EURO: AP EXAM SUICIDE MOSTER SET

19. Ferdinand Magellan

: Another Spanish explorer who passed through the strait named after him at the southern tip of South America. He sailed across the Pacific Ocean and reached the Philippines. He died there, but his crew made it back to Spain. He is still associated with the first known circumnavigation of the earth.

40. The New Netherlands

: Henry Hudson established settlements on the North American continent after discovering the bodies named after him. They colonized from Hudson Bay all the way to Albany, NY. But the pressure from the English and French proved to be too much and they gave up their lands in NA. DWIC went bankrupt.

39. Nagasaki

: Originally the Japanese welcomed the new people of Europe and traded with them a lot for the guns. They used the guns to conquer the surrounding areas and when the Europeans overstayed their welcome (catholic missionaries) they forced them out. Only the Dutch, who didn't force religion, were allowed to stay at Japan. They could stay in Nagasaki once a year for only 2-3 months.

Renaissance popes

: The popes of the Renaissance were focused more on secular matters than spiritual ones. They tried to create their own dynasties by making family members cardinals (nepotism). They were, though, patrons of the arts and they made Rome a cultural center of Renaissance art

25. Encomienda:

: a form of economic and social organization in which a Spaniard was given a royal grant that enabled the holder of the grant to collect tribute form the Indians and use them as laborers. The holders of encomienda were supposed to protect the Indians, pay them wages, and supervise their spiritual needs. The explorers disregarded this and made the natives slaves. Many natives died because of harsh standards, bad living conditions, and disease. Because they were so far away from mainland Spain, the Spanish government didn't really pay much attention to them and this continued until audiencias was made.

Vasco de Gama and Calicut

: he made it all the way around the cape and stopped at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants. He crossed the Arabian Sea and reached the port of Calicut (south coast of India). There he found spices, nut no Christians. He went back to Portugal with ginger and cinnamon that earned the investors a huge profit.

Martin Luther

: he was a lawyer, but after being saved in a storm he became a monk. There was a question that was nagging him though...How do I ensure salvation? He went to confession all the time but was always worried that he forgot something, so he became a theologian. That was when he found his answer that it was faith in the promises of God. Justification by faith and the Bible as the sole authority became the core of Protestant religions.

Ulrich Zwingli

: he was the son of a wealthy peasant and was strongly influenced by Christian humanism. He became a priest and started the reformation in Switzerland. He won a debate and Zwinglianism became the religion of Zurich. It removed all 'distractions' from the church and removed dogmatic traditions of Catholic Church

22. The Aztecs and Tenochtitlan

: the Aztecs were the leading city-state in the lake region in the fifteenth century. Their capital was Tenochtitlan. They created temples, public buildings, houses, and causeways of stone across Lake Texcoco. They built an aqueduct to bring fresh water from a spring 4 miles away. They conquered almost all the surrounding lands.

Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring

A chief exponent of musical primitivism was Igor Stravinsky, one of the twentieth century's most important composers, both for his compositions and for his impact on other composers.

Fascism

A governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and criticism, regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasizing an aggressive nationalism and often racism.

Latin America Revolts

A lot of North America was freed in the American Revolution, but Latin America remained in the hands of the Spanish and Portuguese. As the Napoleonic wars were distracting the Europeans, the Latin Americans revolted and were soon free of their European leaders there. When Latin America returned to the attention of Europe, Britain wouldn't let them intervene like they had with the Spanish and Italian revolutions.

League of Nations

An international organization formed in 1920 to promote cooperation and peace among nations. It failed because it was essentially powerless.

First Battle of the Marne

An unexpected counter attack by British and French forces under the French commander General Joseph Joffre stopped the Germans at the First Battle of the Marne east of Paris. The German troops fell back, but the exhausted French army was unable to pursue its advantage.

Raphael

Another of the three main artists in the High Renaissance, he was best known for his madonnas and his frescoes in the Vatican Palace. He tried to acive an ideal of beauty far surpassing human standards. The School of Athens was in the Vatican, but didn't have any religious figures. It showed a world of balance, harmony, and order, which were the underlying principles of the art of Greece and Rome.

DORA

At the beginning of the war, British parliament passed the Defense of the Realm Act, which allowed the public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors.

Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes

At the beginning of the war, the Russian army moved into eastern Germany by was decisively defeated at the Battles of Tanneberg on August 30 and the Masurian Lakes on September 15. Theses battles established the military reputations of the commanding general, Paul von Hindenburg, and his chief of staff, General Erich Ludendorff. The Russians were no longer a threat to German territory.

Germany's War Raw Materials Board

At the beginning of the war, the government asked Walter Rathenau, head of the German General Electric Company, to use his business methods to organize the War Raw Material Board, which would allocate strategic raw materials to produce the goods that were most needed.

Munich Conference

At which the British, French, Germans and Italians reached an agreement that essentially met all of Hitler's demands (in particular those on Czechoslovakia)

Maria Theresa

Austria was really diverse and spread out, so it was hard to create a central government or language. After the loss of Silesia, Maria realized that she needed to strengthen her country, so she took away the power of the diets, provincial assemblies. Now people paid taxes to the state. She divided Austria into ten provinces and those into districts, all administered by royal officials. She did this all for the advancement of the Habsburg state and wasn't open to any of the enlightened ideas (catholic).

Adolf Hitler

Austrian born Dictator of Germany, implement Fascism and caused WWII and Holocaust.

Germany, Italy, Japan

Axis Powers

Bank of England

Bank of England was founded in 1694 and started to put paper money into use. There was a decline in the supply of gold and silver, so paper money arose. The Bank of England made loans to the government and was allowed to then issue banknotes, backed up by the government. This created a notion of "national debt" and even more money for the government to spend

Northern Renaissance

Basically the Renaissance that wasn't going on in Italy. The Northern European states and city-states experience a Renaissance because they wanted Church Reform. They didn't have acccess to the Greek/Roman info that Italy did, so they drew christian humanism. They had different types of works because of the geographical constraints. N.R. focused on details.

Geneva theocracy

Calvin created a new society after success before a city council in 1541 where they accepted his new church constitution known as the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. The church was the government here. They used both clergy and laymen and the consistory (enforce moral discipline) was set up to oversee moral life and doctrinal purity. Strict laws against blasphemy were set up and Geneva became protestant center and Calvinism overtook Lutheranism

The Hanoverian/ the Georges

In 1714, the Hanoverian dynasty took over the Stuart dynasty (Queen Anne died without an heir). Hanoverians were Protestant and they didn't speak English or understand the British system of government. They allowed their chief ministers to handle Parliament.

Cosimo d'Medici

He took control over the small oligarchy that manipulated the 'republican' government. When he died, his grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent took over.

Louis XV

He took over when he was 5 years old, so the duke of Orleans was 'king' soon followed by Cardinal Fleury. He evened out the debt, but after his death Louis XV decided to be sole ruler. He was lazy and weak and ministers and mistresses influenced him a lo and were controlling the affairs of the state and undermining the prestige of the monarchy. Madame de Pompadour was the most famous mistress. He was king when they lost the seven years' war which brought about burdensome taxes, even more debt, more hungry people, and still a wasteful, frivolous lifestyle at Versailles.

Louis XIV's wars

He waged four wars to get more land for France. #1- He invaded the Spanish Netherlands and the Franche-Comte. The triple alliance (Dutch, English, and Swedes) forced Louis to stop and accept few towns in the Netherlands. He stayed mad at Dutch for triple alliance and invaded UP with initial success but the victories led Brandenburg, Spain, and HRE to form an alliance and force the end of this war. Louis got Franche-Comte but not any Dutch land. #2- Louis went into HRE and gradually gained land. His occupation at Strasbourg led to new alliance of League of Augsburg (Spain, HRE, UP, Sweden, and Engand). #3- War of League of Augsburg. This brought economic depression and famine to France. Treaty that ended the war forced Louis to give up most of his conquests in the empire. The gains weren't worth the bloodshed. #4- War of Spanish Succession. Louis XIV's grandson was to become king of Spain. This worried European nations because they didn't want a Spanish-French alliance. England, UP, Habsburg Austria, and German states opposed France and Spain. Peace of Utrecht ended this.

Robert Clive

He was a British officer in the Great War for Empire, fought in India and North America. The lands in India had been returned to their rightful owners, but France and England were still fighting for power. He was really persistent and the Treaty of Paris in 1763 gave India to Britain.

21. Hernan Cortes and Moctezuma

He was a Spanish explorer who landed at VAeracruz, on the Gulf of Mexico. He marched to the city of Tenochtitlan and made alliances with city-states that had tired of the oppressive rule of the Aztecs. He got the support of Tlaxcala, a state that the Aztecs had not been able to conquer. When he reached the capital, Moctezuma, the leader, welcomed him, thinking he was a long awaited god. But the Spanish captured him and pillaged the city. In 1520, the Spanish were driven out, but soon smallpox came upon the city and the population dropped dramatically. This allowed the Spanish to regain control.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa

He was a Spanish explorer who led an expedition across the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

Giorgio Vasari

He was a painter that was also an avid admirer of Italy's great artists. He wrote a series of breif biographies of them in which he described them as divine (not in those words, but it was as if he was describing a god)

Ivan III

He was a prince in Russia who made the Russian state the principality of Moscow. He annexed other Russian principalities and over took the Mogols by 1480.

Lebensraum

Hitler was a firm believer in the doctrine of _______ (living space), espoused by Karl Haushofer, a professor of geography at the University of Munich. The doctrine maintained that a nation's power depended on the amount and kind of land it occupied.

Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes believed that humans were fundamentally bad, and therefore the only way to contain them and stop them from hurting themselves was to create an absolute ruler. That ruler didn't get their power from God.

Carnival

festival of the popular culture that was celebrated in the weeks leading up to the beginning of Lent. It was forty days and was a time of great indulgence. People could eat as much as they wanted and it was a time for increased sexual activity. Also it was a time to release pent up aggression. It was the one break that the lower class got from working all year.

Bismarck's welfare legislation

in 1878 he got parliament to pass a stringent anti socialist law that outlawed social democratic party and limited social meetings and publications, although socials candidates were permitted to run for reichstag. He also enacted social welfare legislation. a full pension was payable only at age seventy after 40 years of contribution. no benefits were paid to widows or their children.

Bartholomeu Dias:

in 1488, he took advantage of westerly winds in South Atlantic to round the Cape of Good Hope, but in fear of mutiny, he had to come back to Portugal.

Hong Kong

in 1842 the british has obtained through war the island of hong kong and trading rights in a number of chinese cities. Other western nations soon rushed in to gain similar trading privileges.

Maria Montessori

in 1896 she became the first Italian woman to receive medical degree she established a system of childhood education based on natural and spontaneous activities in which students learned at their own pace.

Frederick II the Great

son of Frederick William, he was well educated and was interested more in the Enlightenment than he was in ruling the country. He monitored the bureaucracy even closer than his father and it became extremely efficient. He was 'enlightened' and established a single code of laws for his territories that eliminated the use of torture (except in treason and murder), gave limited freedom of speech/press, and complete religious toleration. He knew that Enlightened thinkers were against slavery, but he needed the support of the nobles, so he allowed serfdom to continue. He actually made Prussia even more aristocratic than it was before by reversing the policy that allowed commoners to rise to power in the civil service. He kept enlarging the army and saw weakness when Maria Theresa took over Austria and he took Silesia. This later involved them in the Seven Years' war. He also gained land during the partitions of Poland, connecting Prussia and making it a great power of Europe.

On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

1628 Book in which Harvey demonstrated that the heart was the beginning point of circulation of the same blood in the body which makes a complete circuit through/out the body.

Kristallnacht

"Night of Broken Glass" -the night of November 9, 1938, on which Nazi troopers attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues throughout Germany

Mein Kampf

'My Struggle' by hitler, later became the basic book of nazi goals and ideology, reflected obsession

Totalitarian state

A government comtrolled by a single party that aims to control the political, economic, social, intellectual, and cultural lives of its citizens

Lorenzo the Magnificent

A leading patron of art and scholarship; powerful member of the Medici family.

Stakhanov cult

An important example of Soviet propaganda used to exemplify the ultimate Soviet citizen, stress meeting one's quota for the government.

Socialist realism

Artistic style whose goal was to promote socialism by showing Soviet life in a positive light

the Symbolists

At the turn of the century, a new group of writers, known as the Symbolists, reacted against Realism.

Anti-Comintern Pact 1936

Concluded between Germany and Japan in 1936, in which they agreed to maintain a common front against communism.

Collectivization

Creation of large, state-run farms rather than individual holdings; allowed more efficient control over peasants; part of Stalin's economic and political planning; often adopted in other Communist regimes.

the Papal States

During the Middle Ages, when the papacy was away from Rome, many cities gained independence from the control of the Popes. The Popes then spent most of the Renaissance trying to regain control

2nd Blitzkrieg

Followed Hitler's "phony war"; fought using panzer divisions; fought by Germany against Denmark and Norway

1st Blitzkrieg

Fought against Poland by Germany using panzer divisions

Marie Jean de Condorcet

French Philosophe that made the exaggerated/optimistic claim of progress that states that humans are stepping into the tenth and greatest stage of perfection(enlightenment and scientific rev.)

Blaise Pascal

French scientist who wanted to keep science and religion united;mathematician and philosopher

Aryans

Germanic people seen as the superior race by Adolph Hitler. Blonde hair, blue eyes.

plutocrats

In the 19th century, aristocrats merged with the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants to form the plutocrats, members of the wealthy elite

Lawrence of Arabia

In the Middle East, the British officer T.E. Lawrence (1888-1935), who came to be known as Lawrence of Arabia, incited Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overloads in 1916.

George Eastman

Invented in the 1830s, photography became popular and widespread after George Eastman produced the first Kodak camera for the mass market in 1888.

The Communist Manifesto

Marx and Engels work together to encourage working class to revolt. French showed that revolution could reorder society and Germany based on history.

non-aggression pact

Negotiated by Hitler with Stalin in 1939

Pensees

Pascal's book that described his feelings about keeping science and religion united, wanted to show Christianity doesn't have to be contrary to reason.

Hindenburg and Ludendorf

Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff came to control of government by 1916 and virtually became the military dictator of Germany.

Poland's Sejm

Poland and Lithuania were joined together by a marriage. Before this, Poland's government had consisted of a bitter struggle between the crown and the landed nobility. When the two joined together, they ended up with a strange government. The monarch was elected by an assembly, Sejm, and any candidate had to agree to share power with the Sejm in matters of taxation, foreign and military policy, and the appointment of state officials and judges. They worked to make sure that the central government didn't interfere with the local government. Liberum veto signified the end of any sort of organization they had and Poland became a confederation of semi-independent estates of landed nobles and a battleground for foreign powers.

trasformismo

Political system in late 19th-century Italy that promoted alliance of conservatives and liberals; parliamentary deputies of all parties supported the status quo.

Protestant education

Protestants needed at least a semi-literate body to preach to, so they made schools so that all children would have the opportunity to learn. They combined humanist methods and religious teachings. The Geneva Academy was created and it had a public and private school and taught so they could spread Calvinism

the Big Three

Russia, U. S., & Britain (Stalin, Roosevelt, & Churchill)

Cuba and the Philippines

Spain's defeat in the Spanish American war in 1898 and the loss of cuba and philippines to the united states increased the discontent with the status quo.When political and social reforms were called for, liberals and conservatives sought to expand the electorate to win support for their policies. Violence erupted in Barcelona and was brutally suppressed. Reform was not to be easily accomplished because of the tie to the conservative order

William II

The emperor of Germany from 1888-1918, who cashiered out Bismarck, eager to pursue his own policies.

Hyperinflation in Germany 1923

To help pay the reparation payments Germany owed to the winning countries of WWI, the printed a lot of money and the German mark became worthless.

peace for our time

When Chamberlain returned to England from Munich, he boasted that the Munich agreement meant "__________."

phony war

Winter of waiting by Hitler following the 1st Bitzkrieg; ended by the 2nd Blitzkrieg

Tito

Yugoslavian who led a band of guerrillas against German occupation forces; had a partisan army of 250,000 by 1944, including 100,000 women

Leon Trotsky

a fervid revolutionary as chairman of the petrograd soviet, the bolsheviks were in a position to seize power in the name of the soviets. The provisional government quickly fell with little bloodshed.

Boxer Rebellion

a major outburst of violence against foreigners occurred in the boxer rebellion in 1900-1901. boxers was the popular name given to chinese who belonged to the first secret organization known as the society of harmonious fists whose aim was to push the foreigners out of China. boxers murdered foreign missionaries, chinese who had converted to christianity, railroad workers foreign businessmen and even the german envoy to beijing. this forced an allied army of British, French, german Russian american and japanese troops to attack beijing and demand more concessions from the chinese governments.

alchemy

a medieval science aimed at the transmutation of metals, esp. base metals into gold

Book of Common Prayer

a new prayer book and liturgical guide that contained revised Protestant liturgy

Deism

a religious belief that God had created the world and then left (based on the Newtonian world-machine). The world was set into motion by God, but then left to run according to its own natural laws.

Treaty of Paris

after all the wins by the British, the French were forced to make a treaty. In this Treaty of Paris, the French gave Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi to Britain. Their ally Span gave Florida to Britain and the French, in turn, gave them the Louisiana territory.

Margaret Cavendish

aristocratic woman who wrote scientific works,plays,and biographies; critical of growing belief that humans would be masters of nature through science

outcomes of the war

need an answer

Robert Boyle

one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments;work on properties of gases led to law that volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it

Silesia

piece of land that started the War of Austrian Succession and eventually the Seven Years' War.

the Hohenzollerns

ruling dynasty in Brandenburg-Prussia.

Russia, U. S., & Britain (Stalin, Roosevelt, & Churchill)

the Big Three

32. Mughal Empire

the Mughals were the dynasty that brought unity to India. Babur had famous parents and it was his grandson who brought Mughal rule to most of India. This was the greatest Indian empire since Mauryan dynasty (2,000 years earlier)

Transubstantiation

the belief that the substance of the bread and wine consumed in communion is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus.

cosmology

the branch of astrophysics that studies the origin and evolution and structure of the universe

"war communism"

the communists succeeded in translating their revolutionary faith intro practical instruments of power. This policy was used to ensure regular supplies for the red army. It included the nationalization of banks and most industries, the forcible requisition of grain from peasants and the centralization of state administration under bolshevik control.

"white man's burden"

the concept of white man's burden included the belief that the superiority of their civilization obligated Europeans do impose their practices on supposedly primitive nonwhites.

Nazi Party

the political party founded in Germany in 1919 and brought to power by Hitler in 1933

macrocosm

the universe considered as a whole; the entire complex structure of something

Empricism

the view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses and science flourishes through observation and experimentation

Herculaneum and Pompeii

these two towns were accidentally rediscovered and were also big attractions of the Grand Tour. Pompeii experienced a huge volcano eruption, but a lot of the town was preserved and would've provided interesting information about the Roman way of life.

Great Exhibition of 1851

this was held in the crystal palace and six million people visited the fair in six months. Most of them were Britons but there were also foreign visitors. It was meant to display Britain's wealth to the world and was a symbol of British success. They had finally figured out how to dominate nature and this was symbolized by a tree inside the crystal palace. By the time of the Great Exhibition, Britain was producing one-half of the world's coal and manufactured goods; its cotton industry was equal in size to the industries of all other European countries combined.

V.I. Lenin

turned into a dedicated enemy of tsarist russia when his older brother was executed for planning to assassinate the tsar. his search for a revolutionary faith led him to marxism and in 1894 he helped organize an illegal group known as the liberation of the working class.. the bolsheviks became a party dedicated to a violent revolution that would destroy the capitalist system, under Lenin.

Nuremberg Laws

1935 laws defining the status of Jews and withdrawing citizenship from persons of non-German blood.

Carl Jung

2 layers of unconscious. Personal unconscious: material that has been forgotten and not in conscious awareness. Collective unconscious: human race shares this. storehouse of latent memories inherited from ancestral past

conscript standing armies

30 yrs war called the first modern war by some because it involved a lot of new military strategies and weaponry. Adolphus created the first standing army of conscript. It had equal numbers of pikemen and musteteers and all the rows fired at once instead of row by row. Then pike charge and chared the enemy with swords. Military greatness=ruler's reputation. Everybody tried to copy him and it forced them to move away from undisciplined mercenary forces. They educated soldiers better and better ships were made. This also caused taxes to soar as the state wanted to have the best army.

Spanish Inquisition

: Ferdinand and Isabella asked the pope to introduce it to Spain. It basically made sure that converts to christianity were devoted to the religion, but it had no authority over practicing jews.

Francisco Sforza

: He turned on his Milanese employeres and conquered Milan in 1447 after the last Visconti ruler died.

Petrarch

: He was basically the father of Italian Renaissance humanism. He rejected his father's desire for his job and lived most of his life as a guest in Italy. He was the first to characterize the Middle Ages with darkness and ignorance of classical antiquity. He had an obession of sorts on the old Latin texts and was the one to make Cicero and Virgil popular idols.

Compass and astrolabe

: these two devices allowed sailors to sail with confidence that they know where they are. Previously they used their knowledge of the position of the Pole Star to ascertain their whereabouts, but this didn't work below the equator. The compass worked everywhere.

Max Planck and quanta

A Berlin physicist, Max Planck, rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream but maintained instead that energy is radiated discontinuously, in irregular packets that he called "quanta." The quantum theory raised fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of the atom. By 1900, the old view of atoms as the basic building blocks of the material world was being seriously questioned, and Newtonian physics was in trouble.

Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis

A Viennese doctor, Sigmund Freud, put forth a series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind. Freud 's thought, like the new physics and the irrationalism of Nietzsche, added to the uncertainties of the age. his major ideas were published in 1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams, which contained the basic foundation of what came to be known as psychoanalysis.

Fabian Socialists

A group of intellectuals who started a movement for laborers and stressed the need for the workers to use their vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation that would benefit the laboring class. they coalesced with the trade union representatives to form the labor party

White Rose

A movement in Germany which involved an attempt by a small group of students and one professor at the University of Munich to distribute pamphlets denouncing the Nazi regime as lawless, criminal, and godless. Its members were caught, arrested, and promptly executed.

Surrealism

A movement in art emphasizing the expression of the imagination as realized in dreams and presented without conscious control.

Dadaism

A movement that was ignited by the atrocities of World War I and gained fame through staged performances designed to demonstrate the meaninglessness of life. Super ugly

Graham Bell

A revolution in communications was fostered when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Politburo

A seven-member committee that became the leading policy-making body of the Communist Party in Russia

Maginot line

A sort of defensive shell built by France between 1930 and 1935, consisting of a series of concrete and steel fortifications armed with heavy artillery

panzer divisions

A strike force of about three hundred tanks and accompanying forces and supplies; encircled the Polish troops during the first Blitzkrieg

the ego, the id, and the superego

According to Freud, a human being's inner life was a battleground of three contending forces: the id, ego, and superego. The id was the center of unconscious drives and was ruled by what Freud termed the pleasure principle. As creatures of desire, human beings directed their energy toward pleasure and away from pain. The id contained all kinds of lustful drives and desired and crude appetites and impulses. The ego was the seat of reason and hence the coordinator of the inner life.

invasion of Poland

Act by Hitler followed by Britain's and France's declarations of war on Germany

On the Fabric of the Human Body

(1543)illustrated Vesalius's examination of individual organs and general structure of the human body

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English politician, writer. Formalized the empirical method. "Novum Organum". Inductive reasoning.

Josephine Baker

African-American actress, singer, opera performer, first black women to star in major motion picture; she moved to France

Joseph Stalin

After Lenin died in 1924, he defeated Trotsky to gain power in the U.S.S.R. He created consecutive five year plans to expand heavy industry. He tried to crush all opposition and ruled as the absolute dictator of the U.S.S.R. until his death.

Rome-Berlin Axis 1936

Agreement between Mussolini and Hitler that recognized their common political and economic interests

Monroe Doctrine

Britain wanted Latin America to be free so that they could trade with them, so they proposed joint action with the United States against European interference. James Monroe was unsure of British motives, so he, alone, issue the Monroe Doctrine to ensure the freedom of the Latin American states. The British navy was the real deciding factor, though, in keeping Latin America free. Soon the European powers gave up and Great Britain now dominated Latin American economy. Their main purpose remained exporting raw materials.

Post-Impressionism

By the 1880s, a new movement known as Post Impressionism had emerged in France and soon spread to other European countries. Post Impressionism retained the Impressionist emphasis on light and color but revolutionized it even further by paying more attention to structure and form. Post Impressionists sought to use both color and line to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality rather than an imitation of objects.

Yalta Conference February 1945

By the time of the conference at Yalta in the Ukraine in February 1945, the defeat of germany was a foregone conclusion. The Western powers, which had earlier believed that the Soviets were in a weak position, were now faced with the reality of eleven million Red Army soldiers taking possession of eastern and much of central Europe.

the Restoration

Charles II came into office after Cromwell died and restored the Stuart dynasty to the throne. Parliament kept most of the power it had won and he had to get their consent for any taxes. He restored the Anglican Church as the official church of England although he was a catholic (somewhat secretly). He passed the Declaration of Indulgences that lifted the laws Parliament had passed against Catholics and Puritans. Parliament was angered by this and bullied him into passing the Test Act.

Irish Home Rule

Charles Parnell leader of the Irish representatives in parliament called for Home rule, which meant self government by having a separate parliament but not complete independence. Soon Irish peasants were responding to British inaction with terrorist acts, forcing the British do react with more force, causing the Irish catholics to demand independence.

Gustavas Vasa:

Christian II (of Denmark) was the leader of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. He was overthrown by Swedish barons led by Gustavas Vasa. After three years, Vasa was the King of an independent Sweden and he worked to establish Lutheran Reformation in his country. By the 1530's the Swedish Lutheran National Church had been created.

iron curtain

Churchill's metaphor describing the tension and hostility between Germany and Europe into two hostile camps

Coney Island and Blackpool

Coney Island was only 8 miles from central New York City; Blackpool in England was a short train ride from nearby industrial towns. With their Ferris wheel and other daring rides that threw young men and women together, amusement park offered a whole new world of entertainment

Samuel Crompton and Edmund Cartwright

Crompton's "mule" combined aspects of the water frame and the spinning jenny, again increasing production. Edmund Cartwright's power loom was invented in 1787 and it allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of yarn. This initial round of inventions was made by weaver and spinners themselves- basically artisan tinkerers. After their success there was lots of pressure for more new machines to be made and for more complicated technology.

Tycho Brahe

Danish nobleman who built elaborate Uraniborg castle with library,observatories, and instruments; compiled detailed record of observations of stars and planets for 20 years;rejected Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system but did not accept Copernicus' suggestion that earth actually moved

Discourse on Method

Descarte's most famous work,, Written by Descartes in 1637. "I think therefore I am." Separation of mind and matter (Cartesian Dualism).

Potsdam Conference July 1945

During the conference, Truman received word that the atomic bomb had been successfully tested; Truman demanded free elections throughout eastern Europe; Stalin refused & sought absolute military security

garden city movement

Ebenezer Howard's movement, which advocated the construction of new towns separated from each other by open country with recreational areas, fresh air, and sense of community that would encourage healthy family life

the Pankhursts and the "suffragettes"

Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903. which enrolled mostly middle and upper class women. The members of Pankhurst's organization realized the value of the media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands. Derisively labeled suffragettes by male politicians.

Declaration of Pillnitz

Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia, fearing a spread of the revolution to other European countries (and using France as an example), issued this document. It invited other European monarchs to help the king get back in power and thus stop the revolution. But all the European monarchs were too suspicious of each other to actually try to enact this.

Ireland's Easter Rebellion

Even worse was the violence that erupted in Ireland when members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Citizens Army occupied government building in Dublin on Easter Sunday in 1916. British forces crushed the Easter Rebellion and then con demned its leader to death.

20. Treaty of Tordesillas:

Everybody was competing for a stake in the new world and in 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas divided up the newly discovered world into separate Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence, and most of South America fell within the Spanish sphere.

Mussolini invades Ethiopia

Fascist Italy's proclamation of a commitment to imperial expansion

Benito Mussolini

Fascist dictator of Italy (1922-1943). He led Italy to conquer Ethiopia (1935), joined Germany in the Axis pact (1936), and allied Italy with Germany in World War II. He was overthrown in 1943 when the Allies invaded Italy.

First and Second Estates

First Estate consisted of the clergy, who were exempt from the taille, but had to pay a different tax every five years. There was a big division between upper and lower class clergy. The Second Estate consisted of the nobles , who were exempt from all taxes and had lots of special privileges. They tried as hard as they could to maintain these privileges and were a pretty exclusive group.

Marshal Pétain

French WWI hero who established an authoritarian regime over the part of France that wasn't occupied by the Germans in 1940

Rene Descartes

French nativist philosopher; proponent of dualism; argued that "threads" within the body control movement, and that some behaviors occur without thought

Social Democratic Party

German Social Democratic party espoused revolutionary Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the Reichstag.

Ernst Rohm

German army officer and Nazi leader. He was a co-founder of the Sturmabteilung ("assault battalion"; SA) and later was SA commander. In 1934, he was executed on Hitler's orders as a potential rival.

Hitler Youth

Germany's young men and women who joined the Nazi political party and pledged their allegiance to Germany and Adolf Hitler. The Hitler Youth organization "brainwashed" the children and convinced them of German superiority.

Treaty of Locarno

Guaranteed Germany's new western borders with France and Belgium.

Klemens von Metternich

He hosted the congress of Vienna and was egotistical. He was the Austrian foreign minister and was the head of the congress of Vienna.

Henry Cort and puddling

Henry Cort developed a system called puddling in which coke was used to burn away impurities in pig iron. This created a better quality of metal and a boost in production. The development of the iron industry was a result of the demand for new machines and it encouraged the development of new forms of transportation.

Anne Boleyn:

Henry VIII's second wife and gave birth to Elizabeth

invasion of the Soviet Union

Hitler became convinced that Britain was remaining in the war only because it expected Soviet support; expected to defeat Soviets quickly, but an early winter and unexpected Soviet resistance brought German advance to a halt; first time in the war that German armies had been stopped

Battle of Stalingrad

Hitler decided that Stalingrad, a major industrial center on the Volga, should be taken after the capture of Crimea; German troops were stopped, then encircled, & finally forced to surrender on Feb 2 1943; The entire German Sixth Army was lost

Battle of Kursk

Hitler gambled in this battle by making use of newly developed heavy tanks; German forces were soundly defeated in the greatest tank battle of WWII; Germans lost eighteen of their best panzer divisions.

Anschluss

Hitler wanted all German-speaking nations in Europe to be a part of Germany. To this end, he had designs on re-uniting Germany with his native homeland, Austria. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, however, Germany and Austria were forbidden to be unified.

Renaissance

It literally means rebirth. The Middle Ages were characterized by no advances in technology and no advances in culture. During the Renaissance, people rediscovered old ideas, especially Greco-Roman ones. There was also a new mindset that men can do whatever they put their heart to.

Ninety-Five Theses

Martin Luther was enrage at the sale of indulgences (he thought anyone who relied on a slip of paper to get into heaven surely wouldn't get in) so he made this. It attacked the purpose of indulgences and the Pope treated him like a joke. If the Pope had a response, it might not have been such a big deal considering Luther wasn't intending to break away from the church when he set out. Copies were quickly printed and Germans quickly adopted his view (they already had resentment for Pope)

Germanic Confederation

Metternich had spies everywhere, looking for any hints of a revolution in Europe. He used the Germanic Confederation, a compilation of a bunch of the German states, to repress revolutionary movements. The initial Germany looked to Prussia for guidance. Frederick William III had abolished serfdom, established municipal self-government through town councils, the expansion of primary and secondary schools, and universal conscription. Prussia was still an absolute monarchy though.

the "weekend"

New work patterns established the "weekend" as a distinct time of recreation and fun, and new forms of mass transportation railroads and streetcars enabled even ordinary workers to make excursions to amusement parks.

Principia

Newton's famous book, Newton's book which established the law of universal gravitation and banished Ptolemy's laws and universe for good.

Bohemia and Moravia

Occupied by Hitler while the Slovaks declared their independence and became a puppet state under Nazi Germany

Aryan Race

Occupied countries considered related to the _______ (e. g. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, & the Netherlands) treated better than those considered inferior (e. g. French & lands in the East)

Sarajevo

On June 28, 1914, heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, was assassinated in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo.

Dunkirk

On May 10, 1940, Germany's maneuver across the Maginot Line split the Allied armies and trapped French troops and the entire British army on the beaches of ________.

Motion pictures

One of the first mass entertainment industries that provided a medium through which people of the 20s could enjoy some leisure.

Brandenburg-Prussia

Peace of Westphalia had left Germany in a ton of little individual states. Hohenzollerns ruled the disconnected lands and it was the only thing that connected them. They had three territories, one in west, central, and east Germany. Frederick William the Great Elector led them

Great Northern War

Peter needed a warm water port so he joined forces with Poland and Denmark. They attacked Sweden, thinking that Charles XII would be easily defeated, but they were wrong. This started the Great Northern War. Peter reorganized and beat the Swedes. The war continued for twelve years until the Peace of Nystadt gave formal recognition that Russia had Estonia, Livonia, and Karelia.

Five Year Plans

Plans that Joseph Stalin introduced to industrialize the Soviet Union rapidly, beginning in 1928. They set goals for the output of steel, electricity, machinery, and most other products and were enforced by the police powers of the state.

Neville Chamberlain

Prime minister of Britain who was a strong advocate of appeasement and believed that the survival of the British Empire depended on an accommodation with Germany.

Romanticism

Romanticism rejected the previous art style of classicism and focused on the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowledge. It also incorporated individualism, an interest in the unique traits of each person. Wolfgang von Goethe wrote a story that became a model for others where a boy loved a girl who didn't love him so he committed suicide. Many followed where the love interest died young. Romanticism focused on the heroic and unusual circumstances. There was also a revival of gothic ideas in architecture and in novels.

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji

Russia continued to gain land in the west in Poland, in the south toward the Black Sea (by defeating the Ottoman turks), and this treaty gave them land and the privilege of protecting Greek Orthodox Christian in the Ottoman Empire.

Isabella d'Este

She was the daughter of the duke of Ferrar and married Francesco Gonzaga. Isabella was known for her intelligence and political wisdom. She attracted artists and intellectuals to the Mantuan court and amassed one of the finest libraries in Italy. Her letters reveal political acumen and a good sense of humor. Both while her husband was alive and dead, she ruled Mantua effectively and gained a reputation of a clever negotiator.

Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner

Spinoza's book in which he introduced the philosophy of pantheism

Aristotle

Student of Plato, tutor of Alexander the Great; had idea of circular planetary movement

The Little Entente

The French alliance between the smaller countries of Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. Created in 1921, this entente was an attempt by France to counterbalance German power.

Junkers

The Junkers still had a ton of control and held a complete monopoly over the Prussian army which Frederick was continually enlarging. Because the nobles were involved in the military, it instilled a sense of service and loyalty to the king.

Final Solution

The Nazi's term for their plan to annihilate the Jewish people

the Nineteenth Amendment

The Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. constitution gave women in the United States the right to vote in 1920.

Constantinople and 1453

The Ottoman Turks advanced from the West to East in 1300s, initially skipping over Constantinople. They returned in 1453 to take down the city, and with it the Byzantine Empire. The Turks used cannons that brought the walls down.

internal combustion engine

The first internal combustion engine, fired by gas and air, was produced in 1878. It proved unsuitable for widespread use as a source of power in transportation until the development of liquid fluid -petroleum and its distilled derivatives. an oil fired engine was made in 1897, and by 1902, the Hamburg Amerika Line had switched from coal to oil on its new ocean liners.

Labor Front

The government required workers and employers to participate in this organization intended to demonstrate that class conflict had ended

Marxist "revisionism"

The guiding light of the German Social Democrats, August Bebel, confided to another socialist that everynight i go to sleep with the thought that the last hour of bourgeois society strikes soon. This orthodox Marxist position arose in form of evolutionary socialism, or revisionism

civic humanism

The intellectual life was to be one of solitude and family was not a top priority. Cicero was their model and he provided the central idea that it was the duty of an intellectual to live an active life for one's state. Civic humanism reflected the values of the urban society. There was a big emphasis on the works of the Greeks

. the Reichstadt

The lower house of the german parliament, that elected based on universal male suffrage but did not have ministerial responsibility. It presented the opportunities for the growth of real political democracy, though it failed to develop before WWI

"Night of the Long Knives"

The night that Hitler ordered Gestapo to assassin or capture the SA leaders in order to gain more power

Empyrean Heaven

The place beyond the tenth sphere of the universe in the geocentric theory in which God and all saved souls lived

"total war"

The prolongation of World War I made it a total war that affected the lives of all citizens.

Hanseatic League

This was a band of more then 81 cities who established settlements and commercial bases in many chief cities in England/Northern Europe. In the 15th century, silting at the port of Bruges caused them to faulter and Italy regained the preeminent role in trade.

Machiavelli's The Prince:

This was a blunt and truthful analysis of the political figures in Europe. He told people, flat out, that a ruler will not be just and fair when they first come into power, and they shouldn't be expected to be. The Prince should act on behalf of the state and do whatever it takes to improve his country.

the triple alliance

Triple Alliance of 1882 committed germany, austria and italy do support the existing political order while providing a defensive alliance against France.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Was signed on August 27, 1928 by the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Japan, and a number of other states. The pact renounced aggressive war, prohibiting the use of war as "an instrument of national policy" except in matters of self-defence.

Consuelo Vanderbilt

Wealthy american heiresses were in special demand. when consuelo vanderbilt, married the duke of marlborough, the new duchess brought $10 million to her husband

the Blitz

What British called the German air raids; German Luftwaffe subjected London and man other British cities and towns to nightly air raids

siege of Leningrad

When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, one German army swept through the Ukraine while a second engaged in the _____________; a third approach within 25 miles of Moscow, the Soviet capital. But they were all stopped by an early winter.

Hiroshima & Nagasaki

When President Truman and his advisers became convinced that American troops might suffer heavy casualties in the invasion of the Japanese homeland, they made the decision to drop the newly developed atomic bomb on __________________, and the Japanese surrendered unconditionally.

Chiang Kai-shek

When clashes between Chinese and Japanese troops broke out, the Chinese nationalist leader, __________, sought to appease Tokyo by granting Japan the authority to administer areas in North China. But as Japan moved steadily southward, popular protests in Chinese cities against Japanese aggression intensified. Hostilities spread. Even after the Rape of Nanking, _______ refused to capitulate, and moved his government upriver to Hankou.

Russia's 2nd Industrial Revolution

Widespread military, industrial, and economic mobilization in the Soviet Union during WWII; Stalin labeled the war a "battle of machines," and the Soviets produced 78,000 tanks and 98,000 artillery pieces

Heinrich Himmler

______ and the SS organization was given responsibility for what the Nazis called their "Final Solution" to the Jewish problem.

Alfred Dreyfus

a Jewish captain in the French army was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with the anti-semites against Dreyfus; because of this, the French government severed all ties between the state and church

Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems

a book written by Galileo that was banned by the Church because of his belief of the solar system and how his teaching this was against the church.

Directory

a bunch of councils elected others and eventually the highest council elected five directors, to avoid another single legislative assembly. This government was terrible, corrupt, and relied strongly on the army. While the directory was in charge, it was a time of indulgence, of sorts. A big problem the Directory faced was with the radicals on both sides of the spectrum. Some still wanted to restore the monarchy, while still wanted Enlightened things.

microcosm

a miniature world or universe; a group or system viewed as the model of a larger group or system

Alexander Kerensky

a moderate socialist who had become prime minister in the provisional government. Kerensky released bolsheviks from prison and turned do the petrograd soviet for help. Kerensky's action had strengthened the hands of the petrograd soviet and had shown lenin how weak the provisional government was.

Petrograd

at the beginning of march, a series of strikes broke out in the capital city of petrograd. here the actions of the working class women helped change the course of the Russian history.

domestic servants

at the bottom of the working class hierarchy stood the largest group of workers, the unskilled laborers. The domestic servants were a part of this group. One out of every seven employed persons in Great britain was a domestic servant, most were women.

Predestination

because of the belief of absolute sovereignty of God, Calvinists believed that God already knew who was going to heaven and who wasn't.

Russian serfdom

because there was so much land owned by Russia, but not very many people, serfdom was very popular. It eventually cause revolt by the peasants

November 11, 1918

by ending the war on november 11 1918, the moderate socialists had removed a major source of dissatisfaction

Portolani:

charts made by medieval navigators and mathematicians in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They had details on coastal contours, distances between ports, and compass readings. But they didn't take into account the curve of the earth so they weren't very useful for long voyages.

Inquisition

condemned Copernicanism and ordered Galileo to reject Copernican thesis

Newspapers and libraries

daily newspapers were first printed in London in 1702, but soon there were newspapers all over England. They were filled with news and special features and were cheap and available in coffeehouses. The other way that information became readily available was through libraries. Libraries allowed people to access books, newspapers, and magazines, making information available to everyone.

Peace of Utrecht

ended the war of Spanish Succession and confirmed Philip V as Spanish ruler, but Spain and France were to remain separated. Netherlands, Milan, and Naples were given to Austria, Brandenburg-Prussia gained some land, and England goe Gibraltar and French possessions in America.

David Ricardo's "iron law of wages"

furthering Malthus' ideas, Ricardo published Principles of Political Economy where he established the "iron law of wages." He argued that an increase in population means more workers, causing wages to fall below the sustenance level. The result is misery and starvation which causes starvation and a reduction in population. When the numbers of workers declines, the wages rise above subsistence level and the cycle repeats. Trying to raise wages arbitrarily would be pointless because it would only perpetuate the cycle.

50. Gerardus Mercator

he made a map/projection thingie called a conformal projection. It tries to show the true shape of landmasses and the shapes of lands near the equator were accurate, but the farther away, the more exaggerated their size becomes. This was very valuable to ship captains.

Thomas Gainsborough

he was a famous landscape painter, who depicted the relaxed life of two aristocrat in the park of their country estate in his Conversation in the Park

42. Samuel de Champlain

he, following Jacques Cartier, established a settlement in Quebec. This was when the French started to take colonization seriously. They tried to get the French people to go to Canada, but they wouldn't and so they ended up losing their territory. They focused on issues in mainland France.

Maria Sibylla Merian

involved in Scientific Revolution as entomologist; wrote "Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam", which showed drawings of the life cycles of insects on Surinam

the "April Theses"

issued on April 20, lenin presented a blueprint for the revolutionary action based on his own version of marxist theory. According lenin, it was not necessary for russia to experience bourgeois revolution before it could move toward socialism. The soviet of soldiers workers and peasants were ready made instruments of power.

Kulturkampf

it was a struggle for civilization who distrusted catholic loyalty to the new germany.

May Day

it was made an international labor day to be marked by strikes and mass labor demonstrations difference often wreaked havoc at the organization's congresses.

Michael Bakunin and anarchism

lack of revolutionary fervor drove some people from Marxist socialism into anarchism, a movement that was especially prominent in less industrialized and less democratic countries. The Russian Michael Bakunin believed that small groups of well trained, fanatical revolutionaries could perpetrate so much violence that the state and all its institutions would disintegrate.

natural philosophers

medieval scientists who preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world

48. Mestizos and mulattoes

mestizos= European + native American Indians. Mulattoes= European + Africans. This created the multiracial society in Latin America with less regard to race

Franz Joseph Haydn

orchestra didn't come about until the second half of the eighteenth century when new instruments like the piano appeared. Because of Haydn and Mozart, the musical center of Europe shifted from Italy and Germany to the Austrian Empire. Haydn spent most of his adult life as a musical director for the wealthy Hungarian princes, the Esterhazy brothers. He was extremely prolific and his visits to England introduced him to public concerts. This caused him to write a couple of pieces directed to the common people.

Council of Trent

originally they were going to compromise with the Protestants, but then a different 'ambassador' was sent to the council and they held strong to Catholic beliefs. Catholics won and the Roman inquisition was rejuvenated and the Index of Forbidden Books was created.

The Peasants War, 1524

peasants in South Germany didn't get the benefits from the revived economy because their rulers were still abusing their power. Angered, they turned to Luther for support, but he denied them because he needed the support of German Princes for his cause. Just because everyone is equal before God doesn't mean they're equal on earth. He didn't care what happened to the peasants.

working conditions

people who worked in the factories were forced to work for 12-16 hours a day with no minimum job or security of employment. They had to work in intense heat or cold. The coal workers had equally terrible hours, but they also had to deal with the cave-ins, explosions, and gas fumes (bad air). These conditions caused many people to develop lung problems.

John Stuart Mill/ On the Subjection of Women

political liberalism guy also supported women's rights. He advocated the liberty of individual opinion without governmental tyranny. In On the Subjection of Women Mill emphasized women's rights with this piece. He said that differences between men and women were due to social practices and lack of education.

Henri Bergson's "life force

popular revolutionary against reason in the 18890s was Henri Bergson, a french philosopher whose lectures at the UNiversity of Paris made him one of the most important influence in French thought in the early twentieth century.Bergson accepted rational, scientific thought as a practical instrument for providing useful knowledge but maintained that it was incapable of arriving at truth or ultimate reality.To him, reality was the "life force" that suffused all things; it could not be divided into analyzable parts. Reality was a whole that could only be grasped intuitively and experienced directly.

29. "sugar factories

producing sugar cane required both skill and large quantities of labor. The new planations on the east coast of South America required more workers than they could get from the native land. African slaves were shipped to Brazil and the Caribbean to work

Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat

proletariat is the working class and they will revolt against bourgeoisie. Dictatorship for a little while and then a classless society results in which people are finally able to prosper and thus progress even more in science, technology, and industry and to greater wealth for all.

Scientific Method

proper means to examine and understand the physical realm; crucial to the evolution of science

Utopian Socialism

socialism said that everyone should live in a cooperative society. They were against private property and the competitive spirit of industrial capitalism. By eliminating these things and making a new system of organization, equal humanity could be achieved

Charles Fourier's phalansteries

socialist societies that were self-sustaining and cooperative. 1620 people, exactly. He was an early socialist who sought to show the advantages of cooperative living with these phalansteries. People in these cooperative towns would work together for their own benefit.

French Royal Academy of Sciences

society funded by Louis XIV, which was thought to benefit the king and state and emphasized practical science for new tools and machines

English Royal Society

society funded by merchants and scientists and emphasized theoretical science, which allowed them with more options

The "putting-out" or "domestic system"

textiles were still being produced in the traditional method where in cities, master artisans made finished goods in their guilds. The "putting out" or "domestic system" consisted of a merchant-capitalist entrepreneur buying raw materials and giving it to rural workers, who spun the raw material into yarn and then wove it into cloth. The entrepreneur then sold it and made a profit so he could then make more. This became known as the cottage industry, because the family would make the cloth in their own cottages. This enabled rural people to earn incomes that supplemented their pitiful wages as agricultural laborers.

Serfs

the Charter of Nobility gave nobles tons of special rights and they continued to treat peasants extremely poorly. This eventually led to revolt under Pugachev

Navigation Acts

the English colonized all of the Western seaboard of North America. To support the mercantilism theory, the Navigation Acts were made and they regulated what could be taken from and sold to the colonies. This was supposed to provide a balance of trade favorable to the mother country.

Luftwaffe

the German air force

Napoleon's Continental System

the continental system implemented by Napoleon attempted to ban trade with the British for any country under his control. This did little to stop the growth of the British empire though, because they established an international trade that wasn't just in Europe. It led to the end of Napoleon's reign.

July 14, 1789

the date of the storming of the Bastille. This was an uprising of the common people that saved the Third Estate from the king's attempt to stop the revolution. From this point on, commoners were used by both supporters and opponents of the revolution, but they also had their own reasons for rebelling. Most of the time they were fighting against the rich people because they claimed that the nobles were trying to stop the Estates General and keep all their ridiculous privileges.

The factory

the factory was originally for the cotton industry, but it soon came to house all kinds of machines. The factory created jobs that were completely different than the agricultural jobs people were used to holding. Workers were forced to keep regular hours and in shifts to keep the machines running smoothly all the time. This was a problem for employers who had to find a way to discipline their workers in this new fashion. People who were even just a few minutes to work were threatened with dismissal and their wages were cut for the day. Drunkenness was one of the worst offenses because it inhibited workers' abilities and set a bad example. Children were beaten to get the point across.

Spanish-American War

the loss of the war increased discontent between the two political groups, liberals and conservatives, whose members stemmed from the same social group of great land owning allied with a few wealthy industrialists

Luddites

the luddites were skilled craftspeople in the Midlands and northern England who in 1812 attacked the machines that they believed threatened their livelihoods. Some people thought they were crazy while others viewed it as an intense eruption of feeling against unwanted industrialization. But when troops were sent to find the culprits, they couldn't find anyone, showing how much local support they had.

Menno Simons

the man most responsible for rejuvenating Dutch Anabaptism. He spread peaceful, evangelical Anabaptism.

Yugoslavia

the separate peace treaties made with other central powers extensively redrew the map of eastern Europe. Serbia formed the nucleus of the new state yugoslavia.

Jesuits

the society of Jesus, pledged absolute obedience to the papacy. It had the structure of a military command and they were the most important group in regaining followers for Catholicism (Francis Xavier). They made great schools and were some of the best educators in Europe

the taille

the taille was France's biggest and most oppressive tax. The First and Second Estates were both exempt from this tax.

Inertia

the tendency of a body to maintain is state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force

Lope de Vega

theatre then became a big part of Spanish culture. Lope de Vega was a prolific writer whose works were characterized as witty, charming, action packed , and realistic. He wrote his plays for the purpose of pleasing his audiences and for making money.

Chateaubriand's Genius of Christianity

there was a revival of Christianity during the Romantic movement and Chateaubriand's book defended Catholicism based on Romantic sentiment. Catholicism was harmony of all things and cathedrals brought you into the presence of God.

The Crystal Palace

this housed the Great Exhibition of 1851 and was made entirely of glass and iron (a tribute to British engineering skills). It covered 19 acres and contained 100,000 exhibits that showed a wide variety of products created by the Industrial Revolution. It inspired multiple other buildings to be built in other countries that closely resembled it.

V.A. Huber and Octavia Hill

to huber, good housing was a prerequisite for a stable family life and hence a stable society; granddaughter of a celebrated social reformer Octavia Hill's housing venture was designed to give the poor an environment they could use to improve themselves

Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg and the Free Corp

took radicals from the Socialist Party and formed the German Communist Party; started rebellion which was quelled by Friedrich Ebert and the Free Corps who were anti revolutionary volunteers.

Gavrillo Princip

was a Serbian member of the Black Hand whose assassination of Francis Ferdinand provided the spark for World War I.

Black Hand

was a terrorist organization that was dedicated to the unification of all south Slavs, or Yugoslavs, to form a greater Serbia. The assassin of Archduke Ferdinand, Gavrilo Princip, was a member.

divine right

A monarchy based on the belief that monarch receive their power directly from God and are responsible to no one except God....defended by French theologian Bossuet.

Dawes Plan

A plan to revive the German economy, the United States loans Germany money which then can pay reparations to England and France, who can then pay back their loans from the U.S. This circular flow of money was a success.

Einsatzgruppen

After the defeat of Poland, Heydrich ordered the special strike forces, called the _________, to round up all Polish Jews and concentrate them in ghettos established in a number of Polish cities. In June 1941, the _______ were given new responsibilities as mobile killing units.

Communist resistance movements

After the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Communists throughout Europe assumed leadership roles in underground resistance movements. This sometimes led to conflict with other local resistance groups who feared the postwar consequences of Communist power. Most were crushed by the Gestapo.

Vichy France

Authoritarian regime established by Marshal Pétain in France 1940

William Harvey

Englishman who announced blood circulates throughout the body.

Heinrich Himmler

Entrusted by Hitler with administration of the "Final Solution" to the Jewish Question. Head of SS (Gestapo) which oversaw the Death Camps. Responsible for the death of 6 million Jews.

Enabling Act

Gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for 4 years so he could "help" Germany

Wilbur and Orville Wright

In 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first flight in a fixed wing plane powered by a gasoline engine.

Fuhrerprinzip

Nazi leadership principle; entitled a single-minded party under one leader.

John Wesley and Methodism

Wesley created Methodism because he underwent a mystical experience. He thought that all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace (and good deeds). He preached in open fields, welcoming the lower classes , where people sometimes had violent conversion experiences. Pietism and Methodism proved that people still needed or wanted spiritual experiences.

Battle of Lepanto (1571):

a great victory because of the defeat of the Muslim attack on the island of Cyprus. It pushed back Turkish encroachments.

Wilhelm Liebknect and August Bebel

Wilhelm Liebknecht (1826-1900) and August Bebel (1840-1913), who were Marxists opposing reformist politics, soon joined the party. Thus, from its founding, the SDP was divided between those who advocated reform and those who advocated revolution.

Bill of Rights

William and Mary had to accept this document that affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulation that standing armies could be raised only with the consent of Parliament. Elections and debates of Parliament had to be free. The rights of citizens to petition the sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail.

Oliver Cromwell

Won both of the civil wars and was then head of the commonwealth. There was no king at all, but Cromwell was commander and chief. He handled the uprising in Ireland with brute force that earned him the eternal enmity of the Irish people and an uprising in Scotland. He faced problems with the Levellers and he eventually dismissed the Rump Parliament. Then the army made a new government and the Instrument of Government in which the Lord Protector had executive power and legislative power in a reconstituted Parliament. It didn't work so Cromwell dissolved Parliament and divided the country into eleven regions, each ruled by a major general who served virtually as a military governor. This required a huge tax and this government failed too. He died and Stuarts took back over.

"balance of power"

a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another. All of the states of Europe in the eighteenth century strove to maintain a balance of power because they were all scared of one big super power. This helped lead to the new alliances of European countries in the Seven Years' War.

Seven Years' War

everyone switched sides during this. The British and French became great rivals as well as the Austrians and Prussians. France, Austria, and Russia teamed up against Prussia and England. In Europe, Prussia started off well, but was soon cornered. They were saved by Peter III who was a great admirer of Frederick and he pulled out Russian troops. This caused a stalemate and a desire for peace. The treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 again returned lands and permanently gave Silesia to Prussia.

Georges Danton

he was the leader of the sans-culottes and killed supporters of the king and people who resisted the popular will. They also killed inmates at the jails, which actually helped the overcrowding problem. Then the National Convention took over.

Charles Dickens

he wrote realistic novels focusing on the lower and middle classes in Britain's early industrial age became very successful. He bluntly described the urban poor and the brutalization of human life.

The Stalinist Era

(1929-1939) an economic, political, and social revolution that industrialized with the use of Stalin's five year plans and resulted in the deaths of millions

the Constitution of 1789

America started with a terrible government under the Articles of Confederation, which did little to establish a strong central government. The constitution created the government with three branches of government, checks and balances, and the president. It included the structure of the government and was only ratified when they promised to make the Bill of Rights, for more freedom.

Samuel Slater

America was still a very agrarian country and their population was growing quickly because of new immigrants. America also experienced an industrial revolution. They also borrowed machines from Great Britain, specifically from Samuel Slater. He established the first textile factory using water powered spinning machines in Rhode Island in 17790. By 1813, factories with power looms copied from British versions were being established. Soon after Americans began to equal or surpass British technical invention's.

27. Boers and Capetown

Boers was another name for Dutch farmers and they settled in Capetown. This area had a moderate climate and freedom form tropical diseases. They were from the Dutch East India Company, a trading company established in 1602

War of Austrian Succession

Charles VI was really worried because he didn't have a male heir, so he made the surrounding countries sign the Pragmatic Sanction, saying that they would recognize his daughter as ruler of Austria once he died. But Frederick II soon came into power and since he, himself, hadn't signed the Pragmatic Sanction, he decided to invade Silesia. France then entered the war because they hate Austria, which made Austria align with Great Britain because they didn't want France to have too much power. Soon it was a worldwide war and was ended in 1748 when everyone was tired of fighting. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle returned all the gained lands except Silesia.

Joseph Goebbels

Chief minister of the Nazi propaganda, and organizer of Kristallnacht "Night of broken Glass"

Saint Petersburg

City that Peter created in his own name. It cost many lives, but it was completed during Peter's lifetime and it remained the Russian capital until1917. It was a symbol that Russia was looking westward to Europe. Russia had become a great military power and an important member of the European State system. The western culture only reached the upper class.

David Hume

David Hume was the main contributor to the "new science of man". He studied and examined the experiences that constituted human life to deduce natural laws that applied to humans. He believed that it was really possible to find the natural laws that governed humans. This was the foundation of modern social sciences.

Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan

Electricity spawned a whole series of inventions. The invention of the lightbulb by the American Thomas Edison and the Briton Joseph Swan opened homes and cities to illumination by electric lights.

Isaac Newton

English mathematician and scientist who invented differential calculus and formulated the theory of universal gravitation, a theory about the nature of light, and three laws of motion. His treatise on gravitation, presented in Principia Mathematica (1687), was supposedly inspired by the sight of a falling apple.

Battle of Britain

German air force launched a major offensive against Britain; Germany lost because Hitler decided to shift form military targets to massive bombing of cities; British inflicted major losses on German bombers; Germany lost

Axis Powers

Germany, Italy, Japan

Lebensraum

Hitler's expansionist theory based on a drive to acquire "living space" for the German people

Louis XI the Spider and Henry VII

King Louis XI gained the name of the spider as a result of his wily and devious ways. He maintained the taille tax, which had been granted during war, and used it to supply himself with a constant income that didn't require the Estates General's approval. Henry VII was the first Tudor king (after the war of roses) and he effectively stopped aristocratic battles (he wouldn't let them keep armies of mercinaries). He used different routes to get money, so the middle class wasn't taxed very much, thus he gained support and left England with a stable and prosperous government.

Joseph de Maistre and conservatism

Maistre was the most influential spokesman for a counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism. He was a strong advocate of the restoration of the hereditary monarch as only absolute monarchy could guarantee "order in society" and avoid chaos. Most conservatives favored obedience to political authority, believed organized religion was vital, hated revolutionary upheavals, and didn't want a representative government. Community took precedence over the rights of the individual. Society needed to be ordered and history showed that absolute monarchies worked. It was supported by monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches.

World revolution

Marx believed that communism would come about only through a world wide revolution to end class conflict

Montesquieu

Montesquieu attacked religion, advocated for religious toleration, was against slaves, and used reason to liberate humans from prejudices in his first book. In his second book he showed three kinds of basic government- republics (for small countries), monarchies (medium countries), and despotism (large countries). He liked the monarchy the best because it had a system of balances and checks that separated the power. He misinterpreted the English system of government, but still had great ideas. If one person had unchecked power, they were bound to abuse it, so the only way for the government to work right was for it to have separation of power and a system of checks and balances.

March on Rome 1922

Mussolini and army of fascists Black Shirts marched on Rome and demanded the resignation of the existing government. The king was compelled to place Mussolini as the dictator for a year, meaning he had achieved his high status and position "legally".

Black-shirts

Mussolini's private army for scaring opposition and intimidating them.

Georges Clemenceau

Not until the end of 1917 did the French war government find a strong leader in George Clemenceau. Declaring that "war is too important to be left to generals," he established clear civilian control of a total war government

Lord Tennyson's The Princess

Poem written to describe the women's position as much more than just working at them home and being inferior to men.Wanted to be equal to men

Maximilien Robespierre

Robespierre was another important member of the Committee of Public Safety. He basically ran the whole Reign of Terror. When the Law of 14 Frimaire was passed to check the excesses of the Reign of Terror, he was tried and executed. The Law of 14 was created to bring the radical stage of the revolution into a more calm one. They killed the Paris Commune, but this was a bad idea because they were the main supporters of the National Convention. Robespierre continued to kill people even after the crises were over and he had become obsessed with purifying the nation.

Dmitri Mendeleyev

Russian guy who classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law.

Leon Trotsky

Russian revolutionary and Communist theorist who helped Lenin build up the army.

Marie-Therese de Geoffrin

She was wealthy bourgeois widow whose father had been a valet who welcomed encyclopedists to her salon and offered financial assistance to complete the work in secret. Basically a salon hostess.

Louis XIV

When Mazarin died, he decided to take over the, much to the surprise to his mom. He created Versailles which became the model for all other governments. He believed that he was the Sun God and that he was an absolute monarch, but he really wasn't. The provinces still had their own regional courts, Estates, and laws. He gained control of them by bribing the individuals responsible for executing the King's policies. He diminished the power of the royal princes by removing them from the royal court and distracting them with life at Verailles. He had a new religious policy with the Edict of Fontainebleau and Jean-Baptiste Colbert was the financial advisor.

45. Joint stock trading companies

a company or association that raises capital by selling shares to individuals who receive dividends on their investment while a board of directors runs the company. The Dutch East India Company was a very successful one of these

absolutism

a form of government in which the sovereign power or ultimate authority rested in the hands of a monarch who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God. Basically this ruler didn't have to pay any attention to what the people wanted because he was doing the work of God and therefore if somebody questioned this absolute ruler, they were questioning God himself.

General Georges Boulanger

a popular military officer who attracted the public's attention of all those discontented with the third republic: monarchists, bonapartists, aristocratic and nationalists who favored a war of revenge against Germany. He appears as the savior of France. by 1889 just when his strength had grown to the point where many expected a coup d'etat he lost his nerve and fled France, a completely discredited man. the crisis served to rally support for the resilient republic.

of Nations' mandates

after the war France took control of lebanon and syria and britain received Iraq and palestine. both acquisitions were called mandates. the system of mandates officially administered a territory on behalf of the league of nations.

Voltaire

aka Francois Marie Arouet. complimented the English life, especially its freedom of the press, its political freedom, and its religious toleration. He exaggerated the freedom that they had, but really he was indirectly criticizing the extremely oppressive French government. He was specifically known for his criticism on traditional religion and advocating religious toleration. He also was a huge supporter of deism.

Alexander III and Nicholas II

alexander: believed that reform was a mistake and instituted exceptional measures. powers of the secret police were increased. advocates for constitutional monarchy and social reform, along with revolutionary groups were persecuted. Districts were placed under martial law and the powers of the zemstvos were curtailed. He pursued russification. His son Nicholas II took over after his death Nicholas II: adopted the the conviction of his father that absolute powers should be preserved. however with industrial growth it was no realistic.

Article 231

also known as the war guilt clause which declared germany and austria responsible for starting the war and ordered germany to pay reparations for all the damage to which allied governments and their people were subjected as a result of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of germany and her allies.

Enlightened absolutism

an absolute monarchy in which the ruler follows the principles of the enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society, allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious toleration, expanding education, and ruling in accordance with the laws. This is best shown in Joseph, ruler of Austria, but Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia are also known as enlightened rulers.

Baroque

an artistic movement of the seventeenth century in Europe that used dramatic effects to arouse the emotions and reflected the search for power that was a large part of the seventeenth century ethos. It brought together the classical ideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the sixteenth century religious revival. Kings and their castles were depicted with grandeur.

Christian humanism

an intellectual movement in northern Europe in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries that combined the interest in the classics of the Italian Renaissance with an interest in the sources of early Christianity, including the New Testament and the writings of the church fathers. They believed that to change a society you had to change the people in it and focused a lot on education.

George Frederick Handel

another Baroque composer who was very secular in his works. He lived most of his adult life in England attempting to run an opera company. He was patronized by English royal court, but he wrote music for large public audiences and wrote huge, unusual-sounding pieces. Although most of his work was secular, Handel is actually best known for his religious music (Messiah).

Chartism

another group of people who wanted reforms. They wanted universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, the elimination of property qualifications for members of Parliament, and annual sessions of Parliament. They initially tried to get their points across peacefully with petitions, but that didn't work. They threatened to use force, but Parliament wouldn't budge.

William Wordsworth

another poet that did a great job representing yet another aspect of Romanticism- the love of nature. Many Romantic poets believed in pantheism or the belief that God is everywhere in the universe.

Paracelsus

appointed city physician and professor of medicine at Basel but could not get along easily with others; rejected work of both Aristotle and Galen; believed human was a small replica (microcosm) of the larger world (macrocosm)

querelles des femmes

arguments about women;women portrayed as prone to vice, easily swayed, and sexually insatiable; men needed to control them; women argued that they also had rational minds and could frown from education

Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner, and Eugene Delacroix

artistic Romanticism. Paintings were a reflection of the artist's inner feelings and a painting should mirror the artist's own vision of the world and be the instrument of his own imagination. It rejected classism and was heavy on warmth, emotion, and movement. Friedrich painted landscapes and believed that nature was a manifestation of divine life. Turner also painted landscapes and he used light and color to convey moods. Delacroix also used interrelated colors to portray his characters.

Central Powers

as Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were called

Britain's Tories and Whigs

basically Britain was run completely by the land-owning aristocrats. They were the classes dominating Parliament and generally paid people off to get elected (pocket boroughs). People weren't entirely happy with them because the new industrial class didn't get representatives nor did the new industrial cities. The Tories and Whigs were the two political factions of Parliament and both were mainly aristocratic, though the Whigs were starting to get support from the industrial middle class. Tories were dominant and they had no intention of changing the current system.

The potato

basically the potato was the main staple for the Irish peasants so when it got infected with a fungus, the peasants didn't have any food so many of them died or chose to move to America. Cause of the Great Hunger

"Prussian militarism"

basically, the Prussian military became so important and huge for such a small country that the army was really the only institution in Prussia. Everything was about exemplifying military virtues.

Priesthood of all believers

because Martin Luther believed that the Scriptures alone should lead a believer, that meant that everyone was their own priest. They didn't have to make a hierarchical priesthood, but everyone was at the same level

Pope Clement VII

because he was beginning to get fearful of how much power Charles possessed, Clement decided to side with the Valois in the Habsburg-Valois wars. This angered Charles and so he attacked and sacked Rome. This made Charles V leader of most of Italy by 1530.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

because the Huguenots had such a large hold on the French nobility, the ultra-Catholics got scared (Guise family was a big part because they had resources and money). The two sanctions were supposedly united by a marriage that many Huguenots (leaders) attended in Paris. Such a big gathering of them was seen as a threat so the Catholics attacked and murdered 3000.

Hand-loom weavers

because the power loom hadn't been perfected yet, it was inefficient. This allowed hand-loom weavers to continue to prosper until the mid-1820s. Hand-loom weavers were part of the old cottage system and would weave yarn by hand at their own homes.

pantheism

belief that God is the universe; all that is is in God, and nothing can be apart from God

Bismarckian System

bismarck knew that the emergence of a unified Germany in 1871 had upset the balance of power established at Vienna in 18185 Fearing the french desire for revenge over their loss of Alsace lorraine in the Franco Prussian war, bismarck made an alliance in first in 1873 and again in 1881 with the traditionally conservative powers Austria Hungary and russia But the three emperors league as it was called failed do work very well primarily because of russian austrian rivalry in the balkans.

four bodily humors

blood: warm & moist; yellow bile: warm and dry; phlegm: cold and moist; black bile: cold and dry

The United Kingdom

came into existence in 1701 when the governments of England and Scotland were united; the term British came to refer to both English and Scots. The development of Britain's nation was characterized by the power of Parliament (after glorious revolution). The members of Parliament were supposed to be elected, but really weren't ("pocket boroughs"). The Hanoverian dynasty took over and created even more new structures in the government.

cartels

cartel were being formed to decrease competition internally. In a cartel, independent enterprises worked together to control prices and fix production quotas, thereby restraining the kind of competition that led to reduced prices. Cartels were strong in Germany, where many banks moved to protect their investment by elimination the "anarchy of competition"

Child labor

children had been an important part of the family economy in preindustrial times, so it was only natural that they would continue to work in the factories, but now people exploited the use of children. They had to collect cotton from underneath cotton machines and were beaten for discipline. They were also cheap labor. Orphans were even used for labor, as pauper apprentices. The owners of the orphanages would put them to work to save on upkeep and these children became deformed because of the terrible conditions. Parliament eventually remedied this problem, but in small steps.

soviets

council of workers and soldiers deputies. The soviet of petrograd had been formed in march 1917, around the same time soviets sprang up spontaneously in army units and towns.. THey represented the more radical interests of the lower classes and were largely composed of socialists of various kinds

Beggars and prostitutes

despite the end of bubonic plague and introduction of new foods/better diets, death rates were still high in the cities because of unsanitary living conditions, polluted water, and lack of sewerage facilities. Overcrowding occurred because rural people thought there were more jobs in the city but there really weren't. This resulted in a lot of poverty and people resorting to being beggars and prostitutes. These people weren't given as much charity as in previous centuries because the church had lost credibility and they used to be the main givers. The government made many attempts to fix the problem, but there just weren't enough jobs with the machines working now.

49. The Columbian exchange

exchange of plants and animals to and from Europe and the Americas.

Universal law of gravitation

explains why the planetary bodies do not go off in strait lines but instead continue elliptical orbits about the Sun; states that object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity

Marie Antoinette

foreign wife (Austria) of Louis XVI. She spent a lot of money on anything she wanted and devoted a lot of time to the court life.

The salon and the coffeehouse

gatherings of philosophes and other notables to discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment; so called from the elegant drawing rooms (salons) where they met. Women were the hostesses and sometimes then got a say in the decisions of kings, political opinion, and literary and artistic taste. Salons promoted conversation and sociability between upper class men and women as a well as spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment. Coffeehouses were also gathering places for the elite and had newspapers.

Levellers

group that advocated advanced ideas like freedom of speech, religious toleration, and a democratic republic, arguing for the right to vote for all male householders over the age of twenty-one.

Friedrich Nietzsche's "slave morality"

he was one of the intellectuals who glorified the irrational. According to Nietzsche, Western bourgeois society was decadent and incapable of any emphasis on the rational faculty at the expense of emotions, passions, and instincts. The slave morality of Christianity, he believed, had obliterated the human impulse for life and had crushed the human will

Cogito, ergo sum

i think, therefore i am

Edmund Burke and conservatism

in reaction to all the upheaval caused by the French revolution, conservatism appeared. Conservatism was an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change. Edmund Burke wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France in response to the French Revolution, especially the radical republican and democratic ideas. He said that society was a contract, but they had to maintain the relationship between the state and the people for the following generations. Each generation had a duty to the next to preserve the partnership. He wasn't completely against change if it was gradual, but violent overthrow of the government and sudden change were bad.

Cecil Rhodes

in the 1880's, british policy in south africa was largely determined by cecil rhodes. Rhodes found both diamond and gold companies that monopolized production of these precious commodities and enabled him to gain control of territory north of transvaal that he named rhodesia. His imperialist ambitions led to his downfall in 1896 when the british government forced him to resign as a prime minister of the cape colony after he conspired to overthrow the oer government of the south african republic without british approval.

League of Nations

in view of the many conflicting demands at the conference table it was inevitable that the big three would quarrel. Wilson was determined to create a league of nations to prevent future wars. on january 25 1919 the conference adopted the league of nations principle.Woodrow wilson compromised on territorial arrangements to guarantee the establishment of the league.

Camille pissarro and Claude Monet

instead of adhering to the conventional modes of painting and subject matter, the Impressionists sought originality and distinction from past artworks. Camile Pissarro, one of Impressionism's founders. Impressionists like Pissaro sought to put into their paintings their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature. Pissarro's ideas are visibly portrayed in the work of Claude Monet. He was especially enchanted with water and painted many pictures in which he attempted to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere, especially evident in Impression, Sunrise

Antoine Lavoisier

invented system of naming chemical elements; regarded as founder of modern chemistry

The Starry Messenger

it was the first scientific treatise based on observations made through a telescope. It contains the results of Galileo's early observations of the moon, the stars, and the moons of Jupiter.

Burshenschaften

liberal and nationalist movements were mainly within university professors and students. The students formed the Burshenschaften for a free and united Germany. They were inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn who encouraged Germans to pursue their Germanic heritage. They burned books written by conservative authors and were the reason for the Karlsbad decrees. They censored the press and universities were under close scrutiny. The rise in nationalism meant bad things for Austria, a multi-nation and multi-language country.

Quakers

many successful industrial leaders of Britain were from dissenting religious minorities, like the Quakers. They ruled expensive trades and depended on the financial support that coreligionist in religious minorities provided for each other. Members of dissenting religious didn't have the opportunity to hold public office, thus they directed their ambition into the new industrial capitalism.

Old Bolsheviks

members of original October Revolution of the Bolsheviks, first targets of Stalin; First victims of Great Purges

Puritans:

most of the catholic church traditions were cut out of Protestant ways, but some people tried to demolish even more parts of society. The puritans are English Calvinists and they tried to ban drinking, dramatic performances, and dancing (failed)

Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points

on January 9, 1919 Woodrow Wilson submitted the fourteen points. his proposals included open covenants of peace, openly arrived at instead of a secret diplomacy;the reduction of national armaments do a point consistent with domestic safety; and the self determination of people so that all well defined national aspirations shall be accorded the utmost satisfaction.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

on march 3,1918, the new communist government signed the treaty of Brest Litovsk with germany and gave up eastern poland, ukraine, Finland and the baltic provinces. Lenin said it made no difference since the spread of socialist revolution throughout Europe would make the treaty largely irrelevant.

James Cook's Travels

one of many books about travel from the eighteenth century. It told of the discovery of Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia. Travel literature was becoming increasingly popular as they showed the culture and practices of other areas of the world. One major idea that was found was that of the "natural man" or "noble savage" who was much happier than Europeans, even if they didn't have many luxuries. Travel books also brought about exposure to the cultures and religions of the new areas. Cultural relativism popped up as people began to realize that no one culture was superior to another, but just what different regions believed. Seeing new religions, though, just caused more religious skepticism (some questioning of faith had already begun because popularizers had cast the church as the enemy of science and there were many book criticizing religion). The Christian perception of God was just one of many, and not necessarily the right perception of God.

Benedict de Spinoza

philosopher from Amsterdam;excommunicated after rejecting tenets of Judaism;believed in pantheism, and rejected Descartes's ideas

Robert Walpole

prime minister from 1721 to 1742 and pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. But the growth of trade and industry in England led to a desire for expansion of trade and the world empire by the middle class.

William Pitt the Elder

prime minister in 1757 who wanted to expand the empire. He acquired Canada and India in the Seven Years' War. The next king (George III-crazy king), though, dismissed him for Lord Bute. They lost the American colonies though causing criticism of the king. George then appointed William Pitt the Younger as prime minister and he was supported by the merchants, industrial classes, and the king. Pitt's success avoided serious reform of the corrupt parliamentary system for another generation.

the Commune

radical republicans created an independent republican government in Paris known as the commune. Working class men and women supported the commune. In the last week of may, thousands of commune's defender's were massacred by the government. The repression of the commune bequeathed a legacy of hatred that continued to plague French politics for decades.

Railroads

railroads weren't something entirely new that came from the Industrial Revolution- they had been used in the mines, but pulled by horses previously. The industrial revolution allowed railroads to be converted from wood to iron. Richard Trevithick pioneered the first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in southern Wales. Stephenson had the first public railway. The railroad enabled goods to be transported quicker and for less money and its demand for coal and iron helped those industries prosper. Railroads also created more jobs. The widest effect of the railroad was how it enabled prices to be lowered, creating larger markets. This was the final piece for the British economy to become self-sustaining. All of the industries fed off of one another.

Gustave Courbet's The Stonebreakers

realism became dominant in art too and depicted the everyday life of ordinary people and tried to be extremely accurate. Gustave Courbet 'created' the realist school and his The Stonebreakers was a quintessential example of realist art. It showed two road workers engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road. This representation of human misery was a scandal to those who objected to his "cult of ugliness."

inductive reasoning

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles

deductive reasoning

reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)

reparations

reparations were a logical consequence of the wartime promises that allied leaders had made do their people that the germans would pay for the war effort. They treaty did not establish the amount to be paid but left that to be determined later by a reparations commission.

Mary Wollstonecraft

she is viewed by many as the founder of modern European feminism. She pointed out contradictions in the views of women held by Enlightenment thinkers. She reiterated the point that if there's no political sovereignty then there shouldn't be between men and women. She then stated their belief that reason is innate in all humans, including women, so they are entitled to the same rights that men have. She said that women should have equal rights with men in education and in economic and political life as well.

"Bloody Mary" Tudor

she wanted to restore England to Catholicism. But the people didn't like her husband, Philip II, and his foreign influence. Protestantism became a way to revolt against Spanish interference and it grew. England was more Protestant by the end of Mary's reign than she was at the beginning.

Catherine of Aragon

she was Henry VIII's first wife and the aunt of Charles V. She couldn't produce a male heir so Henry made the new church to get annulment.

Saint Teresa of Avila

she was a nun of the Carmelite order and experienced a variety of mystical visions that she claimed resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul with God. She founded a new order of barefoot Carmelite nuns and worked to foster their mystical experiences.

Olympe de Gouges

she was a playwright and pamphleteer and was angered by Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen because it didn't include women. She wrote her own Declaration and made everything applicable to women but the National Assembly ignored her proposals.

Joseph II

successor of Maria Theresa who was intent on making reforms, but for the betterment of the Habsburg state. He got rid of serfdom (and gave serfs right to land), got rid of the death penalty, establish equality for all in the court of law, and had complete religious toleration. He alienated everyone because his changes were too radical and basically just failed.

vote by order or by head?

the Estates General was called together because the French debt crisis had become too large to ignore. The king finally recognized that in order to levy new taxes, he would have to have the consent of the Estates General. The third Estate got double the amount of representatives because they accounted for so much of the population and they were in favor of a vote by head because then they could get their point passed. If a vote by order occurred, the first and second Estates could gang up on the Third and always win. While the new representatives were on their way to Paris, they collected complaints that asked for a constitutional government and the abolition of the privileges of church and nobility. The patriots, supporters of vote by head, claimed to represent the nation and consisted of mainly educated and enlightened bourgeoisie and nobles.

Alfonso de Albuquerque

the Portuguese returned year after year to India and tried to shut down Arabic shipping and establish a monopoly in the spice trade. They beat a fleet of Indians and Arabians and began to shut down trade to Ottoman Empire and Egypt. They needed a land base in the area to keep up, so Alfonso set up port facilities at Goa (west coast of India). Goa became the headquarters for Portugal. Later, he sailed to Malacca, which was a thriving port and major stopping point for the spice trade. If he destroyed Malacca, it could help destroy the Arab spice trade and also provide the Portuguese with a way station on the route to the Moluccas (aka Spice Islands)

Thermidorean Reaction

the Reign of Terror was slowing down, the CPS was reigned in, the Jacobin club was shut down, churches were reopened, and laissez-faire was adopted. People were now wanting a stable government, but also one that didn't sacrifice all the ideals they had just fought for, thus the Directory was created.

Emperor William II

the bismarckian alliances, geared to preserving peace and status quo, had worked, but in 1890, emperor William dismissed bismarck and began to chart a new direction for germany's foreign policy. He embarked on an activist foreign policy dedicated to enhancing german power by finding germany's rightful place in the sunn. He dropped the the reinsurance treaty with russia which was being at odds with Germany's alliance to Austria, bringing France and Russia together.

Treaty of Versailles

the final peace settlement of paris consisted of five separate treaties with the defeated nations. Germany, austria, hungary, bulgaria and the ottoman empire. the treaty of versailles with germany signed on June 28 1919 was by far the most important. The germans considered it a harsh peace, conveniently overlooking that the treaty of brest-litovsk which they had imposed on bolshevik russia was even more severe.

Cotton industry

the flying shuttle had increased cotton production, but created a shortage of yarn. This problem was solved with James Hargreaves's spinning jenny. New machines kept being invented to keep up with the last one and Britain was soon the largest producer of cotton in the world. The growth of the cotton industry encouraged the creation of iron and it also completely changed the way people made money (because of factories).

Scurvy and yellow fever

the high military positions were still dominated by the nobles and each country had a different way of providing foot soldiers. Some made peasants be in the army, but then they didn't have farmers. Britain had no standing army and they relied solely on mercenaries (German because of Hanoverians). Other countries used mercenaries and some merchants/middle or lower class would volunteer to get away from hard times. A couple countries- Britain and Netherlands- focused on their navies. The ships, though, were unsanitary and scurvy and yellow fever were diseases that were very common.

Francois Quesnay

the leader of the physiocrats, a highly successful french court physician. he and the physiocrats claimed that they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society. their principle of wealth being based upon land and agriculture seeing it as the only non-sterile industry and that it actually produces.

Desiderius Erasmus

the most influential of Christian humanists who wrote The Handbook of the Christian Knight which said that Christianity should be a guide for life, not a system of dogmatic practices. In order to return to the simplicity of early church, he edited the Bible and republished it. In 1511 he wrote The Praise of Folly which criticized the corrupt world around him. All of his works focused on a reformation within the church and he lead the way for all later Protestant groups.

Neo classism

the movement of which desired to capture the dignity and simplicity of Greco Roman style.

Bolsheviks

they were a small faction of russian social democrats who had come under the leadership of VI lenin.Under his direction he became dedicated to a violent revolution that would destroy the capitalist system.

Alexandra Kollontai and the Zhenotdel

the new bolshevik government also introduced a number of social changes. Kollontai who was a supporter of revolutionary socialism while in exile in switzerland took the lead in pushing the a bolshevik program for women''s rights and social welfare reforms. As minister of social welfare she tried to provide healthcare for women and children by establishing palaces for the protection of maternity and children. also instrumental in establishing a women's bureau known as zhenotdel within the communist party. This bureau sent men and women do all parts of russian empire do explain the new social order. Members were especially eager to help women with matters of divorce and women's rights. In the eastern provinces several were murdered by angry males who objected to any kind of liberation for their wives and daughters. Several of the social reforms were later undone as the communists came face to face more pressing matters such as survival of the new regime.

Meiji Restoration

the new emperor of Japan was Young Mutsuhito who called his reign the Meiji restoration ( enlightened government) the new leaders who controlled the emperor was now inaugurated as a remarkable transformation of Japan that has since been known as the meiji restoration

Agricultural enclosures

the new techniques of the revolution were better suited for large farms, so wealthy landowners bought out the small farmers. The small farmers resisted this, but Parliament was made of the nobles, so they passed a law that said that agricultural lands could legally be enclosed. This made England a country of large farms, and the small farmers were forced to do labor for money and it ruined the village way of life. Because England was the first to adopt the new techniques, they were the leaders in industrialization and urbanization.

the machine gun and poison gas

the noise, machine gun fire, and exploding artillery shells often caused them to panic and lose their bearings; they went forward only because they were carried by the momentum of the soldiers beside them

"pocket boroughs"

the officials in the House of Commons were chosen from the boroughs and counties. Voters were usually bribed by the nobles, nullifying the idea of popular voting. The voters were said to be "in his pocket" and this extended to the county delegates. The same landowners were elected over and over again.

Barclays and Lloyds

they were bankers who came from a religious minority. Darbys and Lloyds were iron manufacturer and Trumans and Perkins were brewers, both also from religious minorities.

Infanticide

the practice of killing infants. During the eighteenth century, many people couldn't support their children when they didn't have much money. More children were surviving because the plague had stopped and diets were better, but children were a burden and anther mouth to feed. If somebody didn't kill their baby, they would frequently drop them off at a foundling home, which took care of babies. But these quickly became overcrowded and most of the kids left there died anyways.

Greek Revolt

the principle of intervention could be turned the other way, as seen by the Greek Revolt. They decided the support Greece in its revolution against the Ottoman Empire because they wanted to weaken the Ottomans. A combined British and French fleet defeated the Ottoman navy and a year later Russia declared war and invaded the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Adrianople allowed Greece to be declared independent and two years later a royal dynasty was established. This revolution was only successful because the great European powers had supported it.

"legitimacy"

the principle of legitimacy was the idea that after the Napoleonic wars, peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. This was already done with the restoration of the Bourbons to the French and Spanish kingdoms as well as in a the Italian states. Although, it was ignored in some instances, namely Poland. Austria and Prussia were allowed to keep some of Poland and the new Poland was ruled by the Romanovs. Poland was independent of Russia, but they were actually under Russian control. Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony, all of Westphalia, and the left bank of the Rhine (because they lost some polish lands). Austria got Lombardy and Venetia (Italy) because they lost the Netherlands. This was all done by the Congress of Vienna.

"reason of state"

the principle that a nation should act on the basis of its long-term interests and not merely to further the dynastic interests of its ruling family. Frederick II and William Pitt the Elder used this policy and it changed their political interests drastically and helped their states out a lot too.

Union of Utrecht

the protestant union of the Netherlands. They eventually broke away from the Netherlands and became the United Provinces. This was all a result of Philip II trying to strengthen his control over the Netherlands. The people of the Netherlands were mad at how their tax dollars were being spent, didn't want a monarchial ruler, and were angry at some of the taxes. When Philip attempted to crush Calvinism there was a major rebellion. The Council of Troubles introduced an age where nobody was safe. William of Orange tried to unify all the provinces of the Netherlands, but religious differences caused the South half to go back to Philip.

Reform Act of 1884

the right to vote was further extended during the second ministry of William Gladstone with the passage of the reform act of 1884. it gave the vote do all men who paid regular rents or taxes; by largely enfranchising agricultural workers, a group previously excluded, the act added another 2 million male voters do the electorate. Women were still denied the vote to right.

Combination acts

these were passed by the British government in 1799 and 1800. They outlawed associations of workers, but they didn't really work because workers still formed trade unions.

Spanish Armada

they went into the war with England hoping for a miracle from God, but it never happened. This was a big psychological blow. England remained a Protestant country.

Coal and coke

up until the Industrial Revolution the process of producing iron was much the same as it had been in the Middle Ages and still depended heavily on charcoal. In the early eighteenth century, new methods of smelting iron ore to produce cast iron were devised based on the use of coke derived from coal.

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

wrote book Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture which argued that government was divinely ordained so that humans could live in an organizes society. God established kinds and through them reigned over all peoples of the world. Since they got their authority from God, a king's power was absolute and they didn't have to answer to anyone. French

Baron d'Holbach

wealthy German aristocrat who settled in Paris who preached a doctrine of strict atheism and materialism. He argued that everything in the universe consisted of matter in motion. Human deings were simply machines and God was a product of the human mind. People should not commit crimes because they will pay for it on this earth rather than in heaven. This scared most other philosophes because they feared people would just turn to violence to get whatever they wanted and wasn't very popular then.

Pluralism and absenteeism

when church officials held more than one position to increase their revenues. This caused absenteeism, as they weren't able to perform both positions. They hired unqualified underlings to do work for them.

the Lusitania

Strong American protest over the German sinking of passenger liners, especially the British ship Lusitania on May 7, 1915, when more than one hundred American lost their lives, forced the German government to modify its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare starting in September 1915 and to briefly suspend unrestricted submarine warfare a year later.

Stuarts

Stuarts took control of England when Queen Elizabeth died. King James VI of Scotland became James I or England. He was used to absolute monarchy in Scotland and didn't want to work with Parliament. Come back into power when Cromwell dies

tanks

Tanks were also introduced to the battlefields of Europe in 1916. The first tank- a British model- used caterpillar tracks, which enabled it to move across rough terrain. Armed with mounted guns, tanks could attack enemy machine- gun positions as well as enemy infantry. But the first were not very effective and it was not until 1918,with the introduction of the British Mark V model, that thanks had more powerful engines and greater maneuverability.

"day-trippers"

Thanks to the railroad, seaside resorts, once the preserve of the wealthy, became accessible to more people for weekend visits, much to the disgust of one upper class regular, who complained about the new "day trippers"

Anabaptists and Munster

The Anabaptists believed in adult baptism (so you know the decision you're making) so it was a voluntary association of believers. All believers were considered equal and priests. They knew they had to suffer for their faith and they returned to the practices and spirit of early Christianity. The Lord's Supper was symbolic and complete separation of church and state. Munster (NW Germany by Dutch border) became a haven for Anabaptists. Then millenarianism spread through the town and everyone believed that the end of the world was at hand and that they would usher in the kingdom of God. The Catholics and Lutherans worked together to stamp out this group.

Bauhaus School of art

The Bauhaus teaching staff consisted of architects, artists and designers who worked together to blend the study of fine arts(sculpting) with the applied arts

Nicholas II and Alexandra

Tsar Nicholas II relied on the army and bureaucracy to uphold his regime. But World War I magnified Russia's problems and severely challenged the tsarist government.

Grand Alliance

U. S., Soviet Union, & Great Britain

house of Orange

United Provinces became its own country with the POW and created a government where there were two chief centers of political power. Each province had an official known as stadholder who was responsible for leading the army and miantianing order. House of Orange occupied most of these positions in the seven different provinces and favored the development of a centralized government. The States General (assembly of representatives from every province) opposed this. States General dominated UP until war with France and England caused them to turn to William III. He died without an heir though, so the republic took over again.

Magyarization

Unlike Austria, Hungary had a working parliamentary system, but it was controlled by the great magyar landowners, who dominated both hungarian peasantry and other ethnic groups in Hungary. They attempted to solve their problems by systematic magyarization. The magyar language was imposed on all schools and was the only language that could be used by government and military officials.

Richard Wagner and Gesamtkunstwerk

Wagner was a supporter of a truly national opera and was a propagandist and writer. His Gesamtkunstwerk was a musical composition for the theater in which music, acting, dance, poetry, and scenic design are synthesized into a harmonious whole. He used a device called a leitmotiv, a recurring musical theme in which the human voice combined with the line of the orchestra instead of rising above it. He looked to tell stories through his operas.

Policy of Coercion

Was founded primarily on a strict enforcement of the Treaty of Versalles. It began with the issue of reparations( payments that the Germans were supposed to make to compensate for the damage done to the civilian population)

"Bloody Sunday"

as a result of the food shortages in major cities in Russia, in January 9, 1905, a procession of workers went to the winter palace in Saint Petersburg do present a petition of grievances do the tsar. Troops opened fire on peaceful demonstrations, killing hundreds launching a revolution The bloody sunday incited workers to call strikes and form unions.

Domestic servants

as the number of children working in factories decreased, women took their places. Again legislation was passed to help with the terrible hours, but these laws didn't apply to all of the industries. Although many women were working in factories, stereotypical roles were still practiced. The men would work and the women would stay at home and take care of the children. In Britain in 1851, 40% of women were domestic servants.

U. S., Soviet Union, & Great Britain

Grand Alliance

Congress of Vienna

Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia united to form the Quadruple Alliance not only to defeat Napoleon, but also to ensure peace after the war. They restored the Bourbon monarchy to France in Louis XVIII and met at the congress of Vienna, hosted by Metternich to return Europe to a state of peace.

Galen

Greek physician who influenced the medieval medical world in anatomy, physiology, and disease; doctrine of four bodily humors

Peace of Augsburg:

HUBDATE 1555... Charles made this rule/document/whatever and it formally acknowledged the division of Christianity with Lutheranism granted equal legal standing with Catholicism. It gave each German Ruler the right to determine the religion of his subjects.

Treaty of Karlowitz

Habsburgs wanted to create a great empire in Austria because their quest in Germany had failed. Leopold I tried to move East but was met with resistance from Ottomans. They eventually defeated the Ottomans in 1687 and Austria took control of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia with Treaty of Karlowitz. At the end of WOSS, they got Spanish Netherlands and received formal recognition of its occupations in Italy (Milan, Mantua, Sardinia, and Naples). They had a very large land mass, but no highly centralized government, because there were so many differen national groups.

Brunelleschi

He also studied in Rome, but he was interested in architecture. Brunellschi devised the building techniques and machinery to create domes in Florence. The Church of San Lorenzo was built with columns, arches, and a coffered ceiling that didn't ovoerwhelm the corshiper materially and psychologically but was built for humans. He tried to create a more human centered space, like many others in the Renaissance.

Bramante and Saint Peter's

He came from Urbino, but lived in Rome. He built a small temple at the supposed site of Saint Peter's martyrdom. The temple, with Doric columns, surrounded a sanctuary that was enclosed by a dome. It basically summarized the architectural ideas of the High Renaissance. He recaptured the granduer of Rome.

Michelangelo

He is best known for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and his sculpture David. He was influenced by neoplatonism and you can see this in his depiction of Adam with perfect proportions (this showed that he was divine). His sculpture again showed the beaty of mankind and was the largest statue since the time of Rome.

Emelyn Pugachev

He led the slave rebellion in Russia. Beginning in 1773, the rebellion spread across southern Russia and was initially successful, gaining lots of support. They killed a lot of nobles but soon the government started cracking down. Pugachev was captured and executed and the rebellion collapsed. This resulted in even greater repression of peasantry and serfdom spread to new parts of the country.

Jacob Burckhardt

He published The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, which set the framework for all modern interpretations of the period. Published in 1860, it portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world and saw the revival of antiquity, the "perfecting of the individual," and secularism as its distinguishing features. He argued that the Renaissance represents a sudden cultural break with the Middle Ages, but modern scholars disagree with this.

Louis XVI

He ruled following the death of Louis XV and he didn't know much about the operation of the French government and didn't care enough to deal with state affairs. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was foreign (Austria) and spent a lot of money. Neither Louis or Marie grasped the depths of discontent and soon there was a revolution.

Donatello's David

He studied statues in Rome and then came back to Florence and made David. It is the first free standing, life-sized bronze nude in European art since antiquity. It celebrated Florentine heroism in the triumph of the Florentines over the Milanese in 1428. It radiated simplicity and strength that reflected the dignity of humanity

Laissez-faire

"hands off" policy regarding the government's role in economy by Adam Smith. It stated that an economy is best served when the government doesn't interfere buy allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand.

Spirit of Locarno

A series of treaties that were signed in Locarno, Switzerland; settled Germany's border disputes with France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Poland; after Germany and the Soviet Union signed these, they were able to join the League of Nations

Battle of the Bulge

After the battle of Normandy, the Allied troops moved south and east and liberated Paris by the end of August. Supply problems as well as a last-minute, desperate and unsuccessful offensive by German troops in ____________ slowed the Allied advance.

Albert Einstein's E=mc2

Albert Einstein, a German born patent officer working in Switzerland, pushed these theories of thermodynamics into new terrain In 1905, Einstein published a paper titled "The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies " that contained his special theory of relativity. According to relativity theory, space and time are no absolute but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into what Einstein called a four dimensional space time continuum his epochal formula E = mc2 - each particle of matter is equivalent to its mass times the square of the velocity of light- was the key theory explaining the vast energies contained within the atom. It led to the atomic age

Tsar Nicholas I

Alexander I relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, and reformed the educational system. He was a 'divine-right monarch' and kept serfdom for fear of the aristocrats. After the defeat of Napoleon he became reactionary and resorted to strict censorship. The Northern Union, one secret society against Alexander, was composed of young aristocrats who had served in the Napoleonic wars and seen freedom. They wanted a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom. The death of Alexander was the perfect opportunity, but Constantine declined the throne and gave it to his brother Nicholas. They then participated in the Decembrist Revolt

Ptolemy

Alexandrian astronomer who proposed a geocentric system of astronomy that was undisputed until Copernicus (2nd century AD)

unconditional surrender

Allies agreed to fight until the Axis powers gave them __________; cemented the Grand Alliance by making it nearly impossible for Hitler to divide his foes

Normandy Invasion

Allies misled the Germans about where their invasion would come from; Dwight D. Eisenhower led the Allied forces in landing five assault divisions on the Normandy beaches on June 6 in history's greatest amphibious invasion. They broke through the German defensive lines.

Yorktown

America's decision to wage war on Britain was kind of stupid because Britain has so many resources and such a good navy. Washington led the American army and was a good choice because of his previous military and political experience. Another big problem for the Americans was the civil war that was occurring. The patriots were against the loyalists, creating a divided front. They managed to pull out the win though, because of foreign support, especially from France, who wanted to get back at the British. Yorktown is the spot of the final battle of the Revolution. After the British loss there, under Cornwallis, the Treaty of Paris gave America independence.

Amsterdam

Amsterdam experienced large population growth in the early seventeenth century so they expanded their city and created a very well organized architecture. They had cast fleets of ships to bring lots of goods into their ports. Because of the amount of traffic through Amsterdam, it became a crossroads for many of Europe's chief products. They turned imported raw material into finished goods. They supplied most of Europe with their military needs (guns). Exchange Bank of Amsterdam and Amsterdam Stock Exchange were created and were very successful entities. Calvinist background led wealthy burghers to have a simple lifestyle. Everything was always clean and organized. When they moved away from Calvinism, it was very noticeable in the clothes.

Concert of Europe

Because of everyone's fear of revolution, this was established to maintain the status quo. The Quadruple alliance agreed to meet periodically and remain against Bonaparte. At the meeting in Aix-la-Chapelle they agreed to withdraw their army out of France and add France to the alliance. The next meeting at Troppau was called to deal with the revolutions in Spain and Italy (both against Bourbon monarchs). The principle of Intervention was then created. It stated that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries experiencing revolution to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones. Britain refused to agree to this, but the rest of the powers went ahead with their plan and were successful in ending the revolts in Spain and Italy, but they couldn't stop the Latin American Revolts.

Gypsies; Slavic; clergy; intelligentsia; civil leaders; judges; lawyers; slave laborers; homosexuals

Because the Nazis also considered the _____ of Europe a race containing alien blood, they were systematically rounded up for extermination. Also, the leading elements of the "sub-human" _____ peoples—the _____, _____, _____ _____, _____, and _____—were arrested and deliberately killed. Many Poles, Ukrainians, and Belorussians lost their lives as _____ _____ for Nazi Germany, and at least three to four million Soviet prisoners of war were killed in captivity. Nazis also singled out _____.

Ludwig von Beethoven and Hector Berlioz

Beethoven started out fitting in with the classical music, but his third Symphony changed that. This symphony had many elements of Romanticism including the use of uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions. Berlioz was one of the founders of program music which was an attempt to use the moods and sound effects of instrumental music to depict the actions and emotions inherent in a story, an event, or even a personal experience. Their pieces told stories instead of just being music.

Bernini and Gentileschi

Bernini completed Saint Peter's Basilica at the Vatican. Action, exuberance, profusion, and dramatic effects mark the work of Bernini inside St. Peter's. The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa depicts a moment of mystical experience in the life of the sixteenth century Spanish saint. Gentileschi was a woman who studied painting under her father's direction. She was the first woman to be elected to the Florentine Academy of Design. Her fame rests on a series of pictures of heroines from the Old Testament (Judith beheading Holofernes).

Reds and Whites

Bolsheviks (red) vs. white (anti lenin) allies wanted to bring russia back into the great war royal family victimized after tsar abdicated throne they were taken away and murdered.The Whites were only united by their hatred of the Reds, the Bolsheviks. 18 regional governments in 1918 were attacking the Reds but the Reds won this civil war.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Book written by Copernicus which explained his heliocentric theory and contradicted the geocentric theory

No Man's Land

British and French infantry forces attacked German defensive lives along a 25 miles front near the Somme River in France. Each soldier carried almost 70 pounds of equipment, making it "impossible to move much quicker than a slow walk." German machine guns soon opened fire: "we were able to see our comrades move forward in an attempt to cross No- Man's Land, only to be mown down like meadow grass."

Contagious Diseases Acts

British government did attempt to enforce the Contagious Disease Acts in the 1870s and 1880s by giving authorities the right to examine prostitutes for venereal disease.Opposition to the Contagious Disease Acts soon arose from middle class female reformers.

General Strike of 1926

British labor dispute after wages were lowered to make British products competitive in a global market. Began with Coal miners and joined by other industries.

Public Health Act of 1875

British law that prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water and an internal drainage system.

Afrika Corps & General Rommel

Broke through the British defenses in Egypt & advanced toward Alexandria, enabled by reinforcements in North Africa

James II

Charles' Catholic brother that everybody was worried about. He was next to take the throne so Parliament freaked and tried to pass laws that would barr him from the throne. He did come in to power though and issued a new Declaration of Indulgences which suspended all laws barring Catholics and Dissenters from office. He selected Catholics for all of the highest positions and the only reason there wasn't a revolt was because all his children were Protestant but then he had a catholic one and there was the treat of a Catholic hereditary monarchy.

Second Battle of the Marne

For germany the withdrawal of the russians from the war in March 1818 offered renewed hope for a favorable outcome. An allied counter attack, led by the french general ferdinand Foch and supported by the arrival of 140,000 fresh american troops, defeated by the germans at the second battle of Marne on July 18.

Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species

Darwin went on the Beagle and discovered natural selection through his observations and published his findings in On the Origin of Species. Chance variations allowed some animals to be superior to other and the better ones survived, evolving into a better species. The unfit became extinct and the fit survived. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin only addressed animals and plants, but in The Descent of Man, he applied this theory to humans. There was no reason that we were any different. This caused upheaval because humans are now seen as ordinary products of nature rather than unique beings. Some were disturbed that live was just a struggle for survival and others wondered where moral values came in. The theory seemed to eliminate purpose and design from the universe. His ideas were gradually accepted.

Denis Diderot's Encyclopedia

Diderot was against the religion of Christianity. His biggest contribution, though, was the 28 volume Encyclopedia he made. Its purpose was the "change the general way of thinking" and became a big tool for philosophes. He shared the beliefs of the other philosophes that there should be religious toleration and a more free society. He contributed to the spread of knowledge in the Enlightenment.

Canals

England had lots of rivers to help with transportation, but man-made canals were even more beneficial. They linked important industrial centers with the help of roads, which were being built in excess as well. Bridges, roads, and canals made transportation within England even easier than it was before.

Michael Faraday

Englishman who discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electricity, although economically efficient generators were not built until the 1870s. All of these scientific discoveries led to the growing faith in science and widespread acceptance of the scientific method. Secularization was extremely widespread and materialism (the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was simply a result of physical forces) became popular as well.

"blank check"

Fearful of Russian intervention on Serbia's behalf, Austrian leaders sought the backing of their German allies. Emperor William II and his chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, responded with the infamous blank check, their assurance that Austria- Hungary could rely on Germany's full support , even if matters went to the length of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia

Ferdinand and Isabella

Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, queen of Castile, got married and worked together to unify the Iberian pennesula. They got rid of aristocrats from the royal council and made a new and strong army. Then they went about addressing religion. They talked with the Pope so they could elect the church officials from Spain and then they made all minorities either convert to christianity or flee the region.

Paris Commune

France declared war (to unify the country) and they didn't fare too well to start off with. They were facing invaders from all sides and Paris was about to be seized. The government implemented a 'draft' and called for National Gaurdsmen to come protect Paris (group from Marseilles made the national anthem). This failure at war and continued economic problems incited groups to meet again, talking about another new approach to government. They were strongly against the king. They attacked the Legislative Assembly (at royal palace) and took the king captive. They force the Assembly to suspend the monarchy and call for a national convention from universal suffrage. The power was passed to the assembly called the Paris Commune, which was composed of men who called themselves sans-culottes.

Committee of Public Safety

France was still very vulnerable to invasion, and there was a strong alliance against them. The government needed to reinforcements badly and to get these troops, they created the Committee of Public Safety. It was led by Danton and gave the country some semblance of leadership. To gain the soldiers they needed, the CPS decreed a universal mobilization of the nation. It worked surprisingly well and became the largest army in European history. They were a nation in arms. The government was run by the people, so the army was of the people. They were no longer just fighting for the distant and hated monarch. Everyone was involved and the country experienced lots of nationalism. It also led to a more passionate and ferocious war.

Leon Blum

France's first socialist Prime Minister. During his one year in office, he instituted a number of important social reforms, including the 40-hour work week. Government took a more active role in economy by increasing public spending and helping workers gain salary increases.

"the first servant of the state"

Frederick II the Great believed that the king was the "first servant of the state" so he became a conscientious ruler that made few innovations in the administration of the state.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer who first stated laws of planetary motion (1571-1630)

Burning of the Reichstag

German government building set afire, Hitler blamed Jews and Communists, led to his rise to power

Hermann Goring

German politician in Nazi Germany who founded the Gestapo and mobilized Germany for war (1893-1946) Hitler's Reich Marshal

Edwin Chadwick

He was a reformer who took it upon himself to get to the root of the poverty problem. He investigated the lower class living conditions and summarized what he found in his Report on the Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain, published in 1842. He concluded that the diseases were caused by the living conditions. He suggested that these living conditions could be eliminated by "the removal of all refuse of habituations, streets, and roads, and the improvement of supplies of water." He basically wanted a sewer and water system. Six years later, the first Public Health Act created the National Board of Health, largely as a result of Chadwick's efforts. People supported Chadwick mainly because of their fear of cholera.

Lorenzo Valla

He was a very well educated papal secretary who wrote a book called The Elegances of the Latin Language, which tried to bring back the dominance of the language. He studied Latin deeply and accepted only the Latin of the last century of the Roman Republic and the first century of the empire.

Christopher Columbus

He was an Italian who was hired by Queen Isabella of Spain to explore. He believed that Asia could be reached by sailing West, because the world was round. He reached the Bahamas and Cuba and Haiti/DR. He said that he had reached Asia and that he would surely find gold and convert the natives to Christianity. He had 4 total expeditions

John Cabot

He was hired by King Henry VII of England to explore the New England coastlind of the Americas.

Marcilio Ficino and neoplatonism

He was hired to translate the works of Plato for Medici. He created a new theory that was a combinationof two other and called it neoplatonism. It stated that there were levels of material (plants to God) and that humans rest in the middle. We should stive to get to the top level. The other part was that people were basically bound together by love.

Johannes Gutenberg

He was instrumental in the completion of the printing press. The first book was the Bible. Printing spread rapidly and encouraged the development of scholarly researcha nd the desire to attain knowledge. Lay people began to read and this also helped the ideas of the Reformation spread as quickly as they did in the 16th century

Leonardo da Vinci

He was not only an artist, but a scientist, engineer, and inventor. He cut open dead bodies to try to understand how the body worked. He painted the famous Last Supper, which used organizationof space and use of perspective to depict the figures as 3D. Through gestures and movements, Da Vinci tried to reveal a person's inner life.

Jan van Eyck

He was one of the first to use oil paints. His attention to detail was astonishing and it was also a good representation of most NR art. It focused on perspective, proportion, and accurate portrayal of details.

Francesco Guicciardini

He was one of the greatest historians ever and published two books (History of Italy and History of Florence). He expertly analyzed political and military situations using personal examples and documentary evidence.

David Lloyd George

He was the British representative at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He pushed for a revenge-based treaty at Versailles, hampering the 14 points. he increased the tax burden on the wealthy classes. it was the first step towards the future british welfare state.

Albrecht Durer

He was the Da Vinci of Germany. He traveled to Italy twice and absorbed as much as he could while there. He then integrated the Italian ideas into his workds and tried to achieve a standard of ideal beauty by a careful examination of the human form.

Leo X

He was the son of Lorenzo de' Medici and was made archbishop at age 8, cardinal at 13, and pope at 37. He had accquired a refined tast in art, manners, and social life and was a big patron of the arts. He commisioned Rapheal and Saint Perer's was started.

Prince Henry the Navigator

He was the sponsor of Portuguese exploration. Motives= Christian kingdom, trade, and extending Christianity. He made a school for navigators who started going south into Africa in search of gold. They didn't find gold originally but they did find slaves who were shipped back to Portugal. They did finally find gold along the southern coast of the hump of West Africa (aka the Gold Coast) and later they established contact with the state of Bakongo to facilitate trade. They leased land from local rulers and built stone forts along the coast.

Masaccio

His cycle of frescoes are considered to be the first masterpiece of Early Renaissance art. He brought about a new, realistic style of painting with a more realistic representation of perspective. Masaccio's 3D figures provided a model for later generations.. Art then took two different turns: mathmatical/ investigation of movement and anatomical structure.

Marco Polo:

His father and uncle, Niccolo and Maffeo, were merchants from Venice. They took Marco with them to go to the court of the great Mongol ruler Khubilai Khan in 1217. A book of their journeys, the Travels, gave a great, and detailed, description of Asia. Others tried to follow them but the conquests of the Ottoman Turks and the breakup of the Mongol Empire reduced traffic to the East. Because of this blockade, Europeans became interested in reaching Asia, and other countries, by the sea.

Pius IX's Syllabus of Errors

In 1864, Pope Pius issued a papal encyclical called the Syllabus of Errors in which he stated that it is "an error to believe that the Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to, and agree with, progress, liberalism, and modern civilization. " he condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press

Pablo Picasso and Cubism

In 1905, one of the most important figures in modern art was just beginning his career. Pablo Picasso was from Spain but settled in Paris in 1904. He was extremely flexible and painted in a remarkable variety of styles. He was instrumental in the development of a new style called Cubism that used geometric designs as visual stimuli to recreate reality in the viewer's mind.

Verdun and the Somme

In 1916 and 1917, millions of young men were killed in the search for the elusive breakthrough. In the German offensive at Verdun in 1916, the British campaigns on the Somme in 1916 and at Ypres in 1917, and the French attack in Champagne in 1917, the senselessness of trench warfare became all too obvious. In ten months at Verdun, 700,000 men lost their lives over a few square miles of terrain.

unrestricted submarine warfare

In January 1917,however,eager to break the deadlock in the war, the Germans decided on another military gamble by returning to unrestricted submarine warfare. German naval officers convinced Emperor William II that the use of unrestricted submarine warfare could starve the British into submission within five months.

El Alamein

In North Africa, British forces had stopped Rommel's troops at _____________ in the summer of 1942 and then forced them back across the desert.

46. House of Fugger

In exchange for arranging large loans to Charles V, Jacob Fugger was given a monopoly over silver, copper, and mercury mines in the Habsburg possessions of central Europe that produced profits in excess of fifty percent per year. The House of Fugger went bankrupt at the end of the sixteenth century when the Habsburgs defaulted on their loans, a prime example of the precariousness of the relationship between government, banks, and mining.

policy of appeasement

In the Anglo-German Naval pact, the British acted based on a _________________, which was based on the belief that if European states satisfied the reasonable demands of dissatisfied powers, the latter would be content, and stability and peace would be achieved in Europe.

new monarchies

In the second half of the 15th century, Europe tried to reestablish centralized power of monarchical governments. Historians gave them this name, focusing on France, England, and Spain. Monarchs of western Europe were successful, but those in central or eastern Europe were weak and unable to impose their autority.

Mein Kampf

In which Hitler indicated where a National Socialist regime would find the land it needed to occupy to gain power; he concluded that Germany must prepare for its inevitable war with the Soviet Union

Castiglione's Book of the Courtier

It describe how to be the perfect noble. They should posses fudamental native endowments, participate in military, have a classical education, and follow a certain code of conduct. The aim of this perfect noble was to serve his prince in a honest and effective way. Nobles followed this rule book for hundreds of years.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

It is impossible to simultaneously determine the position and energy (or velocity) of an electron.

Rococo

It was very unlike the Baroque style seen in the previous century. Rococo emphasized grace and gentle action. It rejected geometrical patterns and contained curvy lines. The new art was highly secular, very bright/light, and expressed the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love. This art represented the way the upper class viewed themselves as elite and great. The separation of the social classes was becoming more and more distinct throughout this era and rococo showed this. It also represented the anti-religious sentiment that many experienced during the Enlightenment. e.g. Balthazar Neuman, Antoine Watteau

the Romanovs

Ivan the Terrible was ruler (killed noble power), time of troubles, and then national assembly chose Michael Romanov as the new tsar. Serfdom was highly present in Russia and there was lots of land but not very many people. Townspeople and merchants weren't allowed to leave their city without permission. This caused rebellions from both classes and there was a schism in the Russian Orthodox Church.

Montcalm and Wolfe

James Wolfe was the British General who defeated the French, led by Louis-Joseph Montcalm, in Quebec. They both died in the battle, but the British then seized Montreal, the Great Lakes area, and the Ohio valley.

Commodore Matthew Perry

Japan avoided western intrusion until 1853-1854 when american naval forces under commodore matthew Perry forced the japanese to grant the united states trading and diplomatic privileges Japan however manage to avoid China's fate.

Rape of Nanking

Japan had not planned to declare war on China, but neither side would compromise, and the 1937 incident eventually turned into a major conflict. The Japanese advanced up the Yangtze valley and seized the Chinese capital of Nanjing, raping and killing thousands of innocent civilians in the process. But Chiang Kai-shek refused to capitulate and moved his government upriver to Hankou.

38. Tokugawa shoguns

Japan was in anarchy when the Tokugawa shoguns took over. They unified Japan and initiated the most powerful and longest lasting of all the Japanese shogunates

Pearl Harbor

Japanese carrier-based aircraft attacked the U. S. naval base at ____________; Japanese leaders had hoped to destroy the U. S. Pacific Fleet and persuade Roosevelt administration to accept Japanese domination of the Pacific; they were wrong—Americans broadly supported Roosevelt's war policy & the U. S. joined European nations and Nationalist China in effort to defeat Japan

John Law's "bubble"

John Law tried to create a national bank in France with paper currency. People drove the price of stocks way up and then everybody wanted their money. This caused the bubble to burst and the bank went bankrupt. This caused serious lack of confidence in paper money and prevented the formation of a national bank in France, causing their public finance system to develop slowly.

Peace of Westphalia

Last phase of the war was marked with secular causes. The Catholic French started to finance the Protestant Swedes against the Habsburgs. The French beat the Spanish and this ends Spanish military greatness. They beat lots of armies in South Germany. Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ends the war in Germany after 5years of negotiations. War continued between France and Spain for 11yrs until Peace of Pyrenees

Claus von Stauffenberg

Led the only plot against Hitler & the Nazis that came remotely close to success; believed only the elimination of Hitler would bring the overthrow of the Nazi regime; planted a bomb in Hitler's East Prussian headquarters; bomb exploded but failed to kill Hitler

London's one million

London was the biggest city in Europe with one million people. People living in cities outnumbered people living in the country to start out with, but soon rural residents came to cities looking for jobs. The cities took advantage of the production of food and stole food from tithes, rents, and dues. The hierarchy was extremely noticeable in cities. The patrician oligarchies controlled their communities by dominating town and city councils. Then came the upper middle classes (nonnoble officeholders, financiers and bankers, merchants, and wealthy rentier), the petty bourgeoisie or lower middle class (master artisans, shopkeepers, and small traders), then laborers or working classes. The guilds were still exclusive to family members.

Winston Churchill

Longtime advocate of hard-line policy toward Nazi Germany; replaced Neville Chamberlain as prime minister of Britain in 1940

Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan

Louis Blanc- believed that social problems could be dissolved with social assistance. He denounced competition as main cause of economic evils. Government owns the equipment and people work the factories. Flora Tristan was a feminist and socialist who advocated reconstruction of the family and work. Woman supporter of socialism

Edict of Fontainebleau

Louis XIV didn't want Protestants in the largely catholic France so he made this which revoked the Edict of Nantes and provided for the destruction of Huguenot churches and the closing of Protestant schools. Many Huguenots left France, harming the economy and strengthening the economy of the states they went to because they were skilled artisans or the merchant class.

Versailles

Louis XIV moved his residence to Versailles because he didn't like Paris. He created a grand, flashy, expensive mansion/city. It cost the country a fortune (higher taxes) and it created jobs. This is where foreign ambassadors came and it made them think that France was amazing. It was an honor to be a part of the King's waking or anything to do with him. You had to sit in a specific spot and there were all kinds of rules about little things like that.

founding of the League of Nations

Major American concern at Yalta; Roosevelt hoped to ensure the participation of the Big Three in a postwar international organization before difficult issues divided them into hostile camps; After anumber of compromises, both Churchill and Stalin accepted Roosevelt's plans for a United Nations organization and set the first meeting.

The Edict of Worms

Martin Luther wrote many pieces attacking the papacy and the sacraments. He was excommunicated in January 1521 and then summoned to appear before a council in Worms. He went a response ('battle cry of the reformation') basically saying he still believed in what he had said and didn't show up. Then the Emperor, Charles V, issued the Edict of Worms that outlawed Luther within the empire. His works were to be burned and Luther to be captured. Luther escaped to Wartburg

"First International"

Marx worked closely with the International Working Men's Association, formed in 1864 by British and French trade unions. Marx was a prominent figure in the Association, although internal dissention led to its demise in 1872. This "first international" was an umbrella organization for working class interests.

Tehran Conference November 1943

Meeting with Stalin, Roosevelt, & Churchill to decide the future course of the war; Stalin & Roosevelt decided on an American-British invasion of the Continent through France

Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo painted the entire celing with different scenes from the Bible. He tried to tell the story of the Fall of Man through nine different scenes from the biblical book of genesis.

36. Ming and Qing dynasties:

Ming dynasty extended rule to Vietnam , Mongolia, and central Asia, strengthened great wall, and made peace with nomads. Disease led to Li Zicheng who was then taken over by Machus and Qing dynasty started. The Qing were blessed with a series of strong early rulers who pacified the country, corrected the most serious social and economic ills, and restored peace and prosperity. Ruled for over a century.

Rhineland

On March 7, 1936, buoyed by his conviction that the Western democracies had no intention of using force to maitain all aspects of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler sent German troops into demilitarized _______. (According to the Versailles treaty, France had the right to use military force against this, but France wouldn't act without British support)

John Locke

Opposing Hobbes' theory, Locke thought that humans were fundamentally good and that they had natural rights to life, liberty, and property. He believed that it was the government's job to protect these right. If the government ever stopped doing this, then it was the duty of the people to overthrow that government.

Bourgeois

Originally just lawyers, artisans, and officials, but then began to include people involved in commerce, industry, banking, teachers, and physicians (combined new with old). The new entrepreneurs had to do everything themselves (unlike owners now who delegate most of their responsibilities) and always had to be reinvesting. The market was so competitive that that was the only way to remain profitable. Many of these new owners were from a mercantile background, because they knew more about what they were doing than others.

Grand National Consolidated Trade Union

Owen made the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union which tried to coordinate a general strike for the eight-hour working day, which didn't work either. It tried to combine all the unions in the nation, but there wasn't enough working class support.

Paul Cezanne and Vincent van Gogh

Paul Cezanne was one of the most important Post Impressionists. Initially, he was influenced by the Impressionists but soon rejected their work. Another famous Post Impressionist was a tortured and tragic figure, Vincent van Gogh. For van Gogh, art was a spiritual experience. He was especially interested in color and believed that it could act as it sown form of language.

the Fronde

People didn't like Mazarin because he was a foreigner and nobles already resented the centralized administrative power because it lowered their power. Parliament was angry because they didn't like the new taxes levied by the government to pay for the thirty yrs war. The masses were also angry at higher taxes. The Parliament nobles led the first Fronde that was ended with compromise quickly. The second Fronde was led by nobles of sword (blood) who wanted to regain their power. This was ended when the nobles started fighting each other and everybody just wanted a strong monarch.

Peter the Great

Peter desperately wanted to westernize Russia. He admired European technology and gadget and desired to transplant them to Russia. He wanted a good army and navy. He conscripted peasants for twenty five yr stints of service to build his army. He reorganized the central government and created the Senate to supervise the administrative machinery of the state while he was away on military campaigns. Senate eventually became a ruling council but its effectiveness caused Peter to make 'colleges' (boards of administrators entrusted with specific functions). He divided the country into provinces. He required all landowning people to serve in either military or civil offices. Made the table of ranks so you could become a merit based noble. Took over church. Mercantilist economic policy. Integrated western customs, practices, and manners. Women got more rights.

Partitions of Poland

Poland was in the middle of three huge/great European powers and didn't have a strong central government because the King was restricted by the Polish nobles. The leaders of Austria, Russia, and Prussia peacefully decided to divide the country evenly so they wouldn't have to waste their resources on war. Austria got the South portion that contained the fertile Galicia, Russia took the largest piece in the East, and Prussia got the smallest piece, but it connected their lands, so it was very important. The remaining part of Poland tried to establish a strong hereditary monarchy, but was soon divided again. Taddeus Kosciuszko made a final attempt at saving Poland, but then the last partition happened and Poland no longer existed.

Russification

Policy imposing Russian customs and traditions on other people. Pursued by Alexander IiI,of the numerous nationalities that made the russian empire. It served primarily to anger national groups and create new sources of opposition do tsarist policies.

Leo XIII's De Rerum Novarum

Pope Leo permitted the teaching of evolution as a hypothesis in Catholic schools and also responded to the challenges of modernization in the economic and social spheres. In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum, issued in 1891, he upheld the individual's right to private property but at the same time criticized "naked" capitalism for the poverty and degradation in which it had left the working classes.

14. Malacca:

Portuguese now started searching for the source of the spices and Albuquerque sailed to Malacca, which was a thriving port and major stopping point for the spice trade. If he destroyed Malacca, it could help destroy the Arab spice trade and also provide the Portuguese with a way station on the route to the Moluccas (aka Spice Islands). The Portuguese seized the city and massacred the local Arab population and this started a struggle between the Portuguese and the Arabs.

Personality cult

Promotion of the image of an authoritarian leader not merely as a political figure but as someone who embodies the spirit of the nation and possesses endowments of wisdom and strength far beyond those of the average individual.

spheres of influence; self-determination

Roosevelt by the time of the Yalta conference was moving away from the notion of ______________ to the ideal of ___________. He called for "the end of the system of unilateral action, exclusive alliances, and spheres of influence." Liberated countries were to hold free electiosn to determine their political systems.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau's ideas stemmed from the early, primitive condition of man that was happy. There were no laws and everybody was equal. Then somebody went and staked a claim, creating the need for government. He wanted a social contract that basically had the entire society agree to be governed by its general will. The general will represented what was best for the community. All the people had to do was listen to the government, which was only to act in the interest of the general will. The other main idea Rousseau was the importance of the heart and following personal or emotional interests (eventually called Romanticism). There should be a balance between the mind and heart.

Catherine II the Great

Ruler of Russia, she was also an 'enlightened' ruler. She called for the election of an assembly in 1767 to talk about reforms. She questioned serfdom, torture, and the capital punishment and even wanted equality of all in the eyes of the law. After attempting to get these reforms passed, she was shot down, she didn't put up much of a fight. Catherine knew the importance of keeping the nobles on her side. She ended up giving more power to the nobles, who then repressed their serfs more, which led to a slave revolt. Catherine divided Russia into fifty provinces, each then subdivided into districts which were ruled by officials chosen by the nobility. The local nobility now governed day to day Russia. The gentry formed into corporate groups that had special legal privileges, formalized by the Charter of Nobility in 1785.

Russo-Japanese War

Russia went to war with Japan and they were fighting for control of Korea and Manchuria. Nicholas was glad to go to war because he thought that a quick victory would make him more popular and that it would make people not criticize his government. Russia suffered many defeats and the war with Japan caused Nicholas's position to be weakened. Also, conditions for working people became worse than before: food supplies to the cities broke down and factories closed as raw materials ran short. Workers were on the street instead of working in factories.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who built the first telescope and proved that planets and moons move. Persecuted for supporting Copernicus' ideas

Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations

Scottish philosopher published this book with three main principles: condemned mercantilist use of tariffs to protect home industries (if one country can supply another country with a product cheaper than that country can make it, that country should just buy it), labor constituted the wealth of a nation, and laissez-faire. Smith went on to describe the role of government as three basic functions: to protect society from invasion (army), defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police), and keep up certain public works such as roads and canals that individuals couldn't afford.

Dutch East Indies; Pacific; southeast Asia

Shortly after American entry into the war, japanese forces invaded the ____________ and occupied a number of islands in the ____ Ocean. In some cases, as on the Bataan peninsula and the island of Corregidor in the Philippines, resistance was fierce, but by the spring of 1942, almost all of ______________ and much of the western Pacific had fallen into Japanese hands.

28. Slave trade

Slaves weren't new and originally werves as domestic servants. Then sugar cane production grew and they needed more laborers, so Africans were sent to Brazil and the Caribbean. Triangular trade: European ships took goods from Europe to Africa, then they got slaves that are sent to America, and the New World goods were sent to Europe. Ten million slaves are said to have been transported to the Americas in the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. The middle passage was the route from Africa to America in which slaves were tightly packed into ships with a ten percent death rate. More died from disease when they made it to America.

Patriots vs. the Orangists

The Dutch Republic suffered a decline in economic prosperity and everything was still dominated by the oligarchies. The oligarchs, or regents, still struggled with the house of Orange who headed the executive branch of government. Regents wanted to reduce power of Oranges, but the rise of the Patriots (working class) who wanted more political power for the rest of the people created a distraction. They were actually really successful before Prussia came in and stopped it (to protect sister). Old system remained in place.

The American system

The Harpers Ferry arsenal built muskets with interchangeable parts and since all the parts were the same, the final product could be assembled quickly and easily. This enable Americans to avoid the more costly system in which skilled workers fitted together individual parts made separately. This became known as the American system and it reduced costs and revolutionized production by saving labor, important to a society with few skilled artisans. The labor force was mainly women and children in the urban areas, who were unskilled. When there was a decline in rural births, immigrants made up for the deficit and they were also unskilled. This caused the Americans to invest heavily in machines, thus industrialization happened quicker here.

Peace of Lodi and balance of power

The Peace of Lodi was signed in 1454 and effectively ended Italian civil wars for forty years. No one city-state could try to gain more land, so there was no more fighting. Though eventually Milan felt 'isolated' and asked the French to intervene. Then Spain came in and fought against them and Italy became a battlefield.

Spice Islands

The Portuguese explored even farther east into China and the Spice islands. They made a treaty with the local ruler so they could purchase cloves. Their trading empire was now complete. A combination of naval knowledge and technology allowed them to do this.

the Schlieffen Plan

The Schlieffen Plan called for a minimal troop deployment against Russia while most of the German army would make a rapid invasion of western France by way of neutral Belgium. After the planned quick defeat of the French, the German army expected to redeploy to the east against Russia. Under the Schlieffen Plan, German could not mobilize its troops solely against Russia and therefore declared war on France on August 3 after issuing an ultimatum to Belgium on August 2 demanding the right of German troops to pass through Belgian territory.

Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution played a role in the emergence of basic economic patterns that have characterized much of modern European economic life.

Social Darwinism and Herbert Spencer

The application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order came to be known as social Darwinism. The most popular exponent of social Darwinism was the British philosopher Herbert Spencer. Using Darwin's terminology, Spencer argued that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment. Progress came from "the struggle for survival,"as the "fit"- the strong- advanced while the weak declined.

India

The cheapest labor in India (country who also had lots of cotton) couldn't compete in quality or quantity with Britain, so they lost any supremacy they had. India is also an example of how Britain tried to prevent the spread of machine industry. Most of India was under British control and so they had access to the cheap goods produced by Britain. The British government 'encouraged' importing finished British goods and exporting raw materials. This left many Indians without a job. Factories didn't really make their way to India because the British didn't want them to and Indians could just buy British goods.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

The concept of the Volk (nation, people, or race) had been an underlying idea in German history since the beginning of the nineteenth century. One of the chief propagandists fro German volkish thought at the turn of the twentieth century was Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an English who became a German citizen. His book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, published in 1899, made a special impact on Germany. Modern day Germans, according to Chamberlain, were the only pure successors of the Aryans, who were portrayed as the true and original creators of Western culture. The Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of such lower races as Jews, Negroes, and Orientals.

Weimar Republic

The democratic government which ruled over Germany form 1919 to 1933. Was Germany's first democracy and it failed miserably. It had leaders such as Stresseman and Hindenburg.

Gottlieb Daimler

The development of the internal combustion engine gave rise to the automobile and the airplane. The invention of a light engine by Gottlib Dailmler in 1886 was the key to the development of the automobile.

trench warfare

The early trenches dug in 1914 had by now become elaborate systems of defense. Both lines of trenches were protected by barbed wire entanglements 3 to 5 feet high and 30 yard wide, concrete machine gun nests, and mortar batteries, supported further back by heavy artillery. The unexpected development of trench warfare baffled military leaders, who had been trained to fight wars of movement and maneuver.

Pius II's Execrabilis

The efforts at church reform failed miserably because popes refused to work with any council that would diminish their power. The final end to attempts at a legislative system in the church was Execrabilis, which condemned appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical.

New Imperialism

The european states embarked on an intense scramble overseas territory. known as the new imperialism

Louis Pasteur

The inventions of the Industrial Revolution were not actually done by scientists, but they did pique interest in basic scientific research. The steam engine led to the discovery of thermodynamics, the science of the relationship between heat and mechanical energy. The new discoveries made following the industrial revolution had a wide range of people it affected. Louis Pasteur formulated the germ theory of disease, with enormous applications in the development of modern scientific medicine. He basically created bacteriology and also came up with pasteurization- heating a product to destroy the organisms causing spoilage. He made the first preventive vaccinations and managed to prevent some infectious diseases.

Auschwitz

The largest and most infamous of the Nazi death camps

Jean Jaures

The leader of French socialism, Jean Jaures, was an independent socialist who looked to the French revolutionary tradition rather than Marxism to justify revolutionary socialism

Prester John

The lure of exploration came from writings, some describing the mysterious, magical Christian kingdom of Prester John in Africa and a Christian community in southern India that was supposedly founded by Thomas, an apostle of Jesus.

Wassily Kandinsky and Abstract Expressionism

The modern artist's flight from "visual reality" reached a high point in 1910 with the beginning of abstract painting. Wassily Kandinsky, a Russian who worked in Germany, was one of the founders of abstract painting. A is evident in his Square with White Border, Kandinsky sought to avoid representation altogether.

Britain's Ministry of Munitions

The need to ensure adequate production of munitions led to the creation in July 1915 of the Ministry of Munitions under a dynamic leader,David Lloyd George. The Ministry of Munitions took numerous steps to ensure that private industry would produce war materiel at limited profits.

Physiocrats

The physiocrats claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed humans society and suggested a land (or agriculture) based economy. Even the government should only taxon land because it was the only thing that could increase wealth. It strayed immensely from the mercantilist stress on money as the source of wealth. The other main contribution the phsyiocrats had was on government role in economy. They suggested that there be free trade and no government control over economy.

Sudetenland

The portion of Czechoslovakia Hitler demanded be given to Germany; other powers consented to this in the Munich Conference

Impressionism

The preamble to modern painting can be found in Impressionism, a movement that originated in France in the 1870s when a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went out into the countryside to paint nature directly.

Ernst Renan's Life of Jesus

The scientific spirit also encouraged a number of biblical scholars to apply critical principle to the Bible, leading to the so called higher criticism. One of its leading exponents was Ernst Renan, a French Catholic scholar. In his Life of Jesus, Renan questioned the historical accuracy of the bible and presented a radically different picture of Jesus. He saw Jesus not as the son of God but as a human being whose value lay in the example he provided by his life and teaching.

the Orthodox Church

There was a schism in the Russian Orthodox church that created very unsettled conditions. When Peter the Great comes into office, he abolishes the position of patriarch and created a body called the Holy Synod to make decisions for the church. At its head stood the procurator who represented the interests of the tsar.

Renaissance hermeticism

There were two parts to this also. The first being about the sciences and the second being about the theological/philosophical beliefs. Basically said that humans were divine and that they could regain this divination.

liberal studies

These were humanist education that focused on the liberal arts, because they could help an individual reach their potential. It taught students to live a life of virtue and wisdom, and then they also had skills to persuade others to do the same. They also had P.E.

the "new woman"

These women renounced traditional feminine roles. Although some of them supported political ideologies such as socialism that flew in the face of the ruling classes, others simply sought new freedom.

House of Medici

They brought banking prestige back to Florence, and during their greatest expanse they had banks in Venice, Milan, Rome (the papacy), Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. They controlled interestes in industries or wool, silk, and the mining of alum. They declined in the end of the century because of poor leadership and some bad loans.

Vienna and the Ottoman Empire

They had conquests up the Danube valley and were expanding rapidly, but from 1480-1520 they had to stop because of internal problems. Under Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent, they started expanding again and were stopped in Vienna in 1529. They then focused East and worked into the Mediterranean where they were stopped by the Spanish at Lepanto. They were then treated as an equal by European countries. Sultans were the head of the government but politics frequently escalated to violence to maintain positions of power. Still, a weel trained bureaucracy of civil servants continued to administer state affair effectively. Janissaries=brainwashed Christian boys. Once again in 1683, Turks were expanding to Vienna by were again stopped by Austrians/Poles/Bavarians/Saxons. From this point they were no longer a threat to the rest of Europe.

Triumph of the Will

This Nazi propaganda film was created in 1936 by Leni Riefenstahl to show the might of the Nazi party at a rally in Nuremberg.

Industrial Revolution

This begun in Britain in the 1770s. Britain had a stable government, with few wars being waged (not on British soil), a large source of natural resources (in Britain and in the new world), paper money, an industry friendly government, a surplus in workers and many good inventors. The agricultural revolution was adopted quickly in Britain because Parliament consisted of wealthy landowners. This resulted in a growth of the population as well as a raised quality of living. The larger population meant a large work force when the new machines were invented.

Pico della Mirandola's Oration

This book used bits and pieces from other philosophers and said that humans had unlimited potential. Again this agrees with the belief that humans are divine, but choose to be in the material world.

Bruni's The New Cicero

This book was an autobiography of Cicero about the mix of political action and literary creation. It started the idea that intellectuals live active life for state.

The Travels of John Mandeville

This book, another one of the motives to explore, talked of realms (that the author had never actually seen before) that were filled with precious stones and gold.

Anglo-German Naval Pact 1935

Treaty that allowed Germany to build a navy that would be 35 percent the size of the British navy, with equality in submarines; in which the British moved toward an open acceptance of Germany's right to rearm

the Habsburgs

This dynasty controlled the Holy Roman Empire. Their marriages are what advanced them. Max was married to Mary, who had some French/Burgundy land. Their son then married the daughter of Ferd and Isa, which gave them control of Spain. Their son eventually became the heir to all 3 regions (Burgundy, Roman, and Spanish) making him the leading monarch.

26. Audiencias

This ended the corrupt governing policy in the new world. It developed an administrative system based on viceroys. The land was split up into New Spain (Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean), center in Mexico City, and Peru (western South America), governed by a viceroy in Lima. The viceroys acted as the King's chief vicil and military officer and was aided by advisory groups called audiencias, which also functioned as supreme judicial bodies. Papacy gave Catholic monarchs in Spain extensive rights over ecclesiastical affairs in the New World. Catholic missionaries spread and converted and baptized lots of natives.

1527 sack of Rome

This ended the war between France and Spain that was occuring in Italy. The Spanish King Charles I brought down Rome and with it gained control over Italy.

High Renaissance

This is the name for the last stage of the Renaissance that was marked by the increasing importance of Rome as a new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance. It was dominated by Da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. It was characterized by the idealization of nature (making it look better than it really is).

madrigals

This was a piece of music that was essentially a poem set to music. The theme was emotional or erotic love. The music tried to portray the literal meaning of the words (a melody would rise for the word heaven)

Edict of Nantes

This was issued in 1598 and it acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places in every district and allowed them to retain a number of fortified towns for their protection. They were allowed to enjoy all political privileges, including the holding of public offices. It was made only out of political necessity not out of conviction.

Botticelli's Primavera

This was painting that didn't really fit in with the rest of the Renaissance. It depicted gods and godesses in the garden of Venus. It had otherworldly qualities that were in contrast with other works of the Renaissance (realistic portrayals of humans).

SA

This was the Nazi paramilitary force which protected Hitler and played a key role in his rise to power. One of the first SA leaders was Hermann Goering. The SA was important because they were responsible for most of the violence against Jews as well as allowing Hitler to rise to power.

Thirty Years War

This was the last war with major religious causes. It took plave all over Germany and eventually became a secular battle between the Bourbon dynasty of France vs. the Habsburgs of Spain. Religious struggles for power had persisted in Germany even after the Peace of Augsburg. Protestant Union and Catholic League were formed and on the secular side it became a battle for power between princes and the HRE. They each looked for allies, ensuring the war would be a Europe-wide event. 4 phases: Bohemian (Ferdinand elected-catholic- and then deposed so Frederick-protestant- took over. Battle between HRE Ferd and Fred ends with HRE win and Bohemia become the possession of HRE), Danish (Christian IV made alliances with UP and England while Ferdinand got Wallenstein. Chris lost to the CL and this marked the end of Danish supremacy. Wallenstein occupied North Germany. Ferdinand -top of his power- makes Edict of Restitution which bans Calvinism and regains all land for Catholicism), Swedish (Gustavus Adolphus), and Franco-Swedish (Peace of Westphalia)

Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre

Tories passed the Corn Laws that put high tariffs on imported grain, making the lower classes extremely unhappy because they didn't have the money to pay high prices. In Saint Peter's Fields in Manchester in 1819 there was a protest meeting that quickly turned ugly as a squadron of cavalry attacked the crowd of 60,000 demonstrators; this was called the Peterloo Massacre. The government then passed a restriction on public meetings and the poor could no longer receive pamphlets.

Glorious Revolution

William of Orange and Mary were invited to invade England and James fled. Convention Parliament said that throne was vacant and asked Will and Mary to take it if they accepted the Bill of Rights. The Toleration Act was also passesd and it granted Puritan Dissenters the right of free public worship. This essentially ended the struggle between king and Parliament and confirmed Parliament's right to be a part of the government.

Oswald Spengler

Writer who published "The Decline of the West" in which he argues that Western Civilization was in its old age and would soon be conquered by East Asia

John Wycliffe and John Hus

Wyclif said there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and medieval Christain beliefs and practices. He wanted the Bible to be in vernacular so everyone could read it. His followers were called Hussites. John Hus brought the ideas to Bohemia through marriages. He also stressed that the Popes should be stripped of power. They called him to council, telling him he had the immunity to speak freely, but them condemned him and burned him at the stake. His followers were Hussites and they waged war against HRE till 1436 when there was a truce.

Marburg Colloquy

Zwingli wanted to build a league of evangelical cities by seeking an agreement with Luther and the German reformers. Protestants from both nations realized the need to unite to defend against imperial and conservative opposition. Landgrave Philip of Hesse convinced the leaders of both groups to attend the Colloquy of Marburg. The groups couldn't decide on the Lord's Supper though, and the groups remained independent.

Andreas Vesalius

a Flemish surgeon who is considered the father of modern anatomy (1514-1564)

Grand Tour

a characteristic of high culture in the Enlightenment was its cosmopolitanism. The sons of aristocrats would travel all over Europe and take a tour of Europe's major cities. The trip was very dangerous because they had to cross the English Channel and the Inns that they stayed at weren't very sanitary. Young men were usually accompanied by tutors who were supposed to make sure they spent time looking at museum collection of natural history and antiquities. This didn't always happen though, because they were easily distracted by women. Rome was an important location on the tour because these men had been educated with the classics.

Trade unions

because there was no minimum wages or job security, workers formed trade unions. These unions weren't generally very successful and the government tried to stop them. Their main goals were to preserve their own workers' position by limiting entry into their trade and the other was to gain benefits from the employers.

30. Dutch East India Company:

a trading company established in 1602 under government sponsorship, also set up settlement in southern Africa, at the Cape of Good Hope, which was meant to serve as a base to provide food and other provisions to Dutch ships. It was the prominent company when the Dutch started gaining more lands

the Cheka

although the old tsarist secret police had been abolished, a new red secret police known as the Cheka replaced it. The red terror instituted by the cheka aimed at nothing less than the destruction of all opponents of the new regime. The cheka promulgated terror against members of all classes including the proletariat if they opposed the new regime. The red terror added an element of fear do the bolshevik regime.

47. Mercantilism

an economic theory that held that a nation's prosperity depended on its supply of gold and silver and that the total volume of trade is unchangeable; its adherents therefore advocated that the government play an active role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

another action of the National Assembly, this charter gave people inalienable rights and strongly resembled the American constitution. It incorporated tons of Enlightened ideas and restricted the monarchy. It gave all citizens the right to take part in the legislative process. It did nothing at all for women though.

"Peace, land, and bread"

bolshevik slogan also 'worker control of production' and 'all power to the soviets' lenins program of power and revolution

Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin

both Louis XII and Louis XIV took over the crown at a very young age, so these two Cardinals ran the government for them. Richelieu- he initiated policies that eventually strengthened the power of the monarchy. He eliminated the political and military rights of the Huguenots but kept their religious ones. He also created a network of spies to uncover malicious plots of the nobles and stop them before they happen. Intendants executed the orders of the ventral government. But he didn't have very good financial ideas. Mazarin- he was Italian and took over when Richelieu died. The Fronde happened when he was 'ruling'. Both were anti-Habsburg

Indian National Congress

by 1883 when the indian national congress was formed, moderate educated indians were beginning to seek self government. by 1919 in response to the british violence the british insensitivity, indians were demanding complete independence.

Henry Ford

by 1906, Americans had overtaken the initial lead of lead of the French. It was an American, Henry Ford, who revolutionized the car industry with the mass production of the Model T. By 1916, Ford's factories were producing 735,000 cars a year. Air transportation began with the Zeppelin airship in 1900.

Triple Entente

by 1907 a loose confederation of great britain, France, and russia known as the triple entente stood opposed to the triple alliance of germany, Austria- hungary and Italy.. Dividing Europe into two opposing camps that became more inflexible and unwilling to compromise. When the two alliances came in conflict over the control over the remnants of the ottoman empire, it set the stage for World War I

Johann Sebastian Bach

composer of the Baroque music style. He came from a musical family and held the post of organist and music director at small German courts before he was a director of church music at the church of saint Thomas in Leipzig. While he was there, he composed many of his most famous works which have established his reputation as one of the greatest composers of all time. He believed that music was a way to worship God, therefore his music was highly religious

Robert Owen's New Lanark

factory town with benefits and rotation of jobs so no one gets bored. Worked in Europe but not in USA. Believed that if people lived in a cooperative environment, they would reveal their natural goodness. He did this to a factory in New Lanark, Scotland.

Jacques-Louis David

famous neoclassicism artist from the Enlightenment. His most famous piece the Oath of the Horatii showed the three Horatius brothers swearing an oath before their father, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their country. His style contained moral seriousness and emphasis on honor and patriotism, making him extremely popular during the French revolution.

Maria Winkelmann

famous woman astronomer; most famous of female astronomers in Germany; recieved training from self-taught astronomer; married Gottfried Kirch and became his assistant; applied for positionas assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy, she was highly qualified but was denied (because she was a woman and had no university degree)

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

financial advisor of Louis XIV. He adhered to mercantilism so he tried to expand the quantity a dn improve the quality of French manufactured goods. He made new luxury industries and raised tariffs on imports. He built roads and canals to encourage trade within France. But his regulations were often evaded and the tariffs brought foreign retaliation. They entered the scene too late to be really competitive with the English and Dutch. The more revenue he got, the faster Louis depleted it.

Hermetic magic

fused with alchemical thought into a single intellectual framework;became a cause of Scientific revolution

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein

gothic literature was a form of literature used by Romantics to emphasize the bizarre and unusual, especially evident in horror stories. This showed how society was scared of what would happen if science took over too much.

the Great Elector

he came into power in the middle of the thirty yrs war. There was no natural barriers to protect Prussia so he made a competent and efficient army. He established the General War Commissariat to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training. This became the chief instrument for governing the state and many of its officials were nobles. Elector made a deal with nobles that in return for their help and not taking him over, they would have unlimited power over their peasants, exempted from taxes, and they got the highest ranks in the military and Commissariat. He also adhered to mercantilism. His son Frederick III aided the HRE in the War of the Spanish Succession and he was officially granted the title of king in Prussia.

Joseph Lister

he developed the antiseptic principle and realized that bacteria could enter a wound and cause infection. He used carbolic acid, a new disinfectant, to clean wounds, lowering infections during surgery immensely. They also found methods of anesthesia and public health measures were put into effect.

Frederick William I

he established the General Directory which served as the chief administrative agent of the central government, supervising military, police, economic, and financial affairs. He wanted to maintain a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers which had its own code with the main values of obedience, honor, and service to the king. He closely monitored the bureaucracy. The lower/middle classes were much less important, but were encouraged to work and try to gain an important administrative position.

Thomas More's Utopia

he held a government office and was a close friend of Erasmus. He still made time for religion though, and in 1516 he published Utopia. It described a world in which cooperation and reason were the motivating agents for human society. It reflected the economic, social, and political problems of his time. There was no private property and there was lots of leisure time. Utopia was an orderly world where social relations, recreation, and even travel were carefully controlled for the moral welfare of society and its members. He also justified his working for the King in his novel, saying that "you wouldn't abandon ship in a storm just because you couldn't control the winds"

Charles V

he inherited a great amount of land (result of Habsburg marriage) and tried to keep his control over these lands. His other goal was to maintain the unity of the Holy Catholic Church. He had issues though; the French and Charles had a dispute over some land which led to the Habsburg-Valois wars, meanwhile the pope was beginning to get frightened over how much power he was amassing and refused to help Charles deal with the Luther situation in Germany. This made Charles sack Rome. The Ottomans were continuing to encroach on European lands but stopped in Vienna. When he finally got around to dealing with Germany, the Protestants had grown but still lost when faced with the Spanish army. Later the protestant princes allied themselves with the French King, Henry II and forced Charles to make the Peace of Augsburg.

Gustavus Adolphus

he made Sweden into a great Baltic power and was a Lutheran. He joined the war to get land and to help Lutherans. He had a really good army that quickly made its way through North Germany, but suffered big losses in the heart of Germany to Wallenstein. Adolphus was killed during the battle and 2 yrs later Wallenstein was killed (orders of Ferdinand). Swedish troops are defeated and forced out of Southern Germany. Edict of Restitution is lifted, but the peace doesn't come. Swedes want to keep fighting and Cardinal Richelieu enters the war for France

John Calvin

he organized the second generation of Reformation and was the most determined of all Protestants. His ideas were very similar to Luther's, but he believed in the absolute sovereignty of God and predestination. He kept the same two sacraments as the other Protestant religions and Calvinism became a very active faith. Members of this church actively tried to spread the religion.

Pope Paul III

he practiced Renaissance Pope stuff himself, but was actually a turning point in the Catholic Reformation. He appointed a reform commission to get to the root of the problems within the papacy (problem was corrupt popes). He formally recognized the Jesuits and called the council of Trent.

Guglielmo Marconi

he sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901. Although most electricity was initially used for lighting, it was eventually put to use in transportation.

Francis Xavier

he spread Catholicism through the East and into Japan and China (this sparked an interest in China). He won back Poland and most of the other areas converted were through the Jesuits.

Immanuel Kant

he told people to "Dare to know? Have the courage to use your own intelligence!" This became the 'motto' of the Enlightenment, which consisted of philosophers who dared to know. This meant that they used scientific principles and reason as a means of discovering new things and about how the world around them functioned.

Philip II (aka "Most Catholic King"

he tried to maintain the property he inherited by strict Catholicism and a monarchy (which failed because territories and states had their own leaders). He had bad time management (no delegation) and the importation of silver actually hurt the economy. The expenses of war put Spain in debt, so they had to tax heavily. They were the country of god and had some good victories, but it was the Netherlands that brought them down (and relations with Elizabeth).

Henry VIII

he wanted out of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon (because she couldn't produce a male heir) but the pope wouldn't grant annulment because Charles V had him and Catherine was Charles' aunt. He then created a new church in England to get the annulment he wanted. Henry married Anne Boleyn and had Elizabeth. The Act of Supremacy was made and it declared that the king was the supreme head on earth of the church of England. The Treason Act made it punishable by death to deny that the king was the supreme head of the church, essentially making believing in the pope treason.

Leon Battista Alberti

he was a 15th century architect from Florence who said "Men can do all things if they will." This expressed the new belief of the Renaissance about the regard of human dignity/worth and that people were capable of more of success in many areas of life

Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary

he was a French Realist author. Madame Bovary was a depiction of barren and sordid small-town life in France. Emma is married to a drab doctor and she acts out of reading romantic novels and is unfaithful. She ends up committing suicide. Flaubert's contempt for bourgeois society was evident in his portrayal of middle-class hypocrisy and smugness.

Friedrich List

he was a German man who was a big supporter of the use of tariffs by the continental Europe. He visited America and returned to Germany and wrote National System of Political Economy in 1844. He advocated rapid and large-scale industrialization as the surest path to develop a naiton's strength. He felt that to do this, a nation must use protective tariffs. If they followed the British free trade system, British goods would flood their markets and a country would never be able to establish themselves as an industrial center. It would kill the fledgling businesses before they could even get started.

Heliocentric universe

idea in which the sun was at the center of the universe and 8 planets revolved around it, but the moon revolved around the earth, and moved in epicycles

24. Francisco Pizarro

he was a Spanish explore who landed on the pacific coast of south America. He had the guns and horses as all the others before did and the Incas had already been affected by the smallpox. The emperor fell sick, so his two sons started a civil war for the throne. Pizarro sided with Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother. He then killed Atahualpa and captured the Incan capital. 1535, Pizarro established a capital at Lima for a new colony of the Spanish Empire.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

he was a child prodigy who gave his first performance at age six and wrote his first opera at twelve. He wanted a patron, but the over demanding archbishop of Salzburg forced him to move to Vienna, where he could never find a permanent patron, making his life miserable. Nevertheless, he wrote a huge amount of works until he died bankrupt at the age of 35. He brought the concerto, symphony, and opera to their peaks. The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni are three of the world's greatest operas. He composed with an ease of melody and a blend of grace, precision, and emotion that arguably no one has ever excelled.

Eduard Bernstein

he was a member of the German Social Democratic Party who had spent years in exile in Britain, where he had been influenced by moderate English socialism and the British parliamentary system. he challenged Marxism with his book Evolutionary Socialism.

Cardinal Fleury

he was a minister for Louis XV. He pulled back from foreign adventures and focused on commerce and trade. The government encouraged the growth of industry, especially in coal and textiles. He even got the budget balanced for a while and left France in a good situation that Louis XV and Louis XVI went on to ruin.

Rembrandt van Rijn

he was a painter of the Dutch realism movement. As the Dutch commerce increased, so did the demand for paintings. They represented the interests of the wealthy burghers and were realistic portrayals of secular everyday life. Rembrandt painted opulent portraits and grandiose scenes in the beginning of his successful and prolific career. Then he turned to follow his own artistic path so he lost public support. He depicted many biblical scenes, making him one of the greatest Protestant painters of the seventeenth century.

Robert Owen

he was a reformer who created his own factory that provided everything the workers were asking for, but this failed pretty quickly because he didn't have enough support or money. And others weren't inspired to do the same because this way wasn't as profitable.

Franz Liszt

he was a romantic composer who invented the term symphonic poem to refer to his orchestral works, which did not strictly obey traditional forms and were generally based on a literary or pictorial idea.

William Wordsworth

he was a romantic poet who 'decried the destruction of the natural world.' There was lots of opposition to child labor and to women labor.

Ignatius Loyola

he was a soldier but got hurt and could no longer fight, so he decided to fight for God. He, like Luther, went through a spiritual torment, but instead of making a new doctrine, he decided to submit his will to the will of the church. He wrote a book, The Spiritual Exercises, that held exercises by which the human will could be strengthened and made to follow the will of God as manifested by the Catholic Church.

Thomas Malthus

he was a strong advocate of economic liberalism and wrote Essay on the Principles of Population, in which he argued that population, when unchecked, increases at a geometric rate while the food supply correspondingly increases at a slower rate. The result is severe overpopulation and ultimately starvation if growth is not checked. According to Malthus, nature should be the restraint and that misery and poverty were simply the inevitable result of the law of nature; no government or individual should interfere with its operation

34. Robert Clive

he was an aggressive British empire-builder who eventually became the chief representative of the East India Company in India. He consolidated power in Bengal, where the black hole thing happened. They won the battle of Plassey (small vs big) and got the right to collect taxes there

Ptolemy's Geography

he was an astronomer of the second century. His work was available to Arabs by the eighth century but wasn't translated into Latin until the fifteenth century (1477). It had a world map that did account for the curve of the earth. It had three major landmasses and the oceans were way smaller than they should have been. It also severely underestimated the circumference of the earth, which led early explorers to think that if would be feasible to sail west from Europe to reach Asia.

Thomas Newcommen

he was another instrumental contributor to the creation of the steam engine.

Henry IV

he was the result of the war of three Henries (1588-1589). Henry, duke of Guise, working on behalf of Philip II seized Paris and forced King Henry III to make him chief minister. Henry III assassinated the duke to rid himself of Guise influence and allied himself with Henry of Navarre to crush the Catholic Holy League. King Henry was killed by a monk who was angry he had aligned with a Calvinist and Henry of Navarre took the throne. This ended the religious wars and he made the edict of Nantes.

Edward VI

he was the successor of Henry VIII, but was underage and sickly. The job of ruling the country was passed on to a council of regency, which took England in a Protestant direction. They allowed the clergy to marry, eliminated images, and made the Book of Common Prayer

The Protestant family

in Catholicism, celibacy was considered holy and the only reason for a man to marry was so he wouldn't commit a sin. This idea was crushed with Protestantism and family became the center of life. Women got better education so they could worship with their husbands (together), but other than that women's lives didn't noticeable change during the Reformation.

Boer War

in began in 1899 and dragged on until 1902 as the boers proved to be an effective opponent. Due to the boers use of guerilla tactics the british sustained high casualties and immense expenses in securing victory. mass newspapers in britain reported on high casualties, costs, and brutalities against boer women and children, causing public outcry and arousing anti war sentiment at home.. Despite Britain's victory, the cost of the boer war demonstrated that increased military and monetary investment would be needed to maintain the british empire. British policy towards the defeated boers was remarkably conciliatory.

Philosophes

intellectuals of the Enlightenment who believed in applying a spirit of rational criticism to all things, including religion and politics, and who focused on improving and enjoying this world, rather than on the afterlife. They weren't just from the nobility, but were also of the middle class. The Enlightenment was an international movement, but criticism of the French government was the biggest as it had the most oppressive. Philosophes were censored, exiled, and put into jail for their work, but they found ways to get around this and their books were made available through back channels.

Credit Mobilier and Banque de Belgique

joint stock companies were one of the biggest advantages continental Europe had over Britain. They allowed people to invest however much they wanted, small or large, and only risk the exact amount they invested. This created large supplies of capital that could be reinvested into industry. Previously, most banks were merchant or private but the in 1830s the Banque de Belgique (a Belgian bank) took a new approach. They accepted savings from many depositors and developed large capital resources that they invested on large scale in railroads, mining, and heavy industry. The Credit Mobilier was established in France and they did the same thing as the Banque de Belgique. In Britain, private investors had invested on a small-scale while on the continent they invested on a large-scale.

Chapbooks

main form of education for the lower classes. They were printed on cheap paper and contained both spiritual and secular material (lives of saints and inspirational stories complete with crude satires and adventure stories). These showed that popular culture could be passed down through writing, but that was all dependent on the literacy rates of the lower classes.

Congress of Berlin

met in the summer of 1878 and was dominated by bismarck. It effectively demolished the treaty of san stefano. The new bulgarian state was considerable reduced and the rest of the territory was returned to ottoman control. The three balkan states of Serbia, montenegro and romania until then nominally under the ottoman control, were recognized as independent. The other balkan territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under austrian protection, though they could not be annexed.

Epicycles

movements of planets in perfect circle

Carbonari

much of Italy was under Austrian control and were reactionary (eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment), but some secret societies were motivated by nationalistic dreams and known as the Carbonari ("charcoal burners") continued to conspire and plan for revolution. The Spanish revolution was successful until Metternich intervened and everything went back to the way it was.

"open door" policy

n 1899 urged along by the american secretary of state, John Hay, they agreed to an open door policy in which one country would not restrict the commerce of the other countries in its sphere of influence.

Huguenots

name for French Calvinists. They were about 10% of the population, but were cause for worry (for Catholics) because they accounted for 40-50 % of nobility

Mannerism and El Greco

new art form that reflected the feelings of anxiety, uncertainty, suffering, and a yearning for spiritual experience in Europe during this time period. El Greco was a famous mannerism artist (real name: Domenikos Theotocopoulos). They deliberately distorted the rules of proportion by portraying elongated figures that conveyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion.

The Roaring Twenties

nickname given to the 1920s which emphasized social, artistic, and cultural change

Classical economics

otherwise known as economic liberalism or laissez faire, it was the belief that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand. The government's only jobs were the defense of the country, police protection of individuals, and the construction and maintenance of public works too expensive for individuals to undertake.

Press-ganged

people didn't want to volunteer to work on the navy ships because of bad conditions and disease, so they were forced to by the British government.

the Jacobins

people were becoming increasingly unhappy with the new government because of multiple reasons; the clergy was mad at the civil constitution, the peasants were angry because there was a rise in the cost of living (inflation of the assignat), and political clubs were popping up everywhere, with more and more radical ideas. The Jacobins was the most famous of these clubs. The club started at the beginning of the revolution and they occupied the Jacobin convent in Paris. There were other meeting places across the nation and they discussed their radical ideas. Generally were the elite of their society, but artisans and tradespeople were included too.

Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron

poetry was the main literary form of Romantics. Percy Bysshe Shelley was expelled from school for advocating atheism and he went on to write Prometheus Unbound which showed humans revolting against the laws and customs that oppress them. Lord Byron dramatized himself as a Romantic hero in his work.

Realism

realism was a school of painting that emphasized the everyday life of ordinary people, depicted with photographic accuracy. This was a direct rejection of Romanticism and on the literary front, avoided poetry and didn't have unrealistic heroes in weird situations.

Overproduction and cyclical depressions

regarding living conditions, there was more food for everyone, but the wages received were very small. Prices and wages were always fluctuating, so the living conditions fluctuated. Overproduction when there was a drop of demand was terrible. It would cause a momentary depression and if the whole town depended on one industry, the affects were devastating. These cyclical depressions happened frequently and caused high unemployment and increased social tensions.

Realshule and Volkshulen

schools in the Enlightenment were meant to keep people confined to their specific social class and just taught the tools of their specific trade. They were still largely being taught classic information, but complaint eventually led to education on modern material. The German Realshule (Berlin 1747) was the first school that offered modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for careers in business. Schooling also just relied upon the effort of the local community. The Volkshulen of the Habsburg Austrian Empire was the first state-supported primary schools, although only one in four actually attended.

August Comte and "positive knowledge"

science was applied to the realm of human activity once again and this was most prominent in Frenchman August Comte's work. He created a system of "positive knowledge" based on a hierarchy of sciences, with the science of human society at the top (economic, anthropology, history, and social psychology). Sociology was supposed to find general laws of society based on the collection and analysis of data on humans and their social environment.

fontenelle

secretary of the french royal academy of sciences from 1691 to 1741. wrote purity of worlds, which was written in format of a conversation between a couple under the night sky about the stars. popularized science knowledge and contributed to the growing skepticism.

Peter Stolypin

served as the tsar's chief adviser form late 1906 until his assassination in 1911, important agrarian reforms dissolved the village ownership of land and opened the door do private ownership by enterprising peasants.

Aletta Jacob and "family planning"

she founded the first birth control clinic Initially family planning was the suggestion of reformers who thought that the problem of poverty could be solved by reducing the number of children among lower classes. The practice spread quickly among the propertied class rather than impoverished.

Madame de Pompadour

she is the most famous of all of Louis XV's mistresses. She was smart and good-looking. She gained both wealth and power and was so influential that she was making important government decisions and giving advice on appointments and foreign policy.

Elizabeth I

she was the daughter Anne Boleyn (#2) and Henry VIII. She led with great skill and managed to keep both protestants and Catholics happy by staying in the middle. She avoided wars and kept good relations, making the need for cash small. Puritans were a small problem and so was her cousin Mary. Eventually she sided with the rebels in the Netherlands and Spain attacked but England won.

Mary Astell

she was the daughter of a wealthy English coal merchand and argued that women needed to become better educated and there should be equality of the sexes in marriage. If absolute sovereignty no longer existed in government then why should it exist in family life?

Elizabeth Blackwell

she was the first woman to be accepted and finish medical school (at the Geneva College of Medicine). New medical schools had just been established and a bar was finally set as to who can have a surgeon's license and who can't. After Blackwell, others tried to get into medical school but when they couldn't, women made their own medical schools. This didn't even really help though because everyone else refused to recognize the schools as legitimate so the women couldn't find jobs and they couldn't get licenses.

Rasputin

siberian peasant whom tsarina thought was a faith healer capable of healing alexis' hemophilia.his influence made him a power behind throne and interfered in government affairs, assassinated by conservative aristocrats in december 1916

Pan-German League

stressed strong german nationalism and advocated imperialism as a tool to overcome social divisions and unite all classes, also anti-semitic and denounced jews as destroyers of national community

sweatshops and "sweating"

sweating referred to the subcontracting of piecework usually, but not exclusively, in the tailoring trades; it was done at home poorly paid and worked long hours.

the Football Association and National and American Leagues

team sports developed into a form of mass leisure. The rules were products of these organized athletic groups. New team sports soon became professionalized. The national and american leagues had a monopoly over professional baseball. Teams became object of mass adulation by crowds of urbanites who compensated their lost sense of identity in mass urban areas by developing these new loyalties.

the marquis de Lafayette

the American Revolution was a big cause of the French revolution. Accounts of the American revolution had made it to Europe and were spread through books, newspapers, and magazines. It proved that Enlightened ideas were possible. Much of this information came from returning soldiers, among them was the marquis de Lafayette. He was a noble who volunteered to fight in America to get back at Britain. He worked closely with George Washington and came back with American ideas about government and politics. He joined the Society of Thirty (Paris salon club). The French Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen shows strong resemblance to the American constitution, probably because of soldiers like Lafayette.

Louis XVIII and Charles X

the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France with Louis XVIII. He accepted the Civil Code and its recognition of equality before the law and the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated lands during the Revolution were preserved. A bicameral legislature was established. There were some liberals mad that he didn't accept more revolutionary ideas while the ultraroyalists criticized him keeping so many ideas. When Charles X took over, the ultras were rewarded and he granted an indemnity to aristocrats whose land was taken during the revolution and he supported the Catholic church. There was much anger at this so he adopted a ministerial system, where ministers were responsible for legislature, but he soon violated this agreement and France was ready for another revolution.

37. Lord Macartney and Emperor Qianlong:

the British and Chinese established primitive trade routes with each other and it brought considerable profit to the East India Company. This made the British want more trade with the Chinese. Lord Macartney (1793) went to Beijing to get more trade but the Emperor Qianlong said no.

31. Batavia:

the Dutch started to seize Portuguese forts in Inda and started to push them out of the spice trade. They drove out the English too. To consolidate their political and military control over the area, they established a port at Batavia (Java- Spice Islands). 1619, the Dutch found it necessary to bring the inland regions under their control to protect their position. The DEIC made pepper plantations and they produced massive profits for the Dutch. They had almost all of Indonesia by the end of the eighteenth century.

William Shakespeare

the Elizabethan era welcomed cultural advancements and the theatre was a very big part of that. Tickets were available to everybody, so play writes had to appeal to a variety of audiences. Shakespeare did much more than write plays, but that is what he is most famous for. He had incredible insight into human psychology and his plays exhibited a remarkable understanding of the human condition.

the National Assembly

the First Estate voted for a vote by order, so the Third Estate responded by declaring they were going to write a constitution and become the "National Assembly." They national assembly was never the actual government, but they helped to structure the government. They were 'in charge' when the Great Fear originated. Peasants started to revolt and even thought the king supported them. Then they began to fear invasion, either by foreign countries or the angry nobles, so they made their own militias and armies. The National Assembly voted to get rid of the feudal system and the special privileges of nobles.

Girondins and the Mountain

the Girondins were the representatives of the provinces, while the Mountain represented the urban population (middle class). They were both members of the Jacobin club. The Girondins were in favor of keeping the king alive and the Mountain wanted him dead. They won out and killed the king in 1793, completely destroying the old regime. But this was also fuel for counterrevolutionaries. Then the Commune started influencing the convention. They were the local government and decided to kill all the Girondins to get what they wanted. But the Convention had trouble ruling France.

23. The Inca and Pachakuti

the Incas had control over the Western coast of South America. Cuzco was their capital and Pachakuti was their leader. He separated the land into four quarters, each ruled by a governor. Each quarter was divided into provinces and they were each ruled by a governor. Governors were related to the royal family and at the top of the entire system was the emperor, who was believed to be descended from the sun god. They built 24,800 miles of road.

escape to Varennes

the National Assembly was still having problems with tax collection, so the economy was still terrible. While they were preoccupied, the king tried to flee France because he didn't like the revolution. He was recognized and captured in Varennes. The people then wanted the unfaithful king to be deposed, but the National Assembly feared a republic. They tried to hide the fact that he had run away, but everyone saw through it. The Legislative Assembly was then called into session. This Assembly consisted of educated people who were known only through their local politics. They were often members of Jacobin Clubs, the National Guard, and were men of property.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

the National Convention abolished slavery not only in the nation of France, but also in their colonies, which was controversial because of the prolific profit they made from the colonies. In Saint Domingue, Haiti, though, there had already been a slave revolt and the island was taken over by the slaves, led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. When Napoleon came into power, he implemented slavery in the West Indian colonies again and captured L'Ouverture. The French army though had suffered from disease, gave in to the rebels, and Saint Domingue was the first free state in Latin America.

Reign of Terror

the National Convention and Committee of Public Safety made this to deal with internal opposition to the Revolution. They killed anyone who opposed any part of the Revolution, regardless of social class (though mostly peasants were killed). Most of the executions occurred in the rebelling cities. The army was used to bring counterrevolutionary cities to support the Revolution by force. They used any means necessary to kill quickly and to dispose of the bodies quickly. It was said that the republic would be put into action after the crisis was over and all this killing was justified by the "general will" theory of Rousseau.

National Convention

the National Convention was called when the sans-culottes started to get out of hand. It acted as the ruling body and were tasked with creating another new constitution. It consisted of mainly lawyers, professionals, and property owner, but for the first time it also included artisans. A majority of the representatives were under age forty-five, but had political experience through the Revolution. They didn't trust the king, so the first thing they did was establish a monarchy. Then the members disagreed on the fate of the king, so they spilt into the Girondins and the Mountain.

George Stephenson's Rocket

the Rocket was the first public railway line which opened in 1830, extending 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester. It went at 16 mph and was a very cheap system of transportation as opposed to the previous travel methods. Stephenson and his son were to first to make locomotives for the railroads.

Third Estate

the Third Estate consisted of most of the population and was divided into three different groups, because of its size: the peasants, the bourgeoisie, and the urban middle class. The peasants, while free, still had obligations to the state. They didn't make much money, had to pay lots of taxes (and tithes), and had very few rights. The urban middle class saw a rise in bread prices, but no rise in wages. This was cause for a lot of resentment of the government. The bourgeoisie had a good amount of money and many were well educated. Because they weren't nobles, they didn't get the special privileges, but some were just a rich. They were big supporters of the revolution and tried to obtain noble status by getting high political positions.

Abbe Sieyes

the Third Estate pushed really hard for a vote by head so that they could get a say in the government. Abbe Sieyes was a strong advocate for this. He said that the Third Estate was everything, yet it got nothing in the government. He was in favor of a republic government while most of the rest of the country still wanted a monarchy, somewhat revised.

Steamboats

the United States was a large country and they didn't have a good system of internal transportation. This limited the American economic development because transporting goods was very expensive. Road and canals were built linking the country together, but what really helped American transportation were the steamboats and railroads. The steamboats facilitated transportation on the Great Lakes, Atlantic coastal waters, and rivers (especially the Mississippi valley). The railroads spread very quickly and these innovations tuned the United States into a big industrial center (especially the Northeast)

the Vendee

the Vendee was a department of the National Convention. The peasants revolted against the draft in Vendee. There was a big counterrevolutionary push after the Vendean rebellion. People were asking for the return of the king and of the old regime. It spread across France's provincial cities (mainly Lyons and Marseilles). They wanted a republic that wasn't run for all of Paris' wants and needs.

Theodore Herzl and Zionism

the author of "The Jewish State" in 1896, which advocated the creation of a new Jewish homeland. Was originally a conservative Jewish reporter who covered the Drefus trial in France. this trial was an example of extreme anti-Semitism, involving fake evidence against a Jewish military officer. Convinced him that there would be no possible assimilation for the Jews in Europe, that they would need to find a homeland of their own

Balkans' Crises

the bosnian crisis of 1908- 1909 initiated a chain of events that eventually spun out of control. since 1878 bosnia and herzegovina had been under the protection of austria but in 1908 Austria annexed the two countries because it was afraid that serbia would be a threat to the unity of austrian hungarian empire with its large slavic population. the russians supported the serbs desiring to increase their own authority in the balkans. With the russian support, the serbs prepared for war against the austrians. William II intervened demanding the russians do accept the austrian annexation of bosnia and herzegovina or face war with Germany. Due to their defeat in the Russo Japanese war, the Russians backed down.Serbia, Bulgaria Montenegro and Greece organized the balkan league and defeated the ottomans in the first balkan war. Unable to divide the conquered ottoman land, the second balkan war erupted in 1913. Greece serbia, romania and the ottoman empire defeated bulgaria, who then obtained macedonia and and the rest of the land was divided between serbia and greece.

Suez Canal

the british took an active interest in egypt after the suez canal was opened by the French in 1869. Believing that the canal was their lifeline to india, the british sought to control the canal area. Egypt was a well established state that had an autonomous Muslim state though it did not stop the british from landing an expeditionary force there in 1882. although they claimed that their occupation was only temporary, they soon established a protectorate over egypt.

July 4, 1776

the date the Declaration of Independence was approved. This declared freedom from Britain, gave people the natural rights of the Enlightenment, and officially started American independence. The American revolution had been started because the British government was just using the colonies as a source of revenue and they implemented tons of taxes. The American and British view of what government should look like differed greatly and this caused a war for the independence of the nation.

France's Third Republic

the defeat of France by the prussian army in 1870 brought the downfall of Louis Napoleon's second empire French republicans initially set up a provisional government, which soon became a government chosen by universal male suffrage.The constitution of 1875 intended only as a stopgap measure, solidified the republic which lasted 65 years. The hands of the republicans were strengthened, instituting ministerial responsibility and establishing power of the chamber of deputies.

white-collar jobs

the development of larger industrial plants and the expansion of government services created a large number of service or white collar jobs.they worked at low wages, coupled with a shortage of male workers, led employers to hire women.The expansion of government services created opportunities for women to be secretaries and telephone operators and to take job in health and social services.

the assembly line

the development of precision tools enabled manufacturers to produce interchangeable parts, which in turn led to the creation of the assembly line for production. first used in United States for small arms and clocks, the assembly line had moved to Europe by 1850

Boy Scouts

the emphasis on manliness stemmed not only from military concerns but also conceptions of masculinity in the late 19t century. Boy scouts promoted the image of manliness with stories of youthful heroes who demonstrated their self control by conquering the challenges of the wild. The boy scouts sought to reinforce victorian and edwardian codes of masculinity do counter the possible dangers that female domination of the home posed for male development.

Factory act

the first string of factory acts were passed between 1802 and 1819 that limited labor for children between ages of 9 and 16 to 12 hours a day and the employment of children under the age of 9 were forbidden. Children were to receive instruction during working hours. But these only applied to cotton mills and not to factories or mines, where some of the worst abuses were happening. The factory act of 1833 strengthened the first string and now all textile factories were included. Hours were decreased to 8 for kids and 12 for teens. Inspectors were hired so that the laws would actually be enforced.

Richard Arkwright and James Hargreaves

the flying shuttle had increased the need for yarn, and James Hargreaves's spinning jenny (1768) enabled spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities. Richarad Arkwright's water frame spinning machine, powered by water or horse, increased cotton production even more. The water frame presented a new opportunity for entrepreneurs to place all their factories on the river and focus all of their employees into one area.

"banknotes"

the government backed this money system and gained money on the interest they made from these and it created "nation debt" as opposed to the debt of a monarch.

geocentric universe

the idea that planets revolved in perfect circular orbits around the earth in the universe

Richard Arkwright's "water-frame"

the introduction of cotton was caused a huge demand for the new, lightweight clothes that were cheaper than linens and wools. The cottage industry couldn't keep up with the demand, so new machines, like the flying shuttle, were invented to speed up the process. Richard Arkwright invented the "water frame," which was powered by a horse or water that turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels. This abundance of yarn caused more machines to be invented and it threatened the lower class tons because the machines were stealing all of their jobs.

"We are bringing back the baker...."

the king originally refused to recognize the new decrees made by the National Assembly, but he was forced to change his mind. This all started with the women's march for lower bread prices. The women were angry because they couldn't feed their children, so they marched to the town hall of Paris. The official there said he had no control over it, so they marched twelve miles to Versailles. They appealed to the king directly and he promised bread, but then the National Guard saw his weakness and forced him to return to Paris. "We are bringing back the baker..." is a song they sung on the way back to Paris. The king was now basically a prisoner in Paris and he had to agree to the new decrees.

Emile Zola and Leo Tolstoy

the novel of the French writer Emile Zola provided a good example of Naturalism. Against a backdrop of the urban slums and coalfields of northern France , Zola showed how alcoholism and different environment affected people's lives. He had read Darwin's Origin of Species and had been impressed by its emphasis on the struggle for survival and the importance of environment and heredity the nineteenth century realistic novel reached its high point in the works of Leo Tolstoy and Fydor Dostoevesky. Tolstoy's greatest work was War and Peace, a lengthy novel played out against the historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. It is realistic in its vivid descriptions of military life and character portrayal.Upon a great landscape, Tolstoy imposed a fatalistic view of history that ultimately proved irrelevant in the face of life's enduring values of human love and trust.

"new elites"

the old elites were the land-owners that used to be such a prominent part of society when farming was the biggest business. The new elites were the factory owning men, who thrived during the industrial revolution. Elite status could now be achieved by having enough wealth as opposed to having to be a land owner to be part of the upper class.

James Watt and the rotary engine

the steam engine was an integral part of the industrial revolution because it allowed the factory system to spread to other areas of production and revolutionized the production of cotton goods. In the 1760s James Watt created an engine powered by steam that could pump water from mines three times as quickly as previous engines. In 1782, Watt enhanced the steam engine by creating the rotary engine which could apply steam power to spinning and weaving cotton. The steam engine allowed factories to be moved into cities because it operated on coal. This made a huge boom in the production of textiles in Britain.

Suburbs

the wealthy, factory-owning middle class situated themselves in the outer ring of the city in the suburbs- away from the 'dirty' lower class. The working class generally lived in the middle of the city in overcrowded and unsanitary tenements. There was no sewage system, so the streets were used as sewers and open drains. The towns were so unhealthy that the only reason populations grew in cities was the constant flow of more people to them. In addition to this, shop owners would dilute or alter the food so that they could charge more while the quality of the food went down.

Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

this book is a good representation of the way people saw the world during the Enlightenment. It stated that the main cause of the fall of Rome was the growth of Christianity. This blaming Christianity was common in the writing of history during the Enlightenment and they were also trying to educate people, so the history was made entertaining, probably distorting it some.

Potatoes and maize

there was a so called 'agricultural revolution' in the eighteenth century that led to better crops, which meant more food for livestock, which meant more manure, which meant more fertilizer and better crops. New techniques and tools were made to increase the growth of crops. They abandoned the old open field technique which required leaving one row fallow. Instead they put new crops in different places, which replenished nutrients while growing food. Potatoes and corn were great crops from the new world that led to better diets for the lower classes. They required little work and potatoes could be kept all winter long.

Ireland's Great Hunger

there was large population growth in Ireland, but there weren't enough jobs to keep up. Many people lived in mud hovels and desperate poverty. Potatoes made up pretty much their entire diet and in 1845 when the potatoes were blighted by a fungus that turned them black, half of Ireland's population started to starve. More than a million died and another two million emigrated to America. Ireland was pretty much the only European country whose population declined during the time of the Industrial Revolution.

Racine and Moliere

these two men were French play writes. The French theatre took center stage after the English and Spanish craze dropped. They wrote for a more elite audience and depended on royal patronage. They used a classical style that emphasized the clever, polished, and correct over the emotional and imaginative. They derived their themes and plots form Greek and Roman sources. Racine wrote a play that very closely followed the plot of the Greek 'Hippolytus'. He perfected the French neoclassical tragic style and focused on conflicts such as between love and honor or inclination and duty that characterized and revealed the tragic dimensions of life. Moliere wrote comedies that often satirized the religious and social world of his time and was got money from Louis XIV. He ridiculed religious hypocrisy in 'Tartuffe' and this got him in big trouble and the king was the one who stopped him from being persecuted.

God, glory, and gold

these were the main motives for exploration. God- the Christians wanted to gain more followers because of the reformation and the protestant religions wanted religious freedom. Glory- the lands Europeans were searching for were said to be riddled with gold, and magnificent. And the people who discovered the new lands would go down in history and advance their country. Gold- the monarchies that had been established were looking for new means of revenue. If they found the gold they were searching for then their economy would get better and the country could move up as a whole.

natural rights

these were the rights that Locke coined in his teachings. Basically, life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness/property/whatever. These were a main focus of the Enlightenment and the fact that they were included in the American Constitution gave people hope that these rights didn't just exist in a Utopia.

Lateen sails and square rigs

these, along with other technological advancements in ships (axial rudder), made ships mobile enough to sail against the wind and engage in naval warfare and also large enough to mount heavy cannons and carry a substantial amount of goods over long distances.

music halls and dance halls

they appeared in the second half of the nineteenth century. the first music hall in London was constructed in 1849 for a lower class audience. by 1880 there were 500 of them. promoters gradually made them more respectable and broadened their fare to entice both women and children to attend the program.The new dance halls which were all the rage by 1900 were more strictly oriented towards adults.

Puritans

they wanted James to eliminate the episcopal system of the church in favor of the Presbyterian system that was implemented in Scotland. James, though, realized that he would have much more power if he kept the Anglican religion because it allowed him to select the bishops. This angered the puritans who made up most of the House of Commons. They were mainly gentry, who were the people just below nobles in society.

sans-culottes

they were the members of another new assembly that acted as the French government. They didn't wear pants, thus the name sans-culottes occurred. Mostly the working people, but there were many merchants and better-off artisans who were often the elite of their neighborhood trades that joined.

French Parlements

thirteen law courts that were responsible for registering royal decrees and could block royal edicts by not registering them. Their power increased in the eighteenth century and they were defenders of "liberty." But they also pushed for their own ideas and mainly blocked taxes that weren't appealing to them.

35. "Black Hole of Calcutta":

this was an underground prison for holding the presoners, many of whom died in captivity. The Bengals had attacked Fort William and imprisoned the local British population here. They battle of Plassey saved them all.

Working class

this class was created by the industrial revolution. It was actually a mixture of the skilled artisans, who feared industrialization because they knew that their jobs were quickly disappearing, the laborers in the factories, who were treated terribly and not paid near enough, and the servants, who were generally women that quickly became entirely dependent on their owners.

Poor Law Commissioners

this commission was issued by the British government to investigate the conditions of the lower class. It was found that working children were smaller and scrawnier than others, as well as lower class families were more subject to disease. These terrible conditions led many members of the lower class to resort to prostitution, crime, and sexual immorality. The secretary was Edwin Chadwick.

Temple of Reason

this dealt with the de-Christianization policy, which tried to create a secular society by eliminating Christian forms and institution from French society. The cathedral of Notre-Dame was renamed the Temple of Reason, and all other religious references were destroyed, including the calendar. Instead of worshipping God, a ceremony was held to worship reason. But this backfired because France was still mainly Catholic.

Act of Supremacy

this declared that the king was the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England

Pietism

this developed in Germany and was a response to the desire for a deeper personal devotion to God (because deism was all about God being absent from the world around us). A group of German cleric made this in the seventeenth century because they wanted their religion to be more personal. It was spread by Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf who believed that the mystical dimensions were what constituted real religious experience and he strongly opposed the rational ideas.

Catholic Reformation

this is the revival of Roman Catholicism (aka Counter-reformation). It brought back the best aspects of medieval Catholicism. Many new orders were made as propaganda for the catholic church. Old: Benedictines and Dominicans. New: Capuchins (cared for sick/poor, preached Gospel directly to people), Treatines (founded orphanages, hospitals), and Ursulines (order of nuns focused attention on establishing schools for girls). And St. Teresa's vision group and Jesuits

Joseph II's Toleration Patent

this is the4 best example of religious toleration. Joseph II of Austria made this and it recognized Catholicism's public practice, granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately. In all other ways, everybody was equal.

Spanish Popular Front

this party won the Spanish election in 1936 and was the legitimate successors, however, the Falangists wanted power and Franco began the Civil War

John Lock's tabula rasa

this proposed that everybody was born with a blank mind that was modeled and affected by the environment and experiences around somebody. This was combined with Isaac Newton's scientific method by the philosophes who then believed that they were capable of changing the world. If they could apply reason to all aspects of life, then change the society, that would change every person in it.

Bill of Rights

this proposed twelve amendments to the constitution and the ten that were ratified are known as the Bill of Rights. These rights were derived from the natural rights of the Enlightenment and were the epitome of the European Enlightenment ideals.

Ten Hours Act

this reduced the workday for children between 13 and 18 to ten hours. Women were also bow included in the ten hour limitations. Coal Mines Act eliminated children under 10 and women from working in mines.

Methodism

this religion emphasized that people "reborn in Jesus" must forgo immoderation and follows a disciplined path. Laziness and wasteful habits were sinful. The acceptance of hardship in this life paved the way for the joys of the next. This was a perfect philosophy for the industrial factory workers and helped people transition. This religion also didn't demand that people give their excess money to the church (like Catholicism had done), so people had more money to invest or for their food.

Test Act

this specified that only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices. In response to the DOI and Parliament. Whigs- wanted to exclude James. Tories- wanted James to keep with status quo

43. The asiento

this was Britain's first entry into Spanish American markets in 1713, when they were granted the priviledge of transporting 4500 slaves a year into Spanish Latin America. Basically all the countries were trying to keep their economies alive and so they wouldn't let others into their trade

Balance of Power

this was a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another. This was the main guidelines for the redistribution of lands after the Napoleonic Wars. To balance Russian gains, Austria and Prussia were also strengthened. They still feared France as a major power, so barriers were made on French borders. Netherlands was combined Dutch Republic and Austrian Netherlands now ruled by and Orange. Piedmont was enlarged. Prussia was strengthened and a new Germanic Confederation of the Rhine was created. Because Napoleon returned for a short stint and the French people were so supportive of him, French borders were pushed back to that of 1790 and they had to pay for war debts and be occupied for five years.

33. British East India Company

this was a joint-stock company for Britain (obvi).

the guillotine

this was a new killing machine that was invented for the Reign of Terror. It provided quick and efficient separation of the head from the body and was 'painless'

the Bastille

this was an armory/jail in Paris. The common people were mad because the King was trying to take defensive measures by increasing the number of troops at the arsenals in Paris and along the roads to Versailles. They attacked Bastille to get weapons. There were seven prisoners and really not very much firepower. The fortress was easily defended but the insurgents won nevertheless. The defending captain chose to negotiate as opposed to fight and risk his life. This showed Louis XVI that he didn't have reliable soldiers and this was when his power really started to crumble. He no longer had the means to enforce anything and was helpless.

44. Inflation

this was caused by two reasons- metals from the new world and increase in population. The lower class again suffered greatly. The employers didn't increase wages while prices rose in the markets. Governments imposed more taxes on their people.

Addison and Steele's Spectator

this was one of the most important magazines in Great Britain that begun in 1711. Its purpose was not only to instruct, but also to entertain (one of the chief goals of the philosophes). They wanted to bring philosophy into the open and have it be accessible for everyone. It praised family, marriage, and courtesy, and also had an appeal to women (The Female Spectator was soon started, which was edited and written by women for women).

Law of General Maximum

this was the attempt of the government to deal with the bread problem. They sent out "representatives on a mission" to implement and explain wartime policies, as well as put controls on the price of food and general necessities. Although this was a good thought, the government didn't have the bureaucracy to maintain it.

French-Indian War

this was the biggest area of conflict in the Seven Years' War, in North America. Two main areas were the rivers leading to French land in Quebec and the Ohio River valley. The French were expanding southward, causing a roadblock to British expansion westward. The Indians allied with the French because they were less threatening. French had initial success but William Pitt the Elder was focused on conquests in America, so he concentrated resources on winning in America. The British navy took out French ships so they couldn't easily resupply. The British then went on to win a bunch of battles.

Salvation by faith

this was the core belief of most protestant religions. There was no need to do whatever the Pope says, because he has no basis in the Scriptures. You didn't have to buy indulgences or do any of the random doctrines the papacy suggested, just believe in God and his promises and you would have a spot in heaven.

The country house

this was the last period of time in which the aristocrats could truly enjoy their carefree way of life. Many nobles were still involved in court life, but now the country home was becoming popular for the landowners that didn't participate in court life. The huge estates were built in the Georgian style, combining elegance with domesticity. It represented the growing desire for privacy. The lower floors were for the public and the upper ones for the family only. The slaves or peasants that worked on the estate were now housed in a separate wing of the house. The drawing room became more ornate, signifying the influence of women. They would also build walls of wildlife to separate themselves from the peasants and the outside world.

the bourgeoisie

this was the middle class who accounted for about 8% of the population and owned about 20-25% of the land. They were merchants, industrialists, and bankers. They benefited from the economic prosperity after 1730. They also included educated professionals like lawyers, doctors, writers, etc. They had the same amount of money as nobles but didn't have the status, so they didn't get special privileges. This made them mad and they wanted a change. They didn't like the rigid social class system that didn't account for anything other than what social class you were in. Some could become nobles of the robe by getting public offices.

Decembrist Revolt

this was the rebellion of the military leaders of the Northern Union against the accession of Nicholas instead of Constantine to the Russian throne. It was quickly crushed by Nicholas's troops and the leaders were executed. This revolt caused Nicholas to change from conservative to reactionary to avoid another rebellion at all costs. He strengthened the bureaucracy and the secret police. They deported any dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance of foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion. He became the 'policeman of Europe' because he despised revolution so much and used the Russian military to crush revolutions.

"dictated peace"

through the treaty of versailles germany had to reduce its army to 100,000 men, cut back its navy, and eliminate its air force. German territorial losses included the cession of alsace and lorraine to france and sections of prussia do the new polish state. Outraged by the dictated peace, the new german government vowed to resist rather than accept the treaty but it had no real alternative.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

to deal with the debt problems, the National Assembly confiscated church lands and forced them to agree to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This stated that official of the church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state. Many refused because the Pope condemned it and this was fuel for the counterrevolutionaries (big mistake especially because a majority of the population was churchgoing peasants). The other thing they did to deal with debt was create assignats, a form of paper money.

Thomas Cook

was a british pioneer of mass tourism. Secretary do british temperance group, cook had been responsible for organizing the railroad trip do temperance gatherings in 1841. this experience led him do offer trips on regular basis after he found that he could make substantial profits by renting special trains, lowering prices and increasing the number of passengers. in 1867 he offered tours to paris and by the 1880's to switzerland.

English Civil War

when Charles I took over, Parliament passed the Petition of Right which the king was supposed to accept before being granded any tax revenues. The petition prohibited taxation without Parliament's consent, arbirtrary imprisonment, the quarting of soldiers in private houses, and the declaration of martial law in peacetime. He initially accepted it but soon became frustrated and refused to call Parliament into session. He got money from ship taxes, but when the Louds tried to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on the Scots, they revolted and Charles needed money. He called them to the 'long parliament' and triennial act was passed, along with other laws to limit the king's power. Part of Parliament wanted to stop there but the other half wanted the elimination of bishops in the Anglican Church. Charles tried to take advantage of this split but that just angered Parliament and they slipped into civil war. Oliver Cromwell and Parliament were successful in the first civil war that ended with the capture of Charles and the creation of the New World Army. Second civil war started after another split within Parliament, Charles trying to take advantage, and him fleeing and seeking refuge in Scotland. Cromwell won and took over the government and Charles was beheaded.

French Classicism

when France replaced Italy as the cultural center of Europe, they kept the classical values of the High Renaissance. It had an emphasis on clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmony of design. It represented the French shift from chaos to order. It continued the conception of grandeur in the portrayal of noble subjects.

"Wilkes and Liberty"

when George III elected his close friend Lord Bute to be the Prime Minister, lots of people were really mad. They thought that he was incompetent and that it wasn't right for the King to just elect his friend. John Wilkes was the biggest opponent of having Lord Bute be prime minister and eventually he was arrested for printing libelous material. A crowd formed outside of the jail and started chanting "Wilkes and liberty" and things like that. The police feared they would try to break him out of jail so they opened fire on the crowd, incurring disturbances all over London.

Johann Tetzel and indulgences

when St. Peter's Basilica was being built, the papacy had to have a way to pay for it. They invented indulgence which would supposedly shorten your, or your loved ones', time in purgatory. Johann Tetzel was chief marketer or salesman of indulgences. The indulgences were really the start of the protestant religions

the Tennis Court Oath

when the National Assembly came to meet, they found themselves locked out of their meeting place. They then moved to a nearby indoor tennis court and took an oath to meet until they had written a new constitution. This was the first step in the French Revolution. They had no real right to be meeting, the king just did nothing to stop it. When the First Estate, and the king, finally decided to do something about it, they were distracted by the uprisings of the commoners. The storming of the Bastille is said to have saved the National Assembly.

Marx's Das Kapital

when there weren't revolutions in 1848, Marx went to London and started on Das Kapital. He only finished one volume but Engels edited the book about political economy after Marx's death. One of the reasons he was unable to finish Das Kapital was his involvement in organizing the working-class movement.

The Gold Coast

where Prince Henry the Navigator and the Portuguese finally found gold

witches

witchcraft was nothing new to Europe, but it rose dramatically. Now witches were also associated with the devil and therefore witchcraft was heresy that had to be wiped out (inquisition). People who were accused of being witches were tortured until they admitted to working with the devil. Nobody stool any chance at surviving once they were put on trial. Religious uncertainty played a large role in the rise of witchcraft (protestant areas =more witches). Women were prosecuted more because they were thought to be inferior beings and it was only natural for them to be taken over by the devil. Witchcraft declined by the seventeenth century because of religious toleration, monarchies didn't like the divisive conditions generated by witch trials, and people were more educated.

"yellow press"

with a dramatic increase in literacy after 1871 there was the rise of mass circulation newspapers. Yellow press were newspapers that shared common characteristics. they were written in easily understood style and tended toward the sensational

Nicolaus Copernicus

wrote "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres";mathematician who felt Ptolemy's geocentric system was too complicated and offered a heliocentric conception

cesare beccaria

wrote "on crimes and punishments" argued against extreme, cruel, and capital punishments. and that punishments should only serve as deterrents.