, fish farms, oil refinery, pharmaceutical companies, concrete producer, sulphuric acid producer, horticultural green houses and district heating which are all integrated.

What two intellectual traditions does sustainable development draw upon?

It mentions that the current material comfort will not be able to be sustained with continued population growth. The two traditions are that Earth has limited resources, and the potential for human material development. These are considered opposing ideas.

At it's simplest form what must environmental management do?

It must identify goals, establish whether these can be met, develop and implement the means it deems to be possible. This first point is seldom easy, the second and third point require the environmental manager to interface with ecology, economics, law, politics, and people. This must be coordinated at the local, national, and international levels.

How must environmental management maintain the integrity of sustainable development?

It must police the use of the term to avoid it becoming tainted.

What is the relationship between environmental management and environmental planning?

It overlaps with and is related to it. EM is concerned with the implementation, monitoring, auditing, or real world problems. Rather than theoretical planning. EM is more concerned with understanding the human-environment interaction and applying common-sense and science to solving problems.

What is the nature of international law?

It related to agreements between states and thus has no effect on domestic or individuals. It must thus rely on voluntary agreements. If none can be reached it can be taken to the Hague.

What are the forms of legislation that assist lawmakers?

Principle - this is broadly a step towards establishing a law, once this is established, tested and working, it can be incorporated into law. Standard - these are levels of pollution, energy efficiency etc. this is a benchmark so that individuals, bodies, countries are striving for the same thing. Guideline - not enforceable. Directive - These document some desired objective but leave it up to governments and states to decide how to get there. Licence - A right granted to a body, which agrees to terms or pays a fee. Law - Required statutes that can be punishable if not pursued. Treaty - a solemn binding agreement between international entities. Declaration - A softer treaty, a general statement of intent. Convention - A multilateral instrument signed by many states or international institutions. Protocol - a less formal agreement, often subsidiary or ancillary to a convention. Contigency agreement - a good way of dealing with uncertainty surrounding many global environmental management issues. An agreement about what to do if something happens.

What are the main principles of environmental management and how are these pursued?

Prudence and stewardship. These are pursued via forward-looking, broad view policy making. Establishing standards and rules, monitoring and auditing. Co-ordination.

What has helped establish environmental management?

Public awareness, NGOs and business beginning to pursue it, media monitoring, international conferences.

What is REGNEG?

Renegotiation of regulations. This is where a developer succeeds in pursuading authorities to relax standards for profit.

What is the driving force of business? How does this change how environmental concerns are viewed?

Satisfying stakeholders and investors. I implies that this would mean a company is looking out for a wider range of stake holders namely the public, bystanders, employees etc.

What is often neglected?

Scoping - Identifying limits and deciding goals before acting.

What are some types of eco audit?

Site or facility audit - safety and care for the environment. Compliance audit - to see whether regulations are being followed. Issues audit - assessment on a company's or other body's activities on a specific environmental or social issue.

Give a basic outline of the evolution of environmental management, Pt 3. What are the differences betwee environmental management and natural resource management.

There were a small number of efforts to integrate resource exploitation with social and economic development before the 1970s. River basin bodies saw the development of holistic ecosystems being the roots of urban and regional planning at a minimum of the 1930s. The difference between natural resource management and environmental managements is that n.r.m at specific utilitarian and economically viable resources which can be exploited for short term gain. Their responses to problems are often reactive and project by project based. They often have little social or environmental expertise. They style of management can be authoritarian and involve the public as well as missing off-site or delayed impacts. Due to this over the last 40 years they have lost ground to environmental management.

What are TEQs(Tradeable emission quotas)?

These are where a country which does not reach it's CO2 quota can sell it's surplus to other countries and example is the US buying Russias.

Where can surveillance and monitoring be done?

These can be done at source, at selected sample points, at random, along transects, or by sampling some suitable material or organism.

What are consumer protection bodies?

These have been around since the 60s and protect consumers by advising which companies are green.

What do the International trade agreements namely those of the WTO and GATT inhibit? What could be a good thing that these agreements bring and what is something that needs to be looked out for?

These override countries which have laws such as pesticide free lumber, or nets which don't catch dolphins from enforcing them as these would limit 'free trade. It could help countries to increase their standards. Care must be taken that it is done for environmental reasons and not to create uniform production costs and thus economies of scale.

What did activists in the 60s and 70s do?

They added little to environmental science but stimulated a quest for new development and environmental ethics.

How are the neo-Malthusians and the tragedy of the commons now seen? What did they achieve?

They are seen as being too simplistic and thus are disregarded. They raised awareness that we live on a finite planet and there are limits.

How do the goals of sustainable development and the Club of Rome compare? What conclusions can be drawn about this?

They both have the same goal adequate sustained quality of life for all without exceeding environmental limits. It is possible to stretch some limits using technology.

What benefits do eco-audits provide? What are some risks associated with eco audits?

They generate valuable data for regional or national state-of-the-environment reports, they may be a valuable way of monitoring, they reduce risk of being accused of negligence, they offer management more peace of mind. Risks - They may find problems which are costly to resolve but otherwise would have been overlooked without too much harm, they may be expensive, companies may fear trade secrets could be revealed.

What risks do they face? How are their rights recognized?

They have no written land tenure as thus can be relocated. They are recognized by the UN Commision of Economic Development and the 1994 Draft UN Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

How can environmental managers thus make these types of decisions?

They may have to rely on modelling, simulation and forecasts, rather than factual predictions.

How did westerners see nature? How do the Spaceship Earth and the Gaian viewpoint differ?

They saw themselves as being at war with nature, rather than seeking to understand and be integrated with it. Since the 30s the last frontiers have been closing, and new tillable land has been difficult to find since the 60s, this saw the limitless Earth shrink to a Spaceship Earth in which there existed a finite and delicate system which must be taken care of. The Gaian viewpoint takes things a step further and regards the Earth as a system which is disrupted may adjust to make current lifestyles unattainable or might wipe out humans.

What do environmental managers need to do and what do some demographers argue will happen in the next 10 years.

They will have to establish what the optimum sustainable population is, and how it can best be reached. Demographers argue that only within the next decade or so can this be achieved through humane methods.

What is monitoring, what can we monitor? What can we use info for?

This a system of continued observation, measurement, and evalutation for defined purposes.

What is total quality management and environmental management systems?

This aims to provide assurance of adherence to policy and specifications through a structured management system, and to enable demonstration of it to third parties through documentation and record keeping. EMS is very similiar to TQM.

What did Hardin's tragedy of the commons essay look at?

This argued that commonly owned natural resources under onditions of population growth would be damaged because each user would seek to maximize their short term interests.

What is environmental managerialism and how has it developed?

This is a labelling of present-day environmental management and describes it as a state-centred, institutionalized, mainly concerned with law making. Due to it's nature as being used to solve real world problems, this and other short comings may arise.