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BENCHMARKING

Another planning tool that is often used is benchmarking, when a person or organization measures performance against an internal or external standard. Benchmarks provide comparisons for an organization that can reveal its current standing and aid the organization in setting future performance goals. Benchmarking is a great tool to identify the areas where other organizations are excelling. Once these areas are identified, it can suggest ways to improve future performance. One way to find these improvement ideas is to look for best practices, which are methods or activities that are believed to yield superior outcomes. The best approach is to find best practices both inside and outside the organization, and apply them where possible to achieve higher performance.

multidimensional thinking.

As a manager, it is essential to have the ability to recognize and evaluate many problems at once and how they relate to each other, an approach known as

Transparency principle

Conduct business in a truthful and open manner. If managers are confident in how they conduct business and conduct themselves, then they should be comfortable sharing information with others.

Corporate Resources

Use of company supplies or equipment for personal tasks, or taking the supplies home for personal use, may constitute misuse of company assets.

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

When a person makes a decision using a previous decision as a reference point, they are using an

Ethics

define a code that society or group of people adhere to (i.e., what society believes is right or wrong).

Intuitive Feelers

tend to value personal relationships, are flexible, prefer broad issues, and usually do not take details into consideration.

Forecasting

the act of predicting future events and scenarios, is a useful tool for any manager. With accurate information, it may be feasible for an experienced professional to construct possible future conditions, which can help an organization anticipate change and plan for the future. While it is wise to be aware of possible future events and situations, one must remember, however, that a forecast is ultimately just an educated guess

Business Ethics

this translates to the rules and guidelines regarding the way businesses and their employees should behave

Management information systems

use computerized information-processing systems to assist managers in decision-making.

Dignity principle

Have concern for how you treat stakeholders, especially when making adverse decisions regarding things such as layoffs, safety recalls, or compensation. Respect the dignity of all people.

Property principle

Respect the rights of those who own property. For instance, consider the effect your business might have on those who own property in the area you are conducting business in.

Legacy test:

This test asks managers to consider how their actions might impact how others view and remember them as a leader long term. Is this how I'd like my leadership position to be remembered? If not, the action should probably be reconsidered.

Darwinian Culture

This type of organization possesses a "survival of the fittest" mentality. It is characterized by cutthroat competition among workers and an intense pressure to succeed. Because employees are encouraged to outperform one another and told only the strongest will survive, this type of environment often leads to unethical decisions.

Generality test

This test asks a manager to consider how he/she would feel if someone else was carrying out the situation similarly. Would I be comfortable if everyone in a similar position took the same course of action? If not, then the action should be reconsidered.

Entitlement: Taking from an organization because of how the leaders treat employees. Retaliation: Revenge or entitlement without tangible value. Self-Protection: Acting unethically as a survival strategy. Arrogance: Feeling indispensable or immune from negative consequences. Challenge: Excitement of seeing if something can be done

What are the most common motives for unethical behavior in the workplace?

availability heuristics

When a person makes a decision primarily based on recent events and readily available information, they are making an error due to

Single-Use Plans

A common example of a single-use plan is a budget. Managers from every department are usually in a constant struggle with each other over the size of their respective budgets. If one goes "over budget," there may be negative repercussions, especially if there were places where the manager could have cut costs. Conversely, managers who are able to consistently come in "under budget" are usually seen as people who can effectively manage the resources allotted to them. Budgets are effective controlling devices because they allow a manager to track performance with a certain amount of resources while keeping a tight control on expenditures. The budget system can falter, however, if each new budget year after year is just an incremental increase/decrease to the previous year's budget. To solve this issue, many companies have implemented a zero-based budget that "starts over" every period; each resource allocation must be justified as if on a brand-new budget. Many managers have found this approach to be useful; less money is wasted on projects or proposals that are underperforming or outdated.

strategic opportunism

A good manager can organize many problems into a network that can be prioritized and solved over time as circumstances change. In addition, a manager must be able to resolve long-term issues while prioritizing and resolving the everyday problems at a job, a skill scholar Daniel Isenberg named

STEP 5—EVALUATE THE RESULTS

After the decision is implemented, it is then necessary to evaluate the results against predetermined benchmarks and other measurable criteria. If the chosen solution does not produce the desired effect, or if there are unanticipated negative side effects, it may be necessary to take corrective action.

Operational Plans

An operational plan consists of activities designed to execute the ultimate strategic plans of an organization. The two main types of operational plans are standing plans, which are used on a constant basis, and single-use plans, which are used only once or during one specific time period.

Citizenship principle

Be a good corporate citizen by being willing to give back to communities through scholarships, community service, sponsoring local events, or simply helping out in times of need. This is also known as corporate social responsibility.

Organizational Reward Systems

Behavior is motivated by the consequences associated with those actions. Reward systems, such as incentives, merit pay, or recognition programs, are typically based on bottom-line performance results. Employees are being told that they need to behave ethically, but are being judged based on their performance. In this situation, employees may be forced to choose between ethics and desired results. Because they are reviewed on and rewarded for the latter, that is likely what they will choose.

Fairness principle

Ensure that you are treating others reasonably in all situations. Deal fairly with all parties involved.

While setting goals is important to high performance, the goals for various departments and individuals across an organization must be coordinated so that each goal directly benefits the others, which in turn should help the organization pursue its overall mission. To help integrate various goals, it can be helpful to form a hierarchy of goals—a sequence of goal priorities that starts with the lower-level objectives and ends with the higher-level objectives.

Goal Alignment

complacency trap

Good planning also helps an organization concentrate on constant improvement by setting benchmarks and quantifiable goals for future performance. These improvement measuring tools keep an organization from falling into the _ a situation in which an organization, team, or individual is simply "going with the flow" and at the total mercy of its circumstances.

representative heuristic

If a person makes a decision heavily rooted in assumptions that come from other situations that appear similar, it is known as a

Lack of Operational Control

If an organization fails to develop and implement a system that offers some oversight of employees (regular reports, phone calls, etc.), then these workers are left with opportunity to behave however they want or need to. Regular communication that reinforces company values and builds ties between management and employees ensures awareness of the organizational standards.

Weak Leadership

If managers in an organization do not consider ethics to be important, then it is not likely that their employees will either. If ethical behavior is not rewarded, it is more likely that unethical behavior will be ignored or encouraged.

confirmation errory

In many cases, after people make a decision, they have "selective hearing"—rather than take in all information possible, they only listen to information that confirms their chosen course of action. When one only takes into consideration the information that supports a previously made decision, they are making what is commonly known as a

whistleblowers

Individuals who learn that their employer is engaging in unethical or illegal activities have three options. They can choose not to say anything about it, report the incident to others within the company, or go outside of the company and report it. Those who go outside of the company and report these incidents to the press, government, or other parties are known as

Fiduciary principle

Is the action consistent with the party's basic duties to others in the situation? Does it respect the rights or basic entitlements of the affected parties in the situation? Does it reflect best practice ideals for your company, profession, and/or industry? Is it compatible with the party's own deeply held commitments and personal values?

Is the action consistent with the party's basic duties to others in the situation? Does it respect the rights or basic entitlements of the affected parties in the situation? Does it reflect best practice ideals for your company, profession, and/or industry? Is it compatible with the party's own deeply held commitments and personal values?

L. Sharp Paine's "Ethics: A Basic Framework," when he stated that there are four key questions to be asked when faced with an ethical decision:

Based on the psychological theories of Lawrence Kohlberg, it is believed that the critical time for developing morals and values is from birth to age 14.These morals are primarily originated from our parental influences. Formal education, religion, and government may also play a role in this development

Lawrence Kohlberg

Employee Surveys: Surveys measure a combination of actual behavior (such as whether respondents acted under certain circumstances), as well as employees' perceptions of the organization's ethical climate (such as whether they feel pressure to compromise their ethical standards or fear retaliation if they report misconduct). Interviews and Reviews: Individual interviews, group interviews or focus groups, and reviews of relevant internal documents (such as policies, annual reports, executive speeches, new employee orientation materials, and leadership education materials) should be used to measure how well implemented the company's code of ethics is. Independent Audits: Many organizations engage independent third parties to audit their ethics and compliance programs. They evaluate against world-class standards as well as the organization's specific risk profile, and assess the program's effectiveness through document reviews, employee surveys, interviews, and focus groups. Helpline Analysis: Analyzing helpline calls is an effective way to evaluate the impact of ethics and compliance programs. Important indicators include: The number of anonymous calls, The number of callers who attempted to resolve the issue locally first, and The substantive nature of the call (in other words, whether calls were about ethical or legal issues as opposed to HR-related complaints). Helpline call volume analysis may be most meaningful when it's tracked over time or when combined with call content information. In addition, "after-action" research can be extremely useful in interpreting helpline data and improving the process. Some organizations, for example, routinely conduct "customer satisfaction" surveys before closing a case file, which may ask questions such as: Were you aware of the company's code of conduct? Did you consult the code of conduct before you called the helpline? Did the code help you determine whether the conduct in question raised ethical or legal issues? How difficult was it for you to make the decision to call the helpline? Ethics and Compliance Officer Feedback: This feedback may be the most useful because the ethics officer deals with ethical situations and training in the job role. Since the ethics officer is in charge of overseeing the ethics of a company, he/she usually has a good gauge of how well the company is implementing its ethics policies.

List and describe five good ways to evaluate and benchmark a code of ethics' effectiveness

When one combines controlling and planning with goal setting and goal alignment, it becomes a system known as management by objectives or MBO. When MBO is used properly, it provides an opportunity for a superior to work together with his subordinates to create effective goals. In addition, managers and their employees that follow MBO periodically meet and go over the results of their efforts together.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

STEP 2—GENERATE AND EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION

Next, it is essential to research the required information that will aid the manager in solving the problem. After various courses of action are proposed, it is important to detail the possible results of each hypothetical decision. Stakeholders such as shareholders, clients, and employees must be recognized, and the results of each possible decision on these groups should be evaluated. The preferred course of action should, overall, satisfy these five criteria the best: Costs—the negative side effects and necessary sacrifices Benefits—the possible upside of the decision Ethical soundness—whether the decision would meet the ethical standards of the organization and its stakeholders Timeliness—how quickly the decision can be put into action Acceptability—the degree to which the decision will be accepted by the people who will implement it An important thing to realize is that just because an alternative is convenient, it does not mean that a manager should stop searching for better options. Many times at this stage, a decision-maker will settle on an alternative that is found relatively quickly and that seems to solve the problem at hand, albeit in a mediocre fashion. Rather than only considering the first few ideas that come along, it is best to keep searching for optimal solutions despite having other, less effective options.

Standing Plans

One type of standing plan is a policy. A policy communicates broad guidelines that are intended to guide individuals in the organization as they make decisions. Sexual harassment policy is an example of a general policy because, though it may specify unacceptable conduct, it is intended to express how the organization expects people to treat others with respect, regardless of gender or how hot they are. Another type of standing plan is more specific: rather than a broad, sweeping guideline, a procedure or rule details specific responses to certain situations. Another name for procedures and rules is standard operating procedures, or SOPs. For example, a standard operating procedure might detail a specific demotion or pay cut as a result of performance falling below a certain level.

Bribes

Payments usually made "up front," are offered in order to influence a decision. In some countries, gifts and gratuities are an acceptable part of doing business.

MBO

Performance Objectives in MBO In an MBO contract, there are three main types of objectives: Personal Development Objectives—Goals that deal with additional training and other growth opportunities on a personal level Improvement Objectives—These objectives detail specified improvements in performance Maintenance Objectives—Goals that deal with keeping performance on its current level If possible, these objectives should be quantifiable (ex. "to boost sales by 10% this year"). If it is a clear-cut, measurable goal, it will be easier to monitor and evaluate. Pitfalls and Advantages of MBO When using MBO, do not: Tie MBO to pay Have excessive paperwork and "red tape" Exclude the employees involved from the planning process Give too much attention to easily obtained objectives Advantages of MBO: Helps workers concentrate on the highest-priority objectives Assists supervisors in finding areas of support for their employees Relationship building through "face time" between managers and workers Promotes self-management because employees take part in decisions that shape their jobs PARTICIPATION AND INVOLVEMENT Participation is a key part of planning. Ideally, an organization should engage in participatory planning—a process that includes all of the people carrying out the plan, as well as all parties who are affected by the plan. While participatory planning can take more time, research has shown that when an employee helps participate in a plan that they will later implement, the employee will usually have more motivation to follow through and complete the objective. In addition, participatory planning may result in creative solutions that a manager may never have gotten without help from those actually implementing the plan.

Confidentiality

Private information is revealed regarding a person or company to a public party that is not permitted to have that information

Responsiveness principle

Set up procedures for responding to and resolving stakeholder issues (e.g., rebates, product repairs, account issues). Be responsible to the claims and concerns of others

Kickbacks

Someone who has gained something (i.e., a contract, a sale) through favorable treatment gives back part of the profits to the party providing the favor.

escalation of commitment

Sometimes when a person makes a large investment of time or money into a certain course of action, they may be reluctant to abandon that decision despite the fact that the current course of action is not working. That person has fallen into the trap of

CONTINGENCY PLANNING

Sometimes, especially in uncertain environments, one's predictions can be inaccurate. As a result, it is important for a manager to identify a "Plan B" or even a "Plan C" in case their original action plan is not adequate for current condition __ creates various action plans that will be implemented when an unfortunate event occurs.

USE OF STAFF PLANNERS

Staff planners are professionals who are experienced in bringing coordination and focus to the planning process. With their expertise, it can be much easier to create effective action plans. One major pitfall, however, is the gap between the staff planner and the employees and managers on the front line. Unless they work together, the resulting plans may be unrealistic and/or poorly implemented by unmotivated employees.

Reliability principle:

Take commitments, agreements, promises, and contracts very seriously. By not appropriately following through on these steps, a manager risks damaging his/her credibility.

STEP 1—IDENTIFY AND DEFINE THE PROBLEM

The first step in any problem-solving situation is to figure out what the problem is in the first place and then specifically define it. Usually, the more clearly defined the problem is, the easier it is to measure the results of the proposed solution. While defining the problem, it is necessary to focus on gathering a lot of information pertaining to the issue at hand, so as to effectively describe the current state of affairs and the desired outcomes of a decision. There are three mistakes that many people make while trying to define a problem: Trying to fix the symptoms of a situation rather than the root cause of the issue. A symptom is a sign that a problem may be present. A manager should focus on fixing the root cause of the problem, not simply the symptom. Focusing on the wrong problem in the situation. Many times, there are multiple problems present at once. It is important to be able to prioritize each issue and take care of more pressing problems first. Making the scope of the problem too narrow or too broad. Managers should choose the scope of a problem that gives them the best options for a solution.

STEP 4—IMPLEMENT THE DECISION

The most critical part of the decision-making process is the implementation. If one cannot implement the chosen decision, the problem will remain despite all of the resources and effort spent on the first three steps. Many times, a manager or management team will lay out an elaborate solution to an alternative, only to see it fail when they try to implement it among the rank-and-file of the organization. One reason for this is lack of participation error— neglecting to involve the people needed in the implementation of an alternative during the planning phase of decision-making.

THE PLANNING PROCESS

There are five essential steps in the planning process that should be addressed in order to have a functional plan. Step 1: When planning, it is important to first define the objectives—the end results that one is determined to achieve. To be functionally effective, these objectives should be quantifiable and easily measured. If the objectives are not measurable, then they are functionally useless. Step 2: Also, you must know where you stand in relation to your objectives. How far are you from reaching your objectives? What assets do you have that will assist you? What obstacles are holding you back? Step 3: Next, predict future scenarios of varying conditions. You should try to anticipate every probable set of circumstances and what the proper response should be for each scenario. Step 4: Once you evaluate possible scenarios, determine the best course of action and create a plan. List all alternatives and choose the one that best solves the problem. Once the best alternative is selected, form a plan that details the actions that must be taken in order to accomplish the desired end result. Step 5: Finally, execute the plan and monitor the outcome. It is important to constantly evaluate the results of a plan; a manager must know when a current plan is falling short or if there are opportunities that could facilitate improvement.

Certain Environment A certain environment has all of the necessary information regarding each choice of action and its predicted outcome. Because the decision-maker has complete information, the only requirement is to analyze each possible decision and choose the one with the best outcome. While this condition is undoubtedly the most preferable one, perfect information and certainty are very rare. Risk Environment As opposed to a certain environment, a risk environment is the setting for a high number of management problems. A risk environment does not have all of the necessary information to make a decision; instead, there are probabilities of different outcomes for each possible decision. Decision-making under risky conditions is not for everyone; some managers wilt under the pressure, while others thrive. Many important decisions are made in risk environments, and many innovative companies have adapted and possess the capability of making wise decisions when only partial information is available. In addition, risk can be reduced by additional research and better information. Uncertain Environment Sometimes, in an uncertain environment, there is so little information that a manager cannot even assign probabilities of various outcomes occurring. For most people, this is a very high-stress situation, and for managers to be successful, they need to rely heavily on innovative thinking and creativity. Since this environment is the homeland of difficult problems that usually have never been encountered before, it requires intuitive thinking, informed hunches, and a great deal of judgment.

There are three different decision-making environments that exist on a continuum: certainty, risk, and uncertainty. Generally, it is the responsibility of higher management to make complex decisions in situations characterized by risk and uncertainty.

Planning: IT allows quicker information dissemination, as well as a wider availability of information, which enables more people to contribute to the planning process. Organizing: With IT, it is easier to have a steady stream of communication between different parties in the organization, resulting in better coordination. Leading: IT allows a manager to communicate goals and objectives with individuals both inside of the organization and outside of it. Controlling: A manager can use IT to quickly learn of current performance levels and make immediate decisions to solve problems.

To be the most effective, managers must be able to take maximum advantage of IT in their roles of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. The benefits are as follows:

STEP 3—DECIDE ON A PREFERRED COURSE OF ACTION

When deciding on the best alternative out of all possible courses of action, the two primary decision-making models employed are the classical and behavioral models. Classical Decision Model In the classical decision model, a manager is in a situation with all necessary information and makes decisions rationally, without bias. All courses of action are known, as well as the consequences of those actions. In addition, the problem is well defined and structured. In a situation like this, it is relatively simple for a manager to make an optimizing decision, choosing the highest-quality alternative possible. The steps in the classical decision model are: Identify the problem (correctly) Identify all of the criteria (what is important about the decision) Identify all of the alternatives (what are all of the possible solutions to our problem/decision) Rate all criteria in terms of their importance Rate all alternatives in terms of how they satisfy each of the criteria Calculate a weighted average for all alternatives such that each alternative has a score based on the sum of each criterion's weight (#4) times the corresponding alternative rating (#5) Choose the alternative with the highest score The classical decision model is a rational model, which, in this context, means that a person has access to all relevant information (they know all of the criteria and all of the alternatives), they can accurately rate each of these factors, and they will choose the alternative that maximizes their utility (the one with the highest score). Such decision-making is quite time-consuming and usually only undertaken when decisions are of great consequence, when they are not easily reversed, when they involve a large investment of time and money, and when they are strategically important to the organization. You wouldn't use this kind of decision process when choosing from 100 menu options at a Taiwanese restaurant! Behavioral Decision Model The behavioral decision model, by contrast, assumes that humans are limited in their ability to be perfectly rational and unbiased in their decision-making. In addition, there is incomplete information and an unstructured problem, which makes decision-making even more challenging. When you combine these factors with a human's limited cognitive ability, a bounded rationality is created, which can be defined as making decisions in situations with incomplete information and a restricted amount of alternatives. As a result of these limitations, a person is likely to make a satisficing decision, which is the first acceptable solution that one can think of.

Specific—Precisely targeted results Measurable—Results should be able to be measured without vagueness Timely—There should be a schedule of completion dates Challenging—Goals that push the limits to get increased results Attainable—Realistic goals

When goal setting, it is important to keep in mind that goals should be:

Bottom-line Mentality

While achieving performance goals is important, companies often get so focused on achieving the desired numbers that they encourage employees to do whatever it takes, no matter what. Consequently, employees are doing just that. Employees are so focused on the bottom line that they are willing to cut corners whenever necessary, even if that means disregarding ethical policies and standards.

SCENARIO PLANNING

While contingency plans are primarily concerned with short-term problems, scenario planning deals with predicting and creating responses to possible long-term environment changes or scenarios.

Visibility test

Would I be comfortable with my actions being described in detail on the front page of a respected newspaper? If not, then the action should be reconsidered.

framing error

a misunderstanding of information due to the context in which it is perceived. For instance, a sample framing error occurs when a researcher uses undergraduate students to conduct a managerial study. The error exists because the "frame" of the sample does not mirror the frame of the study. The results of a study of undergraduate students may or may not be generalizable to veteran managers. If they are not, this represents a framing error.

ethical dilemma

a situation that will generally involve a moral conflict

information systems

a structure that utilizes information technology to gather, systemize, and disseminate data in order to make decisions.

Sensation Feelers

are comfortable with open communication and take personal feelings and values into account. In addition, however, they also prefer to have the facts of a situation.

Tactical plans

are the plans that are designed to accomplish part or all of a strategic plan. They are generally intermediate-term, with a focus on how to use the organization's assets to accomplish a specific objective. A type of tactical plan that is often used in the business world is a functional plan—how each part or "silo" of an organization can individually contribute to the overall strategic plan of the firm. These functional plans may have the following components: Human Resources Finances Production Marketing Logistics ​

Respect and Teamwork: Instructs employees how to deal with each other in the workplace and respect people for who they are. Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, etc., all should be valued at a company. Business Ethics: Ethical decisions need to be made even though they may negatively affect the bottom line. Improper revenue recognition, stealing, kickbacks, unauthorized discounts, and other types of unethical business schemes need to be strongly prohibited. Honesty and Integrity: It should be made clear that truthful and honest people will be the only type of people allowed in an organization. Incidents of dishonesty and a lack of integrity should be considered as grounds for termination. Employees must be truthful to customers, suppliers, managers, investors, and each other. Respect for the Environment: A code of ethics should encourage recycling, conserving resources, limiting pollution, employee carpooling, etc. Compliance with Laws: A code of ethics should enforce all laws. Never should laws be broken to better the interests of a person or a company, even if the person or company does not agree with the particular legislation. Accurate Company Records and Public Disclosure: This is an extremely important section as truthful transparency to investors, customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders should be highly promoted. "Fudging" accounting numbers, shredding files, changing records, or inaccurate/false disclosure of information to the public must be explicitly prohibited. Conflicts of Interest: Examples include outside employment without proper company approval, using friends/relatives as suppliers even though they may not be the cheapest and/or highest quality, and accepting or giving bribes to government officials. Harassment and Discrimination: Any type of harassment including sexual harassment, stalking, or bullying should be prohibited. Additionally, discrimination in hiring, job functionality, promotions, or employment evaluation based upon race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, disability, or any other similar facet must be strictly prohibited and is usually against the law. Confidential Information and Protection of Company Assets: This section explains how much information an employee sees should be considered confidential. The code of ethics might explain methods of employee monitoring (such as computer use, web history, and email searches) to ensure the protection of company assets.

common subsections in a typical code of ethics.

heuristics

common ways of simplifying the decision-making process. These "rules of thumb" are helpful in many situations, but when one neglects to observe everything possible in a situation, many common errors could result.

Morals

delve into right and wrong at a much deeper level, which is both personal and spiritual. Morals reflect one's own personal beliefs. Teachings, personal

intuitive thinking (management)

has a spontaneous style, making decisions based on a quick and broad assessment.

certain environment

has all of the necessary information regarding each choice of action and its predicted outcome. Because the decision-maker has complete information, the only requirement is to analyze each possible decision and choose the one with the best outcome. While this condition is undoubtedly the most preferable one, perfect information and certainty are very rare.

strategic plan

is primarily concerned with the goals of the whole organization. Rather than focusing on any one aspect or department, the strategic plan has a wide focus, and helps an organization decide where to allocate resources and what direction to pursue in future operations. Many times, it is easier to make the strategic plan after the organization's vision has been established.

risk environment

is the setting for a high number of management problems.

systematic thinking (management)

is using rational methods of solving problems.

Implicit favorite decision-making

is when you alter the criteria and assessment of the alternatives to confirm that your favorite is the most rational choice. If it's your money, and you alone will live with the consequences of the decision, at least be honest with yourself and say, "I just really wanted it," rather than bend the truth. Being honest with yourself is probably more difficult than being honest with others.

Satisficing

occurs when we look for alternatives only long enough to find one that satisfies our needs. The danger in making a decision like this is that we might have found a better alternative if we had continued to search. Hence, we tend to use the satisficing heuristic when 1) we have limited time, 2) the cost of making a wrong decision is low, and 3) we can easily accept and put to good use a sub-optimal product.

Intuitive Thinkers

prefer abstract situations that are broad in scope. They tend to avoid details, and are both logical and impersonal

Sensation Thinkers

prefer hard, conclusive data and high-control situations. They focus more on "the numbers" of a situation and take a more impersonal approach.

uncertain environment

there is so little information that a manager cannot even assign probabilities of various outcomes occurring. For most people, this is a very high-stress situation, and for managers to be successful, they need to rely heavily on innovative thinking and creativity. Since this environment is the homeland of difficult problems that usually have never been encountered before, it requires intuitive thinking, informed hunches, and a great deal of judgment.

Information technology

uses computers to assist people in gathering, storing, and processing information.