Ethics Chapter 8

From the Public Relations Society of America Member Code of Ethics

A member shall do the following: - Preserve the free flow of unprejudiced information when giving or receiving gifts by ensuring that gifts are nominal, legal and infrequent. - Avoid actions and circumstances that may appear to compromise good business judgment or create a conflict between personal and professional interests. - Disclose promptly any existing or potential conflict of interest to affected clients or organizations.

Autonomy

Autonomy refers not just to what we can do but to what we ought to do; moral autonomy refers to our ability to control the reasons for our actions in ways that show an understanding of our obligations as moral beings and "a rational grasp of the moral law." Capacity for self-determination (control over one's life) "moral autonomy" has little to do with liberty or freedom and much more to do with consciously, and freely, limiting oneself to upholding moral principles and doing "the right thing." Refers to our deliberative nature.

Kant: Autonomy in the Service of Duty

But Kant also is specific in rejecting any suggestion that such freedom frees us from duties to act in certain ways because "the will of every rational being [is] a will giving universal law"—our free will, he says, is designed to favor behavior that could be applied as a universal standard for everyone, not simply for one's own gratification at the expense of others (p. 49). So according to Kant, autonomy for individuals who take seriously their existence as moral agents means acting in harmony with our duties to respect people as ends in them- selves with the capacity for reason—it means, as philosopher Robert George (1993) noted, "living in conformity with a rational grasp of the moral law"

AUTONOMY AND NATURAL LAW

But other philosophers have long argued not only that good laws should aspire to make people safe, but that they also should help make them virtuous—that law and politics are "rightly concerned with the moral well-being of members of political communities" (George, 1993, p. 20). This argument has been called the "natural law" theory and goes back to Aristotle, who insisted that the law of the political community, or polis, cannot limit itself to merely "a guarantor of men's rights against one another," but must "devote itself to the end of encouraging goodness."

AUTONOMOUS AGENCY AND THE MEDIA

By now, it should be clear that for anyone to claim to have the "right" of autonomy to do anything they please betrays a simplistic and possibly irresponsible understanding of the concept In the media, responsible practice often translates into credibility. And that is the goal of all serious media workers. In public relations, autonomous agency often means being able to manage issues and communication campaigns without unreasonable interference or restrictions from interests that may not place high value on disclosure or on building relationships with publics. In the news media, the principle of autonomy is intricately bound with the mission of journalists to convey the news "without fear or favor," and in the service of the professional ideals of impartiality and fairness. - Most threats to journalistic autonomy, or independence, come in the form of conflicts of interests—in other words, cases when the journalistic mission runs counter to or conflicts with other interests or stakeholders.

DTC

Direct to consumer advertising Surveys have shown that many Americans mistakenly assume that the government "approves" DTC ads before they are broadcast, and that it only allows ads for "completely safe" drugs. Critics also argue that DTC advertising has increased the cost of drugs and contributed to soaring health care costs in the United States.

Autonomy as the Highest Good?

Dworkin and others have warned against our Western tendency to put the idea of autonomy on a pedestal, to claim that it must be considered somehow fundamental to all other values. "What is valuable about autonomy is that the commitments and promises a person makes be ones he views as his, as part of the person he wants to be, so that he defines himself via those commitments," "moral exemplars"—people who were widely perceived for their commitment to moral principles and for their ethical leadership

Freedom or liberty

Freedom is understood as a state of being that is reasonably unconstrained by outside forces and that allows us to pursue our own interests and visions of happiness. Often refers to a desired state of the absence of constraints or restrictions on what we can do. Freedom is self-mastery, the elimination of obstacles to my will, whatever these obstacles may be—the resistance of nature, of my ungoverned passions, of irrational institutions, of the opposing wills or behaviour of others. . . . The essence of the notion of liberty . . . is the holding off of something or someone— of others who trespass on my field or assert their authority over me, or of obsessions, fears, neuroses, irrational forces—intruders and despots of one kind or another.

Autonomy: It's in the Code of Ethics (SPJ)

In most codes, autonomy is not explicitly mentioned but is implied in statements that emphasize professionalism as rooted in an understanding of our moral obligations and in the responsible use of power. In the code of the Society of Professional Journalists, independence is the third of four key directive - Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived. - Remain free of associations and activities that may compromise integrity or damage credibility. - Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel and special treatment, and shun secondary employment, political involvement, public office and service in community organizations if they compromise journalistic integrity. - Disclose unavoidable conflicts. - Deny favored treatment to advertisers and special interests and resist their pressure to influence news coverage. - Be wary of sources offering information for favors or money; avoid bidding for news.

AUTONOMY AS POSITIVE FREEDOM

Isaiah Berlin (1964) urged us to distinguish between what he called "negative" and "positive" freedom. Negative freedom, he suggested, is the common understanding of liberty as being free of undue restrictions or interference. It is the idea of being free from constraints that might unreasonably limit our movement, activity, or thoughts. All individuals, Mill argued, have the inalienable right to be free from restrictions unless such limits explicitly protect the welfare of others. Not only do we have a fundamental need to be free from things to act as we wish; we also have a need to be free to define ourselves as we wish. We don't just want the freedom to act; we want to control the reasons for our acts. Positive freedom: the ability to define oneself according to a professional ethic rather than being relegated as a blindly loyal mouthpiece for narrow client interests.

Kant on Autonomy

Kant was explicit in claiming that "freedom" is the source of all value in his moral philosophy. All things that we claim as moral imperatives, he argued, ultimately must derive their value from freedom. In most cases, when Kant talks of freedom, he is usually describing what has come to be known as moral autonomy: not the notion of freedom to do whatever we want, but our ability to exercise our free will to fully realize our existence as rational beings with moral duties.

Individual-Level Conflict of Interest

Maria Bartiromo - CNBC - Citigroup Most news organizations require their journalists to abide by explicit conflict-of-interest policies, many of which require them to disclose any business, financial, or personal involvement they may have with people or groups in the communities they cover. Many journalists are even more aggressive in steering clear of any symbols or associations that could lead others to question their autonomy. Many news organizations limit civic activities of journalists if that work might involve groups or issues that the jour- nalist might cover. Political journalists refrain from adorning their cars with partisan bum- per stickers. Others even refuse to register to vote for fear of being suspected of advocating an agenda in their work. It is important to note that not all conflicts of interest pose a serious threat to a journal- ist's integrity. Some associations are harmless. But at the very least, it is important for journalists to avoid even appearances of conflict that could compromise their credibility with sources and audiences.

Media

Media ethics students also must be aware of the damage that can occur when someone's autonomy is thwarted or undermined. When considered in the context of media, respect for autonomy is critical on both sides of the communication equation— Journalists whose news decisions are overly influenced by interests of their sources, their corporate media owners, or any other group can quickly find their credibility severely damaged. Public relations officials who are reduced to mere mouthpieces in the service of narrow client interests face similar credibility threats. Advertising raises questions of autonomy by trading on and reinforcing various stereotypes that can undermine individuality and force people into rigid categories. Inappropriate pressure from advertisers also threatens editorial independence of newspapers, magazines, and television programming. Media messages that fail to fully treat audiences as independent, rational beings violate Kant's charge that we all, as moral beings, have a primary duty to respect the human capacity for reason.

Journalists Find Their "Voice" in the Online Frontier

Media lawyers are cautioning that libel laws are still likely to apply to the more informal, rough-and-tumble exchanges characterized by blog discussions, particularly if the blogger is affiliated with a news organization A political reporter offering snarky comments about candidates in a race, for instance, would threaten that journalist's credibility as an objective observer. Journalists and blogging, consequently, remain in an uneasy partnership while everyone finds appropriate boundaries The ease of posting news on the Web means that there's a deadline every minute now, and news organizations are regularly "breaking" stories on their Web sites instead of waiting for the print edition. This has cultivated an audience expectation for immediacy, which tempts news organizations to treat speculation as news and to forgo in-depth reporting for the "quick hit" story. "The Web makes it easier to conceal one's identity, and the tone of exchanges is often harsh. But the Web doesn't change the rules for Times journalists" (

Conflicts of interest

Not all conflicts of interest are avoidable; all should be disclosed. Any such conflicts, whether they are actual, potential, or perceived, should be avoided if they threaten our credibility or our ability to act as responsible moral agents

Freedom of Expression

Philosopher Thomas Nagel (1995) said the principle of autonomy, if we are serious about free speech, prevents us from being able to claim any "right" not to be offended. we should not throw freedom of expression around as an absolute right. It should be understood, he said, primarily in terms of the interests it aims to protect. In other words, we must be suspicious of broad, overarching claims for free speech to be able to say anything we want, and instead should look closely at the interest a claim of free speech is aimed at promoting. "What is essential is not that everyone shall speak, but that everything worth saying shall be said"

MORAL AUTONOMY

So this idea of "positive" freedom, or autonomy, as taking ownership of our reasons for doing things as opposed to simply having the freedom to do them, takes us into a moral dimension. The autonomous being, then, has a responsibility to use freedom wisely and in the interest of "doing the right thing."

AUTONOMY IN CYBERSPACE

The virtual limitlessness of what we can do in our online communication makes the question of what we ought to do more pressing than ever. While the vitality of the Internet gives new meaning to the "marketplace of ideas" concept and the belief that the truth is more likely to emerge from it, it also presents new opportunities for deception, duplicity, and controversial conflicts of interests.

JOURNALISTIC INDEPENDENCE

There is of course a subjective element of news judgment, but when decisions about news are influenced by factors out- side the bounds of professional perceptions of newsworthiness or are shaped by something other than the journalistic commitment to a broad public interest, we say that journalistic independence has been compromised.

Public Relations Blogging: Not for the Faint of Heart

This "Internet induced stakeholder power" (van der Merwe, Pitt, & Abratt, 2005) means public relations efforts must be more nimble and, when possible, more proactive in addressing complaints and con- cerns. It also means that public relations offices must come to understand that "manag- ing" relationships is not the same as controlling the dialogue with stakeholders, which is futile on the Web. Bacon's Information, Inc., cautioned that bloggers covet their indepen- dence, and that public relations strategies that attempt to undermine this autonomy can backfire. "those responsible for public rela- tions blogs must 'walk the talk' about being virtuous professionals who do what's right and not just for an organization, its stakeholders, society, and themselves as citizens" "media catching," where social network or listserv formats are used to link single journalists with a broad group of PR "subscribers." Intense criticism has followed "buzz" marketers who use word-of-mouth tactics to plug a product or service without disclosing that the "buzz" is actually being paid for. The same framework applies to public relations efforts to harness online forums to advocate for a client. Many public relations firms and corporate communications officers have waded into the blogo- sphere themselves in a proactive attempt to control or shape the public information about clients and companies

Corporate-Level Conflict of Interest

This is a corporate conflict of interest—when the parent company's efforts to deliver high performance to stockholders may conflict with the pub- lic service mission of the company's news subdivision—that critics have argued contributes to the dilution of news into "infotainment" and blurs the line between journalism and promotion. 40% of magazine editors surveyed said that they had been ordered by either an ad director or a publisher to take action on behalf of an advertiser— to kill a critical story or tone down coverage that might put a client in a bad light—that they believed would damage the publication's editorial integrity. Corporate parents also may "cross-promote" a product by presenting it as news. Corporate advertisers also can be aggressive in insisting on "friendly" editorial environments in the media outlets they do not own. In 1993, Chrysler announced a new policy to all the magazines in which it bought ads: Editors would have to tell Chrysler what kind of stories would appear in magazines with Chrysler ads. In a recent survey of journalists by the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, only 25% of the respondents indicated that their news organizations "never" avoid stories that could threaten or embarrass their parent company

Wanted: A Public Relations Seat at the Executive Table

public relations professionals can and should situate themselves with their clients in ways that allow them to do something quite different: give voice to conscience. Professional public relations, properly understood, "introduces the values and problems of stakeholders into strategic decisions and . . . introduces a moral element to those decisions," Full exercise of the public relations practitioner's moral agency requires her to be fully integrated into the decision-making process. Anything less reduces her role to corporate lackey status and denies her an opportunity to exercise her professional ethical duties. Management consultant Christopher Spicer (1997) described the tendency for corporate management to perceive public relations as a strictly subser- vient or technical function as "organizational arrogance."

Do We Have Free Will?

"Free will does exist, but it's a perception, not a power or a driving force" "People experience free will. They have the sense they are free. [But] the more you scrutinize it, the more you realize you don't have it" While we have strong motivations as rational agents to argue that our capacity for reason rules our passionate and emotional selves, Hume suggested it's the other way around—that desire or repulsion, not reason, drive our conduct. Rather than "rationally" deliberating our way to moral responses, the emotional centers of our brains respond first and appear to influence, or even determine, the reasons we come up with later

AUTONOMY FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PROFESSIONALS

"positive" freedom: the ability to define oneself according to a professional ethic rather than being relegated as a blindly loyal mouthpiece for narrow client interests. "In public relations," Bowen (2005) wrote, "autonomy can take the form of freedom from encroachment or sublimation to other organizational functions as well as the individual issues manager's freedom to make moral choices"