Exam 1 Human Development 6931 - USF

Counseling Application #3

-"Expectations and evaluations of others scan be compellingly internalized that later autonomy of judgment and action can be jeopardized; or interpersonal betrayals can give rise either to nihilistic despair about a personal prnciple of ultimate being to a compensatory intimacy w/ God."

Ego Psychology: Anna Freud and Erik Erikson

-Anna Freud studied preschool children and provided psychoanalytic counseling and therapy at her clinic in London a. Children moved from an egocentric focus, during which they don't notice or attend well to other children, to a more other focused attitude toward their peersto whom they begin to relate to as real people. -In her writings about defense mechanisms, she added the defense identification w/the aggressor and altruism. -When employing identification w/ the aggressor, a person assumes a role that he or she has been passively traumatized by, and in altruism, a person becomes helpful to avoid being helpless. -Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of human development that focused on crises that must be addressed at significant times in a person's life. -Erikson believed that these stages are not completed during a prescribed time period but remain active throughout the life and can affect relationships at any time. 1. Infancy: trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year): infant learns to either trust or mistrust others and themselves. Counselors who work w/ clients wo have trust issues may suspect that during this stage of development the client was not able to count on basic needs being met. 2. Early childhood: autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2 to 3 years): B/c of increased mobility, the child must decide whether to assert his or her will. BEst outcome: child learns to develop self-control when needed w/out experiencing a loss of self-esteem. Sometimes counselors need to explore early childhood memories w/ clients who experience shame and doubt as they review their life paths. 3. Preschool age: initiatives vs. guilt (4 to 5 years): The preschool child is curious about many things observations, and experiences and develops more ability to manipulate objects. Child develops direction and purpose in the activities he or she pursues so that the same thing occurs later in life. 4. School age: industry vs. inferiority (6 to puberty): the child develops more curiosity about how things are made and how they work. Child needs to develop a sense of mastery and competence; if not, they may have difficulty taking needed problem-solving steps or making decisions when they are adolescent or adult. 5. Adolescence: identity vs. role confusion (teens): Young person begins to develop a sense of self and a stronger ego-identity; counselor who have adult clients who do not have a solid sense of self and ego-identity may need to assist the client w/ what many clients develop at a younger age. 6. Young Adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): Development of enhanced ability to reach out and connect w/ others and is key to being able to be intimate w/ another and successfully build a career. 7. Middle age: generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): The individual should look beyond self-fulfillment and embrace the needs for society and future generations. Mature adult has capacity to start a family (if choose), and be concerned about others outside of the family. 8. Later Life: integrity vs. despair (late adulthood): Characterized by doing a life review and developing a sense of satisfaction from looking at the past. 9. Very old age: hope and faith vs. despair (late 80s and beyond): Involved facing a new sense of self connected w/ failing bodies and the need for the care of others.

Substage 1: Obedience and Punishment

-Children reported viewpoints consistent w/a belief in absolute rules and power of authorities. a. Gave answers thatdescribed Mr. Heinz's actions in terms of right is right and wrong is wrong. -Moral thinking at this stage is consistent w/a belief that is you were punished you must've done something wrong.

Substage 2: Individualism and Exchange

-Children understand that the rules are not the only way to see things and that each person has an idea about how they want to conduct themselves. -Punishment is something people still want to avoid when breaking the rules established by authority figures. -At this stage values and standards of society begin to emerge and are internalized by the individual -Two substages in this category are (1) good interpersonal relationships and (2) maintaining social order.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

-Classical conditioning explains what takes place prior to learning through the mechanism of pairing. -He used the pairing of the sound of the bell w/ food and eventually the dog would salivate. -Watson trains rat named Albert; demonstration was important b/c it indicated that human emotions can be learned and modifiedusing learning principles as a part of a counseling or treatment plan.

Cognitive Therapies

-Cognitive theory and therapy stress the importance of belief systems and thinking on impacting and understanding the development of a person's behavior and emotions. a. Person's thoughts are considered to be a significant component connected w/ personality across the lifespan.

Influences on Development

-In the middle of a counselor's work, there is a paradox: the client and counselor have to accept circumstances while also cultivating change; the person has to accept himself or herself while changing to be successful . -Contrasting theme in the study of human development. Passivity vs. activity of the person. -Developmental influences are often viewed as falling into the following categories: hereditary, normative history graded, normative age graded, normative sociocultural graded, non normative, and environmental-contextual.

Substage 4: Maintaining Social Order

-The goal of this stage is to avoid guilt more so than punishment -Two substages at this level are (1) social contracts and individual rights and (2) universal principle

Heredity and Hormones

-The pituitary gland plays an integral role in release of hormones -Two hormones create growth in individuals: 1. Growth Hormone (GH) - plays a role in the development of body tissue (excluding genitals and CNS). Deficiency of GH in children, tends to result in a maximum height of 4 ft. and 4 in. tall. 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - stimulates the thyroid gland in the release of thyroxine. Increases the impact of brain development and body mass. Children can develop mental retardation w/ low TSH.

Case Study Application

Kohlberg's modeal geared toward justice.

Behavioral Theories

-According to John B. Watson, behavior was a subject matter in its own right, to be studied by the observational methods common to all sciences.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

-As a person advances through moral development, his or her moral decision making becomes more sophisticated -Heinz Dilemma: a. Wife dying from a cancer; husband ca't afford a drug

Maturation

-Maturation is at times used synonymously w/ growth; however from a human development studeies perspective, maturation is different from growth b/c it refers to physical, intellectualm and psychological development. -Counselors are concerned w/ maturation, which may occur across dimensions and mutually influencing phenomena.

Challenges to Gilligan's Model

-Perhaps Gilligan misunderstood Kohlberg's model by presenting justice and care as dichotomous positions and that conceptualizing a voice for women ignores the differences among women, including those related to racism, classism, and lesbophobia.

Nutrition

-Preschoolers have a love-hate relationship w/ children. -Model food choices to increase a child's willingness to try healthy foods.

Infectious Disease

-When children are not receiving proper nutrition, infection, and malnutrition create a perfect storm.

Counseling Application #2

-Important for the helper working w/ an individual wounded in this stage of development is the counselor's ability to help the client recapture the reciprocal relationships and the meaning that emerged from these relationships.

Counseling Application #4

-Process of the implicit faith becoming explicit can lead to an overreliance on the rational mind in an effort to resolve relational issues.

Emotional Well-Being

-Children in homes w/ financial and emotional issues were more likely to suffer respiratory and intestinal problems and unintentional injuries. -Vital part of physical groth and health

Normative Age-Graded Development

-Age-graded developments are influences shared by people across times but at a particular stage in life. -Counselors regularly treat client stress or grief and loss connected to age-graded milestones that are not achieved by clients or the members of a clients' family..

Freudian Drive Theory

-As conceptualized by Freud, the inherently instinctual and biological drivesof the psyche are referred to as the id, the superego (critical, moralizing function), and the ego (the organized, realistic part that mediates and seeks a balance btwn. the instinctual nature of the id and the critical, moralizing function of the superego) a. Freud believed in a series of childhood series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking changes of the id become focused on certain erogenous zones. A child has certain needs and if they aren't met; frustraitons occur. -Libido is the driving force behind behavior and that, at certain points in the developmental process, a single body part is sensitive to sexual, erotic stimulation -Erogenous Zones: Mouth, anus, and genital region -Stage One: Oral a. Occurs during the first year of life. b. Infant's primary source of gratification occurs through the mouth; importance of sucking reflexes. c. Infant develops sense of trust and comfort through oral stimulation. d. Primary conflict: the weeaning process; infant must become less dependent on caretakers + more self-reliant to meet his/her own needs e. If fixation occurs; individual might have problems w/ dependency or aggression later in life; may experience emphasis on drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting -Stage two: Anal a. Occurs btwn. years of age of 1 and 3 b. Primary conflict: toilet training; child has to learn to control his or her own bodily needs. c. Freud believed that positive experiences during this period of human development were the basis for adults to become competent, productive, and creative and that negative experiences result in two primary negative outcomes: 1. If too lenient; anal-expulsve personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. 2. If too strict or toilet training begins too soon, an anal-retentive personality develops, in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive. -Stage three: Phallic a. Occurs btwn. ages of 3 and 6; libido focused primarily on the genitals. b. Freud: boys begin to see their fathers as rivals for their mothers' affections (the Oedipus complex). Child fear that he will be punished by father for these feelings (a fear termed castration anxiety). The term electra complex was used to desribe a set of similar feelings experienced by young girls and was derived from what Freud believed was penis envy. Penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixed on this stage. -Stage Four Latency: a. Occurs btwn. ages of 6 and 12; id, ego, and the superego develop the foundation for the adult's instinctual drives and behavioral responses. b. Time of exploration in which sexual energy is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. c. Development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm since the id and libido are suppressed. -Stage Five: Genital a. Begins after age 12 years and goes through adulthood b. Individual develops strong sexual interests, drives, and desires; interest in welfare of others also grows. c. Outcome of this stage is to establish a balance btwn. the various life areas. -Freud proposed a class of drives known as the life instincts (those that deal w/ basic survival, pleasure, and reproduction) -Libido: senergy created by life instincts. -Self-destructive behavior is anexpression of the energy created by death instincts. -Freud's concepts of defense mechanisms are functions of the ego, which strive to protect individuals from experiencing the anxiety and guilt provoked by discord btwn. the id and superego. -Two concepts associated w/ psychoanalysis: a. Transference: the process that occurs when the client attributes feelings about another person onto the counselor. b. Countertransference: the emotional responses to a client that are determined by the counselor's own unconscious conflict rather than by the client's personality trait and experiences. -Transference exposes the unconscious motivation behind the individual's defense mechanisms by reenacting the attitudes, feelings, impulses, and desires that were generated in early life in relation to important figures in the client's development. -Counselor's awareness of countertransference can provide important insight into the client's world and into the emotions and reactions the client often induces in others and can be used in the development of counseling and treatment plans on behalf of the client.

Counseling Application #1

-The building of the therapeutic alliance is an essential part of treatment and healing. The client who presents on either side of the contrlling or shame-based spectrum will often find vulnerability to be scary and may require more time for the development of the therapeutic relationship.

Introduction

-Cross-cultural counseling has been defined as including the awareness, knowledge, and skills related to counseling clients from diverse backgrounds and worldviews. a. Terms cross-cultural counseling and multicultural counseling are used as interchangeable terms, just as culturally responsive counseling or culturally relevvant counseling also refer to the same practice.

Cross-Cultural Counseling in Middle and Late Adulthood

-Cross-cultural counseling in middle and late adulthood and naturally has a major focus on end-of-life concerns.

Hisotry of Cross-Cultural Counseling

-1992, the Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development developed competencies to guide the professional development of culturally responsive counseling. a. Increase the integration of multicultural counseling in cross-cultural counseling practice. -Much attention given to the counselingtransactions btwn. counselors and clients based on their mutually shared or dissimilar social identities. -Initial focus of cross-cultural counseling research focused on the influence of discrimination and prejudice on mental health, but it has recently begun to examine constructs as wellness, resilience, and strengths-based approaches. -Identity intersectionality has also gained more importance in cross-cultural counseling; counselor and client social identities do not exist in isolation but rather have a complex intersection. -Counselor should also holistically explore both the potential resilience and trauma related to these experiences.

Normative History Grade Influences

-A cohort is a group that shares a specific set of cicrumstances over time. -When a cohort shares certain historical circumstances or events that influence development, we call these influences normative history grade influences a. Even when members of a cohort share historical consequences, there are variations in how the circumstances are experiences and influence developmment for its members. -Generations such as the Silent Generation (1925 - 1945), Baby Boomers (1946 - 1964), Generation X (1965 - 1981), and Generation Y (a.k.a Millenials - 1982 to present), share years of birth and therefore similar social and historical atmospheres, such as wars, catastrophes, and technological innovations a. Labels associated w/ eras of American History.

Environment

-A cohort may be affected by environmental influences on development (e.g., shared neighborhood, workplace, presence of wild areas, quality of resources). -Mental health-related quality of life was not only associated w/ social support for physical activity from family and neighborhood social cohesion, but alse w/ the neighborhood physcial activity environment and personal safety.

Piaget and Moral Development

-According to Piaget, children btwn. the ages of 5 to 10 have heteronomous (i.e., other-driven) thinking and value following rules b/c they are supposed to do so and fear consequences of not doing so. Morality is based on whether rules are followed. -W/ this new capacity, humans are less absolute in their beliefs and begin to understand that moral decisions are often made on a case-by-case basis

Synthetic-Conventional Faith (Stage 3)

-Adolescence; embedded in the context of interpersonal relationships -Adolescent seeks to develop a sense of identity through peers, school, work, social media, and for some religion. -Stage focuses on strong interpersonal relationships and a respect for leaders who reinforce the system of faith thus far embraced. -Burden of this stage is self-consciousness; deeply personal awareness of the self in relationship to others, and it may be expressed as discomfort w/ self in relationship to others. -Harry Stack Sullivan, chum relationship, suggested that adolescences look for a close other to mirror or reflect the emerging self. -Homeostasis w/in this stage emerges when the adolescent both conforms to her environment and becomes comfortable w/ an identity that is mediated by significant others, and, for som, mediated by the decisive other, or God, who can exert a powerful ordering of one's identity. -The ultimate concern during this stage of faith development is conformity

The Meso Level

-Advocating w/ clients at the meso level collaborating w/ organizations that are already dedicated to assisting the client's needs and environmental concerns. -The goal of cross-cultural counseling includes the counselor serving as an ally for clients and as a resource connecting them to opportunities for support. -Systems advocacy involves the counselor going beyong assisting the client in coping w/ stressors w/in his or her environment and taking on roles of leadership, systems analysis, and a desire to address the factors that create stressors w/ clients. -Advocating on behalf of clients at the meso level involves recognizing how systemic oppression contributes to the lived experiences of clients.

Mythical-Literal Faith (Stage 2)

-Ages 7-12; the priod in which a child creates meaning from the information flow of Stage 1 and graps the importance of reciprocity as a way of governing divine-human (human-human) relationships -Child brings order to his or her world. -Stage 2 children begin to build an ability to differentiate and to embrace the meaning for themselves. a. Sense of belonging b. The gift of this stage is the gift of consciousness and the ability to make meaning of experience that connects the child to others outside of self. -B/c meaning in this stage is both made and trapped, caregivers significantly shape the child's faith development.

Ellis, Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

-Albert Ellis, cognitive behavioral theorist. Developed and practiced rational emotive behavior therapy. a. Core theory: emotions stem memory mainly from beliefs and that human beings are born w/ potential for rational and irrational thinking. -An individual's beliefs preipitate emotions and subsequent behaviors; rational beliefs precipitate appropriate emotion's and functional behaviors; and irrational beliefs precipitate inappropriate emotions and dysfunctional behavior -Hedonism is connected w/ maintaining pleasure over the long term by avoiding short-term pleasure that lead to pain. -Ellis emphasized musts or shouldisms such as the following: a. I must be loved by everyone I know b. I must be entriely competent, adequate, and all achieving to have any worth c. Since some people are wicked, they must be continuously blamed for what they do and have done. d. It is awful and terrible when things don't go the way I planned or want them to go. e. I must worry about danger and dangerous things that I cannot control f. I must rely on someone other than myself who is stronger than I am. g. I must worry about other people's problems h. I must find the right, correct solutions to my problems. -Term musterbation refers to the aforementioned types of statements and held that it leads to irrational beliefs and emotional and behavioral difficulties throughout the lifespan.

Multicultural Competence: Key Terms, Ideas, and Concepts

-All individuals are multicultural, which means they have a combination of privileged and oppressed identities that construct their social identities. -Counselors are trained to understand the importance of cross-cultural competence and the influence of diversity on the counseling relationship, yet fewer counselors understand how to develop and implement cross-cultural interventions. -Intersectionality examines the way social identities of privilege and oppression play out for carious groups across social systems a. Expanded to include multiple social identities -Study if intersectionality examines the way multiple marginalized identities render individuals invisible and disempowered in social systems at the micro, meso, and macro levels. -An imbalance in privileged and oppressed identities for some individuals may cause mental health distress due to limited access and participation, which results in unjust and inequitable systemslike schools, employment, and government agencies. -Socially identities are socially constructed and may be based on an individual's physical characteristics, such as race/ethnicity or sex. a. Aspects of an individual's social identity transform and change over the course of the lifespan based on context. -Cross-cultural counseling is concerned about the wat an individual's identities of privilege and oppression came together to influence his or her overall well-being and experiences in social systems like school, the justice system, and various community contexts. -Identities of privilege and oppression are constructed by society in the context of history and are maintained by the status quo. -People w/ social identities related to oppression are subject to discrimination on the basis of an -ism (e.g., racism, sexism, adultism), whereas people w/ social identities related to privilege are generally associated w/ maintaining the status quo. -Cross-cultural counseling requires that counselors raise their awareness around their identities of privelege and oppression and how these influence clients from diverse cultural backgrounds. -Multiculturally competent counselors should be prepared to discuss issues of intersectionality and the ways multiple marginalized identities negatively affect their clients' mental health and also to explore the ways these experiences influence and shape the counseling relationship.

LImitations of Kohlberg's Model

-An all-male sample was used -Further brings into question issues of how factors such as culture, race, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, personal history, past trauma, and other factors may influence how people resolve issues.

Scaffolded Learning

-An emotion-focused therapist might scaffold learning over the course of therapy to help clients learn how to bring awareness to emotions in session; then identify emotions; experience emotions that have been avoided; understand about emotional schemes; examine the idiosyncratic nature of emotional response; understand primary adaptive, secondary reactive, and instrumental emotions; then work w/ dysfunctional themes and so on.

Counselor Use of Language in Developing Multicultrual Counseling

-An esential componet of cross-cultural counseling is to use language that empowers clients as opposed to language that disempowers or reinforces systems of oppression. a. Use word "partners," instead of "husband" and "wife" b. Mr. or Ms. -An approach involving courageous conversations (i.e., difficult dialogues) is one way that social justice advocates, including feminist scholars, have tried to branch charged social groups. -Counselors working w/ culturally diverse clients in cross-cultural relationships should be intentional w/ the language they use when explaining various topics w/ their clients to increase their credibility. -One way to credibility is through affirmative and informed language inside and outside of the counseling relationship.

Values Classification

-Counselors foster moral development through values classification, i.e., helping client's identify, understand, choose, and live according to values. -To aid personal development, counselors help clients explore the values they inherited from familial, peer, and cultural sources while also exploring those values that are different than the values of their past context. -Along this path, clients often struggle btwn, competing values b/c life is full of choices and dilemmas. -As w/ other models of spiritual and moral development, as a person develops he or she moves from contemplative stages around values to action and commitment.

Conjunctive Faith (Stage 5)

-Arrives on the scene as the individual reflects on the past and the pain of persona; limitation, defeat, and the reality of irrevocable life decisions. -In an effort to integrate conscious and unconscious life experience, the individual thirsts to understand what is different, including new experiences in other faith systems. a. Scary b/c person risks a changing worldview, which prompts the working out of opposites and polarities as the person moves toward a more holistic faith experience. -Adaptive feature of this stage rests in the ability to embrace paradox and mystery and the ability to contribute to humanity w/out a need for preconceived responses. -Danger inherent w/in this stage is the temptation to become passive, withdrawn, or cynical in the face of relativism. -Stage of development leads to a personal readiness to be spent by others - in an effort to help others cultivate a greater sense of meaning and identity.

John B. Watson and Behavioral Theory

-Behaviorism developed, in part, b/c of a recreation against the Freudian emphasis on the unconscious as the subject matter of psychology and introspection as the method of its investigation.

Theories and their Application to Counseling Clients

-Brief overviews of these theories are meant to convey the idea that inherent in each theory there are constructs that can be used to illuminate human growth and development across the lifespan. -The value a counselor places on early childhood experience; observable vs.s non-observable elements or behavior in the life of a client; and the role of cognitions, culture, or a supportive environment all become parameters for consideration in the counselor's search for the most meaningful way to approach the therapeutic alliance.

Urie Brofenbrenner's Ecological Theory

-Brofenbrenner examined the mutual accomodation that occurs btwn. the developing person and the changing contexts of four level of envvironmental influence: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the ecosystem, and the macrosystem. -The microsystem consists of the network of social systems andphysical settings a person is part of every day. Might include parents, grandparents, extended family members -The mesosystem consists of the interrelationships btwn. the social systems and physical settings in which the person is immersed and how they affect the development of the person. -The environment that is external to the developing person is the exosystem and consists of social structures that directly or indirectly affect a person's life. Could include the church, the school, the government, and mass media. -The macrosystem consists of broad patterns that are expressed in a culture. -Brofenbrenner also increased awareness of the fact that, as time passes and environments change, the same phenomenon may be viewed differently at a subsequent age or stage of development

Specific Areas of Development

-Cerebellum helps w/ ontrol of body movement and balance. -Hippocampus plays an integral role in memory and the ability to naviagate images. a. Corpus callosum provides even bodily movements and contributes sto different portions of thinking, attention, perception, problem solving, and language development. -Counselors also need to be aware of the importance placed on secure attachment and bonding as the brain continues to develop. a. Children need to have emotional exchanges w/ their primary caregivers especially before language develops to ensure that children will feel secure and their needs are met. -Mirror movement (mirror neurons) is our foundation to be social, imitate others, acquire knowledge, and be empathic.

Cross-Cultural Counseling in Childhood and Early Adolescence

-Childhood reflects a time when individuals are most enthusiastic about learning and direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and skills. a. Children will experience a sense of inferiority as a result of feeling incompetent or less productive than other children. -Some children, due to systemic oppression, may not have opportunities to explore his or her identities as a result of early exposure to marginalization and oppression. -Not seeing onself represented in successful and authoritative positions might lead the student to begin questioning her ability to be successful in a predominantly white educational setting.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

-Continuity refers to successive lifespan development in childhood and adolescence are formative and relate to outcomes later in life. a. Theorists who focus on continuity in child development point to research focused on the impact of early environmental enrichment w/ later life outcomes. -Discontinuity refers to significant shifts in development a. Development was disontinuous b/c sudden shifts in development would vault an individuals out of a period of relative stability (i.e., puberty). -Continutiy vs. Discontinuity - dynamic tension since the word "vs." may be misleading since these two don;t need to be exclusive. Others use the word "and" when talk about continuity - discontinuity; suggests that the two seemingly antithetical qualities can be observed and even play off each other. -Discontinutiy also is apart of the trend of multidirectional where the ability for development to increase and decrease at different stages points to the multidirectional quality of development. -Critical periods are defined as the period in which a subject is particularly subject to damage. a. Another definition of critical period is "the restricted period in which recovery or a flexible response occurs." b. Critical periods provide an opportunity to maximize development -Counselors also consider interventions that are developmentally possible and appropriate for clients -Older adult goal setting is geared tooward loss prevention, unlike w/ younger adults who are oriented toward growth. a. Interventions should be culturally appropriate to the stage.

Substage 5: Social Contracts and Individual Rights

-Defining one's own idea of a functional society; human rights are compared to the law and are theoretical about how the world should be.

Eastern Models of Spiritual Development

-Eastern spirituality aims beyond the self-centric annd toward an awakened self in harmony w/ absolute and relative truths. -From a relative persepctive, humans grow, change in willful directions, experience grief and loss, and find a self w/in values, traits, and culture.

Individuative-Reflective Faith (Stage 4)

-Emerges in early adulthood to midlife -The tacit (unevaluated) faith begins to be replaced by a system of belief that is more explicit, and w/ this comes a return to a more robust sense of internal security and knowingness. -Gift of this stage is the process of coming to see faith as embedded in a particular cultural context

The Micro Level

-Empowering the client is an approach toward advocating w/ the client at the micro level. a. Goal of empowerment at the micro level is to help clients recognize their strengths and external factors that contribute to their development and to build self-advocacy. -The goal of cross-cultural counseling at the micro level is to provide the student access to resources, inform faculty and staff about barriers affecting student performance, find potential allies, and create a plan to address barriers affecting the student. -School counselors can address the equity and access gaps w/in the community by acting on behalf of students and families through leadership to illuminate problems and by collaborating w/ others to envision and work toward change

Transition and Crisis

-Factors contributing to movement from stage 3 to stage 4 often include significant clashes that impact the person's faith, events that lead the individual to question her ultimate concern and the beliefs and values that ensue.

Undifferentiated Stage (Stage 0)

-First stage is more of a prestage; starts in utero and continues for months after birth. a.Initially characterized by primal feelings, perhaps by an attitude of providing hopelessness about self and environment. -Fowler suggested that the baby's experiences (though undifferentiated) of love, courage, and hope are fused yet still very much experienced by the infant as the infant begins to experience the world as safe and predictable or unsafe and chaotic. -Mutuality, the relaitonal dance btwn. caretaker and infant -Challenge during this prestage is the development of trust w/ the potential of mistrust developing in one two directions: in one direction is the development of an excessive narcissism that distorts the infant's relational experience; in the other direction is a neglect that leaves the infant w/an experience of isolation -Long-term effects: lack of confidence in self and others

Donald Meichenbaum's Cognitive Behavior Modification

-Focuses on client's self-verbalizations their (a person's) self-statments affect his or her behavior in much the same way as statements made by another person. -Basic premise of Meichenbaum's theory is that individuals, as a precursor to changed behavior, must notice how they think, feel, and behave and the impact they have on others and learn to interrupt, think, feel, and behave the scripted nature of their behavior so they can implement change. a. Individuals become more aware of their self-talk and the stories they tell about themselves. b. Only way to change what has become habitual during the course of a lifetime is to engage first in self-observation, then starting a new internal dialogue, and finally in learning new skills

Orientation Toward The Study of Human Development for Counselors

-Human development is the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur in a person's life. -Three important ways human development occurs: 1. Universal aspects of development - highsimiliarity of genetic make-up 2. Counselors must examine what elements vary by culture, race, and ethnicity. Cultural differences represent fractional differences btwn. groups. 3. Counselors must understand development that is unique and personal to the individual. The way that each person traverses through life creates a unique footprint. -At the basic level, the study of human development across the lifespan must first help the practitioner more accurately describe human development. a. Counselor has to consider context of human development b. Counselor needs to move away from linear understanding of development to systemic understanding of human development. c. Counselors can also help clients adapt and transition through ever-changing landscape of life. Ex. Client processing grief and loss due to death of close person → counselor will understand how development has impacted cognitive and behavior understandings and responses to grief and loss.

Beck's Influence

-For Beck, psychological distrurbances may be the result of "faulty learning, making incorrect inferences on the basis of inadequate or incorrect information, and not distinguishing adequately btwn. imagination and reality." -The major cognitive distortions that Beck identified as in need of modification during counseling and psychotherapy were as follows: a. Arbitrary inferences: the tendency to form conclusions w/out needed and supporting evidence. Includes this idea that Beck called catastrophizing, or assuming that the worst possible outcomes imaginable would occur in response to something that the individual had dones or as the result of a situation the individual had created. b. Selective abstraction: the proclivity to form conclusions based on an isolated event or detail. Example: a depressed person might select only the most negative aspects of an event thus supporting the depression. When this occurs, the individual ignores all other aspects of the situation and the context in which the event occurred. c. Overgeneralization: process of holding on to extreme beliefs on the basis of just one incident and applying them to other incidents or situations that are very dissimilar to the original incident. d. Magnification or minimization: the individual views a situation to be mmuch more or much less important than it really is given the circumstances. The basis of such viewpoints supports inaccurate conclusions. e. Personalization: the tendency ti apply certain events or statements to themselves even though there is no basis for making such a connection. f. labeling and misleading: the predisposition to focus one's identity on imperfections or mistakes and allowing these labels and mislabels to become the primary focus of one's identity. g. Dichotomous thinking: Classifying experiences of other people as good or bad or as either - or extremes w/ no ability to see anything in btwn. -Cognitive theory hold that if someone has developed this way of thinking during their life course, it is possible to change such distortions and avoid engaing in dysfunctional behaviors as a result.

Spiritual Development

-For decades, counseling profession deemphasized spirituality and religion in counseling; relegated to realm of personal belief or faith, b/c spirituality deals w/ transcendence. -W/transitions toward multicultural and social justice operations, the field has moved closer to acknowledging the spirituality and religion should not be ignored in coursework, let alone in counseling sessions. -Issues of religion and spirituality enter the counseling session and directly relate to mental health and wellness outcomes. a. Professional counselor has to be able to "describe and apply various models of spiritual and/or religious sdevelopment and their relationship to human development" -Spirituality relates to those elements of experience that may be attributed too what is transcendent, ultimate in meaning, and is divine and may or may not relate to religiosity. -Religion refers to the traditions and institutions arranged around spirituality and spiritual development. -Regardless of whether relgion is part of a client' spiritual experience, counselors must be ready and competent to help clients w/ spirituality abd questions that arise. -Stage-based models point toward spiritual development as qualitative changes over time in a person's life ending up in some types of final stage of development. -From the lens of constructivism, researchers and clinicians are concerned about how the client w/ a given context understands certain phenomena. -Stage-based models can provide forward leaning motivation, directionality, and a clearer picture of how one's capactity to grow can be influenced by opportunity and context.

Risk Factors

-Gender: a. Boys are 1.5 times more likely to be injured due to their increased activity, impulsivity, and risk-taking behaviors. b. Children w/ ADD/ADHD are defiant or aggressive and also pose a greater safety challenge.

Glligan's Ethics of Care

-Gilligan posited that men and women have different orientations toward resolving moral decisions. -Gilligan identified boys as having an orientation toward justice. -She believed that women gravitate toward the concepts of feelings, needs, and care. a. Women approach moral decision making from a relational perspective focused on issues such as abandonment, attachment, and connection. b. Two moral edicts for women exist: treating others fairly and not ignoring the needs of others. -Three stages: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional a. Preconventional: person aspires to survive as an individual b. Conventional: person believes that self-sacrifice is rewarded. c. Postconventional: a person internalizes principles of nonviolence and nonmaleficence toward the self and others.

Growth

-Growth is the process of physical development, often specifically related to the quantifiable measurement of growing larger. -Counselors and other health professionals examine growth b/c research has correlated cognitive and learning deficits and other important life variables w/ stunted stature. -Across the globe, some of the key elements that affect growth in the early years are malnutrition, poverty, sickness, and parenting practices that do not respond to a child's need for development. -School counselors and teachers often know that when children are sick, hungry, or dealing w/ family problems they just don't have the attention to focus on learning.

Heinz Kohut's Self Psychology

-Heinz Kohut's self psychology emphasized narcissism as a potential description of human development rather than as a pathological condition. -Sefl-absorption (grandiose self) and the attention of the powerful parent (idealized self-object) occur in the course of child development before the age of four. -Kohut believed that a state of tension may exist btwn, the grandiose self (the expectation of being able to get whatever is desired and the idealized potential image (the belief that parents are wonderful and the best), results in the development of the bipolar self. -Child chooses btwn. doing what he or she wants to do (grandiose self) and what parents expect (idealized self object), when children don't get what they want, they have (narcissistic rage). -Marrying occurs when the parent shows the child she is happy w/ the child, thus supporting the grandiose self so that the child feels understood.

Faith Development Theory

-James Fowler's Faith Development Theory a. Argues that faith is universal, whereas religious experience is more culturally nuanced. b. Faith is a person's of group's way of "finding coherence in and giving meaning to the multiple forces that make up our lives. Faith is a person's way of seeing him - or herself in relation to others against a background of shared meaning and purpose." -Fowler said that "faith is an orientation of the total person, giving purpose and goal to one's hopes and strivings, thoughts and actions" -Fowler's work creates a platform for helpers to understand the process of faith development and the crisis that propels a person from one stage to another. a. A crisis, often characterized by doubt, pain, risk, and loss, around a person's ultimate concern, is necessary so that a more robust faith system can arise.

Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory

-Jean Piaget began to study children's intellectual development during the 1920s, had a profound effect on how we view human growth and development across the lifespan. -Piaget developed a dvelopmental theory that described changes in thee way individuals think from infancy to adolescence: a. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Infants use their senses and motor actions to begin to explore and understand the world. Beginning of stage, they use only innate reflexes, but by the end of the stage, they are beginning to be capable of symbolic thought using images or words to problem solve. b. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): individuals use the ability for symbolic thought to develop language capacity,participate in pretend play and problem solve. Child is very egocentric and is easily fooled by perceptions. c. Concrete Operations Stage (7 to 11 years): Children acquire concrete operations that enable them to mentally classify, add, and act on concrete objects in their heads. Can solve practical and real-world problems but experience difficulty understanding hypothetical and abstraact situations and problems. d. Formal Operations Stage: (11 or 12 years and older): Adolescents can understand and address abstract concepts and hypothetical possibilities and can anticipate long-range consequences of possible behaviors. As they develop, they create hypotheses and systematically evaluate them employing scientific methods.

John Bowlby's Attachment Thoery

-John Bowlby came up w/attachment theory, which is used in the study of infant, and toddler behavior, infant mental health, counseling, and therapy w/ children. -Bowlby's theory emphasizes four areas: 1. Children btwn. the ages of 6 months and about 30 months usually develop emotional attacments to familiar caregivers, especially if the adults recognize and respond to child communications. 2. Young children reveal their emotional attachments by their preferences for particular familiar people, their tendencies to want to be in close proximity to those people, esp. in terms of distress, and their desires to use those adults as secure bases from whichto explore the environment. 3. The early formation of emotional attachments contributes to the foundation of later emotional and personality development, and the kinds of behaviors shown to be toddlers to familiar adults have some continuity to the social behaviors they will show later in life. 4. Events that interfere w/attachment, such as abrupt separation of the toddler from familiar people or the inability of caregivers to be sensitive, responsive, or consistent in their interactions, have shirt-term and possible long-term, negative umpacts on the child's emotional and cognitive life. -Four different attachment classification identified in children: 1. Secure attachment: This occurs when children feel secure in the presence of their caregivers. A securely-attached toddler will usually explore freely while the caregiver is present, engage w/ strangers, is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs, and is happy when caregiver returns. 2. Anxious-ambivalent attachment: the infant experiences separation anxiety when separated from the caregiver and doesn't feel reassured when caregiver returns. THe child will typically explore little and is often war of strangers, when parent is present. When caregiver departs, the child is often highly distressed. 3. Anxious-avoidant attachment: the infant avoids parents or caregivers. A child w/ this attachment style often shows little emotion when caregiver departs or returns. They will not explore very much, regardless of who's there. 4. Disorganized attachment: occurs when there's a lack of attachment behavior; infants w/disorganized attachment exhibit overt displays of fear; contradictory behaviors, or affects occuring simultaneously or sequentially; stereotypic, asymmetric, misdirected, or jerky movements; or freezing and apparent dissociation.

Substage 6: Universal Principles

-Larger scale morals (global human rights, civil rights for a given group, soial justice, and broad equality) are the focus. -Morals around these issues are so developed and strong that the person is willing to risk facing consequences, such as disapproval of loved one or society in defense of their beliefs.

Cross-Cultural Counseling in Late Adolescence and Early Adulthood

-The challenges for the late adolescent and early adult are the mastery of connection and the establishment of meaningful relationships. -This developmental stage is associated w/ graduating from high school and the movement toward contextual environments outside of the family, like college or emplyment. -Young adults deal w/ a multitude of sociopolitical factors based on their intersectionality. -The color-blind approach is based in dichotomized though processes that may reinfocrce stereotypes that promote discrimination and prejudice around difference. -Individuals w/ multiple marginalized intersections of identity, who are vulnerable to more discrimination, may experience increased stress and lower self-esteem, which may have an impact on their academic performance and their mental health -Young adulthood is a critical time for understanding cross-cultural difference and developing acceptance across differences. a. Culturally competent counselors have an opportunity to work w/ young adults toward acceptance and celebration of difference in their educational environments.

Multidimensional and Systemic

-Many dimensions to human development and systemically oriented -Biopsychosocial label suggests that human development is a combination of biological, psychological, and social elements. -For counselors, it's most helpful to view the developing self and lived experience from a systemic perspective. a. Development influenced by circular causality, which suggests that development happens in a contextual and cyclical manner. b. Counselors consider that A (e.g., pregnant teen abuses alcohol) causes B (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome), or that A can cause B, which will keep having repetitive effects over time, or that A causes B, which causes then causes C (e.g., a child is socially bullied for strange facial features and outburts of anger), which then auses D (e.g., poor self-esteem when she grows up as a pregnant teen) in a chain of cause and effect. Client grasp that A (the child w/ FAS might continue the pattern of alchol abuse in adolescence). -A postive feedback loop is where the pattern promotes the pattern at greater instensity levels. Negative feedback is the process by which the system does not circularly reinforce some particular phenomenon. -Counselors can inadvertently over focus on certain dimensions to the detriment of the systemic view. a. Happens w/a patterned approach or narrow lens toward the issue. -Mindlessness is an attention to a subset of contextual cues that "trigger various scripts, labels, and expressions, which in turn focus attention on certain information while diverting attention away from other information.'" -An individual's development over time is inter-related to the development of families, groupsm or species. -The process of mutual selection reinforces the person and environment interdependence. The process of selection is subject to reinforcing feedback loops.

Substage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships

-Moral decision making is connected w/ abiding by the values established by family and continuity. -People at this stage of moral development understand that although technically wrong, there may be a valid reason for violating the rules in someone in need.

What is Moral Development?

-Moral development is the study of how people's ideas and behaviors regarding the social, ethical, and judicial treatment of others evolve over the lifespan. -Piaget, Kohlberg, & Gilligan were among earliest theorists to examine moral development.

Brain Development

-Most children btwn. the ages of 3 and 6 yrs. experience an active period w/in their left cerebral hemisphere. RIght hemisphere increases at a constant pace throughout early and middle adulthood -Early to middle adulthood - frontal lobe areas that are devoted to inhibiting impulses and organizing behavior experience rapid growth in various cortical regions. a. Goes hand in hand w/ a child's ability to control his or her behavior in conduction w/ his or her newfound greater command of the language. -A child's spatial ability (directions, drawing, share recognition) develops over time into adolescence. -A child's dominant cerebral hemisphere will determine skilled motor activity. a. Right-handed people typically house language in the left hemisphere, However, left-handed individuals may have language housed in the right hemisphere or even shared btwn. the two hemispheres.

Using the ACA Advocacy Competencies to Enhance Cross-Cultural Counseling Competence Multicultural Competence Through Social Justice Advocacy

-Multicultural counseling is responsible for bringing awareness to counselors about the cultural variables present w/in the counseling relationship and for acknowledging the social influences that impact the lives of students and clients. -Professional school counselors can address equity and access gaps in academic achievement among marginalized student populations and can advocate for additional opportunities and resources that will ensure every student reaches his or her maximum potential for academic, social, and personal growth

Nature vs. Nurture

-Nature vs. Nurture → Genetics vs. Environment a. Can be challenging to determine what is genetic and what is environmental since children receive 50% of their genes but also are embedded (i.e., more adequately describes the interdependence of a person w/the environment) in the environment strongly mediated by the family. -Heidegger's (1962) descriptions of people as being in the world, a mutuality where the individual being is continually making, chaging, and influencing the world and conversely the environment is making, changing, and influencing the individual. -Environmental-genetic interaction is hard to pull apart b/c the two things are not separate. -Counselors should cautiously examine assumptions when making causal attributions for a clinet issue on either nature or nurture side. a. Counselors examine the evidence-based material and realize that problems have biopsychosocial origins and solutions

Nonnormative Influences

-Nonnormative influences do not adhere to a particular time frame, nor are they common across a predictable cohort (ex. Illness)

Normative Sociocultural-Graded Influences

-Normative sociocultural-graded influences are sared by others of the same sociocultural group (e.e., rites of passage - quinceñara, bar mitzvah) -In the U.S. and Canada, counsleors often pay attention to the influence of socioeconomic staus on individual development -Enrich environments, caregiver time and energy, and early investment such as preschool attendance may mediate the negative effects of socioeconomic adversity. -Family development is directly tied to the nature and composition of the family. -Counselors refer to family based on the reality of family composition in today's society. -The Family Life Cycle: A Framework for Family Therapy suggested that families can get stunted when transitioning through stages of the cylce and that counselors can directly help families make sense of and negotiate a functional way forward. -Counselors help clients sort btwn. distress and eustress a. Eustress is stress that is seen as necessary and part of maturation. -Counselors help clients sort through adn walk through the fear and discomfort of making positive developmental gains that are frightening

Object Relations Psychology: Donald Winnicott and Otto Kernberg

-Objects relations psychology focuses on how the child views or internalizes the relationship and how these views affect individuals as they become adults. a. Interested in how people separate from their mothers via a process termd individuation. Emphasis is on internalized relationships. -Donald Winnicott's concepts of the transitional object, the good-enough mother, and the true self and false self were influenctial in the development of understanding. a. Infants move from feeling like they control all aspects of the world they live in to an awareness of the existence of others. -A transitional object (stuffed toy, baby blanket) is instrumental in heping an infant move from experiencing himself as the center of the universe to experiencing himself as one person among other objects or persons that are not fully under his control -Good enough describes a mother who could respond to and meet the needs of the infant early in life and then gradually let the infant develop more and more independence. -The true self precipitates an ability to be spontaneous and real and make the distinction btwn. himself and his mother. -The false self can develop when there is not adequate mothering and, as a result, infants become compliant and they don't separate as they should from their mothers. -Otto Kernberg exlained the concept of splitting or the process of separating incompatible feelings from each other. -A personality disorder develops when someone has experienced frustration when being parented and becomes angry and begins to see his mother as not good enough and may focus on feelings of anger and being threatened.

Universaling Faith (Stage 6)

-Occurs in midlife and beyond -Transition occurs as the person is able to reconcile paradox through universalizing aspirations -Their faith leads them to embrace the sacredness of life while living deeply aware of the brevity of life, further prompting them to embrace service and care for those at any place along the faith stages and of any faith tradition.

Thorndike, Skinner, and Operant Conditioning

-Operant conditioning focuses on both the antecedennts of behavior and consequences of behavior as a way of explaining how individuals develop behaviors across the lifespan whereas classical conditioning emphasizes the antecedents of behavior. -E.L. Thorndike studied how people learn using controlled experiemental procedures. Used cats and would place food outside their cage and watch how cats would get food by pressing a latch to escape the cage. -B.F. Skinner applied operant conditioning to the way people learn -The impact of positive reinforcement, extinction, generalizatio, discrimination, shaping, and observational learning have all been studied and analyzed as means of understanding human growth and development and cues to how to help clients change their behavior.

Micro- and Macroaggressions

-Oppression enacted through the enforcement of unjust policy and inequitable application of the law is called a macroaggression. a. Overt form of discrimination; systemic and difficult to transform due to a history of social inequity b. "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy → Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) -Microaggressions are subtle acts of discrimination perpetrated by an individual w/ a privileged identity against someone w/ an oppressed identity. a. Minimize client to a stereotype or an exception to an unstated rule -Perceived discrimination has a significant impact on mental and physical health outcomes, particularly for people of color, who have multiple marginalized identities. -Counselors should carefully balance open dialogue about difference w/ a focus on the needs of the client as opposed to disclosing their own intersectional identities, which can undermine credibility in cross-cultural dyads.

Physical Development

-Physical development refers to the organic changes that occur in children as they mature. a. Exponential rate of growth and change for children - each year, a child can grow 2-3 in. in height and put on an additional 5 pounds in weight

Plasticity

-Plasticity is the ability of an organism, in this case the developing human or some part of an organism (e.g., brain), to change in response to positive and neagtive environmental experiences. -Environments influence the biopsychosocial dimensions of self, and people influence their environment. -Plasticity occurs across multiple dimensions of development and throughout the lifespan -Counselors can help clients learn to take advantage of the person-environment relationship

Counseling Application #5

-Potential threat for someone in stage 5 is a withdrawal or a cynicism that may develop in response to an experience of relativism as other worldviews are known and appreciated.

Psychoanalytic Theory

-Psychoanalytic theory suggests that behavior is largely determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations, and biological, or instinctual, drives. a. Freud came up w/ it; based on the cncept that individuals are unaware of the many actors that cause their maladaptive behaviors and discomforting emotions. b. Highly individualized and seeks to show how early childhood experiences have impacted the formative aspects of our personality development.

Moral Development Theories

-Questioning own morality

Recreational Psychoanalysis

-Relational therapist examined their own contributions to the reactions of clients and reacted to client statements rather than just observing them: a. Each therapist will have animpact on the client based on his or her personality. b. Each client or therapist pairing will be unique c. What happens in the counseling or therapy process is unpredictable d. The therapist is a subjective rather than an objective participant.

Carl Roger's Phenomenological Worldview

-Rogers viewed individuals as pssessing inherent qualities that made growth possible; he believed that attempting to change basic personality characteristics or behaviors was not necessary. a. Maintained that people viewed the world and people around them from their own unique perspective; this persepctive is referred to as a phenomenological persepctive. b. All people are continually attempting to actualize their best and most prodcutive selves. -Roger's Person-Centered View of People is based on four key beliefs: (1) people are trustworthy; (2) people innately move toward self-actualization and health; (3) people have the inner resources to move themselves in positive directions; and (4) people respond to their uniquely perceived world (phenomenological world) a. No two people see the world alike: No two individuals can be expected to view things in exactly the same way. Each client has a unique perspective. b. People make simple mistakes in judgment: People make choices that appear to be the correct ones for them, but they're ineffective b/c the choices match the perceived world of those around them rather than being based on an individual's best judgment. People act in ways they believe others would have them act rather than trusting their own positive, growth-oriented nature. c. The client has the ability to actualize potential: person-centered counselors place tremendous confidence in clients even though they know that they will make mistakes in judgment. Belief that people are innately good and always seek a fully functioning experience in the world, even though they make mistakes. People's tendency to actualize potential is the driving force recognized by the person-centered counselor who seeks to free the client from self-induced constraints. d. The perceived world of the client may not approximate the world sought: People experience difficulties b/c sometimes the world they perceive is not congruent w/ the world they would naturally seek for themselves. Their behavior is based on perceptions of what other people think is right and this results in decisions and actions that are not personally fulfilling. This conflict is termed incongruence. e. Congruent individuals trust their worldview: congruent people trust their view of the world and their ability to act on their basic positive nature and generally gain the acceptance they accept. Feel confident about reaching spotaneously b/c of they believe they can differentiate btwn. appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. -Roger's theory that maintains that people develop in self-fulfilling wats when the process of change is facilitated through a helping relationship guided by the presence of three basic conditions: genuineness, acceptance, and caring.

Key Counseling Pointers for Moral and Spiritual Development

-School counseling institute comprehensive school counseling plans that are developmental in nature so that social/emotional, career, and academic needs of various students along the K-12 educational path impact the moral development of children. -Counselors must integrate issues of spirituality and religion into counseling -Counselors also help clients deal w/ spiritual bypass, which occurs when a person uses spiritual and religious practices to stave off healthy emotions or to ignore important realities.

Skeletal Development

-Skeletal system - cartilage and bone; framework of the body and determines movement while protecting vital organs. -Children who are overwight or obese tend to lose their teeth quicker and children who are malnourished for extended periods of time may wait longer or their adult teeth to appear.

Bandura and Social Cognitive Therapy

-Social cognitie therapy was developed by Albert Bandura; he believed that people are cognitive beings and that their processing of information plays a central role in the way they learn, behave, and develop over a lifetime. -Bandura also believed that people learn to reinforce or punish themselves using their thoughts and these reinforcements or punishments also affect their behavior. -As time passes, Bandura began studying human agency (or the ways people exert cognitive control over themselves, their environments, and their lives) in addition to the study of observational learning. As time passes, individuals develop high or low sesnes of self-efficacy in certain areas of activity (self-efficacy is the belief that a person can successfully achieve desired outcomes in a specified area, e.g., completing an advanced degree, applying for a promotion at work, learning a foreign language) -Bandura believed that people choose, build, and change their environments through a process called reciprocal determinism.

Defining Social Justice

-Social justice refers to the way privilege and oppression impact the well-being of individuals and committees a. Counselors should also become aware of the ways their attitudes, beliefs, and values may promote or maintain injustices to marginalized hroups of people by recognizing the privileges afforded to them as heloing professionals -Privilege is defined as unearned benefits systematically given to specific members of society. a. Counselors must be intentional and in remaining self-reflective about their privileges to ensure they are not portraying the same attitudes or beliefs that contribute to a systematically unjust system that promotes some and devalues others. -Counselors need to begin a combined approach toward helping marginalized persons by recognizing cultural variables w/in the counseling relationship and by advocating against social injustices that continue to negatively impact students and clients outside the counseling environment. -Increasing multiculturalism and social justice competence are critical in training and supervising future counselors -The ACA Advoacy Competencies were designed to educate counselors to become knowledgeable and aware of social injustice in their work w/ clients to be intentional in creating systemic change by reducing social inequity. -Incorporating a social justice lens to advocate for clients and students is not an alternative or different perspective of multicultural competence but extends multicultural competence by acknowledging the various levels of advocacy. -Counselors trained to operate from a social justice lens, a reflection of ACA Advocacy Competencies, not only advocate for clients at the micro level, but also on behalf of their clients by promoting change w/in their contextual environments, institutions, and public arenas (macro level) a. Micro level advocacy includes supporting the client's need directly by working w/ the client in his or her present state of the need. b. Macro level advocacy includes recognizing external factors that may have contributed to the client's need to seek counseling. -The goal of advocacy at the client level is to help them access resources, to inform privileged groups about barriers affecting clients

Heredity

-Species heredity is the genetic inheritance that we have in common as human species a. Influences which traits are universal to all humans as compared w/ other species -Humans have two pairs of 23 chromosomes (either XY Male or XX Female, 22 autosomes w/ one pairing linked to sex) -Genotype is a term used to describe the inherited genes that make up the underlying possibility for expression. -Phenotype is a term used to describe the genetic manifestation, or how genes are expressed. a. Not dependent on by genes -Some genes are regulatory genes and control the developmental activation and deactivation of other genes, a process that impacts the developmental onset of critical periods and events in development

Intuitive - Projective Faith (Stage 1)

-Stage spans 3 to 7 years of age -Characterized by fluidity and imagination a. Fluidity creates an unrestrained flow of thought and fantasy for the child b. Imagination brings w/ it powerful images and stories that impact the child's intuitive understanding and feelings about existence and meaning making -This developmental period is a time of constant integration of knowledge collected from the child's environmental w/out filter and in an egocentric manner. a. The potential danger exists for stories of damnation, shame, or an angry deity to take up residence w/in the child's imagination and for the development of a worldview based in fear, guilt, and shame. -Wounding in this stage can lead to adolescents and adults who present as either overly rigid and controlling in an effort to to protect against a dangerous world or who present as britlle and vulnerable to the views and criticisms of others.

Key Counseling Pointers for Human Development

-The counseling relationship is dynamic and influences the development of client. B/c of the irrevesible quality of time, counseling is strongly tied to the behaviors, thoughts, communications, and feelings that occur in session w/ the client. -Counselors must think in a multidimensional and systemic way, but most people do not habitually view the world in a systemic way. As a mental practice, examine the systems and subsytems of your current circumstance as a habit so it becomes natural when working w/ clients. -Popular ideas of development suggest that development is static and only growth related. Counselors who want to serve clients well will be versed in human transition, grief, and loss. Death is a developmental process. -During critical periods, counselors must be as concerned about maximizing developmental outcomes as they are about maximizing stunting or unnecessary decline -B/c learning is so important to a variety of developmental steps and outcomes, counselors need to be aware of how people learn differently and how disability can influence the process of learning. Instruction, process work, and psych. education in the counseling setting should fit w/ a person's optimal learning format. -Whether development reflects continuity or discontinuity, clients often look for coherence through meaning making and life narratives. For children, global narratives are not present, but as a person moves into adolescence and again into young and middle adulthood, life narratives became helpful to a host of life processes. Life review has been shown to be of important use to older adults. -Advocacy is important so people can get the opportunities and resources to develop to capacity. Learn how to advocate for clients and how to help clients advocate for themselves on microsystemic (e.g., individual) and macrosystemic (e.g., institutional, societal) levels -When examining nonnormative influences, use stressful events inventories such as the 43-point Social Readjustment Rating Scale by Holmes and Rahe -The competencies endorsed by the American COunseling Association in the realms of (a) multicultural counseling, (b) advocacy, (c) cross-cultural counseling, (d) LGBTQ, and (e) working w/ multicultural clients are each vital guides and aspirational motivators for counselors.

Learning

-To realize developmental capacity, people need opportunities for learning, major call to action of the equality and justice movement. -W/out learning, level of proficiency and mastery are limited. - Types of learning that infleunces development: a. Behavioral learning: People develop through behavioral conditioning that relates to environmental incentives and consequences. b. Social learning: Development occurs through interactions w/ others. One can learn from peers, those that are slightly more developed in an area, or someone w/ a novel approach. c. Cognitive learning: Through cognitive processing and inherent biological mechanisms for complex cognitive skills, people can grow through cognitive learning. d. Mirror-neuron copy process learning: Thorugh a perception - action coupling mechanism, mirror neurons help people see a skill and copy it. e. Scaffold learning: Learning that is built on previous learning and development

Using the ACA Advocacy Competencies to Practice Cross-Cultural Counseling

-Two approaches of advocacy: w/ the client and on behalf of the client a. Advocacy w/ the client: Involves more direct intervention that impacts the client w/in the context of his or her environment b. Advocacy on behalf of the client. Involves intercession of contributing factors that influence the client environment.

Concluding Remarks on Fowller's Theory for Counseling

-Two spiritual competencies: 1. "The professional counselor recognizes that the client's beliefs (or absence of belefs) about spirituality/religion are central to his or her worldview and can influence psychosocial functioning." 2. "The professional counselor actively explores his or her own attitudes, beliefs, and values about spirituality and/or religion."

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Viewpoint

-Vygotsky's main message was that cognitive development occurs in the context of his or her own culture and develops based on a child's social interaction in that culture. -Major premises of Vygotsky's work are as follows: a. The ways an individual develops is tied to early formative years and has historical characteristics depending on when and where the individual grew up. b. As changes occur in a person's social situation and activities, the development of the individual reflects these changes. c. As a person observes what someone is doing or saying, these activties, the development of the individual reflects these changes. d. A systematic use of signs and symbols (language) must be available for a person to internalize activities and communication patterns. e. An individual assimilates the values of a culture by being part of the culture and interacting w/ others who are part of the culture. -Alexander Lina, a colleague of Vygotsky's, discovered that children growing up in rural communities w/ more limited social experience gave very similar responses to one another, but that these responses were very different from those of children residing in urban areas.

Processes of Human Development

-When examining the biopsychosocial development of a person over a lifespan, a counselor will note the variation of influences that have affected development; thesse include: growth, maturation, and learning. -Counselors must have expertise, defined as complex, domain-specific skills. Allows them to add to and adapt the knowlege and skills of that area of expertise more rapidly. -Experts are able to more easily add new information and make sense of how it fits into the larger picture of that domain of knowledge. a. Experts are more easily able to sort and understand the value of information w/in their areas of expertise, for example, rapidly determining and acting confidently on intake data in a crisis situation. Also, expertise allows professionals to sort btwn. relevant and irrelevant materials and stimuli. -Counselors often need help in the area of intake. a. W/out expertise in the field, they often probe for less relevant material, which has an impact on the counseling and the client. -beginners find a out-of-the-box idea b/c they may be less biased toward certain solution possibilities. -Counselor will want to know how key processes of development are at play in the context of a client's life.

The Macro Level

When practicing a cross-cultural counseling approach w/ client at the macro level, providing information to the public is essential in empowering these individuals b/c it enables those impacted by oppression to have their voices heard by a wider audience. -A cross-cultural approach toward social justic advocacy means advocating for change w/in the community. a. Recognizing the lived experiences of marginalized clients and sharing their experiences w/ the general public can provide awareness about the impact government decisions have on individuals w/in the community. -Counseling and social justice are intertwined, and true advocacy involves counselors advocating for their students and clients beyond the counseling office.