Exam 1

Which one of the following best illustrates cognitive modeling? A science teacher thinks aloud, "How can I determine what makes this pendulum swing fast or slowly? Hmm, I'll change the amount of weight on the bottom. But I need to make sure to keep the length the same as before so that I know that any change in speed isn't due to length." After showing his students how to use a jigsaw correctly and safely, an industrial arts teacher has them practice using the saw by constructing pig-shaped cutting boards they can bring home as gifts for Mother's Day. A Spanish teacher has students practice rolling their Rs by asking them to repeat this tongue twister over and over-"Erre con erre cigarro, erre con erre barril. Rápido corren los carros del ferrocarril."

A science teacher thinks aloud, "How can I determine what makes this pendulum swing fast or slowly? Hmm, I'll change the amount of weight on the bottom. But I need to make sure to keep the length the same as before so that I know that any change in speed isn't due to length."

Which of the following would be an example of a qualitative research study of learning? A researcher interviews 25 students about their experiences learning science. A researcher gives 500 students in a History course a pre-test at the beginning of the semester, and a post-test at the end, to determine how much they learned. A researcher brings volunteers into her lab to demonstrate a new learning strategy, and measures how well they implement the strategy on tasks that they perform while there. A researcher goes to a local middle school to demonstrate a new learning strategy, and surveys students to determine how useful they believe the strategy to be.

A. A researcher interviews 25 students about their experiences learning science.

Three of the following are examples of self-regulation as social cognitive theorists describe it. Which one is not a good example of self-regulation? A student tries hard to earn the reinforcer his teacher has told him he will get for good behavior. A student thinks, "I paid better attention in class today. I'm going to reward myself by watching television when I get home from school." A student reminds herself in a whisper that she should raise her hand before speaking in class. A student keeps track of the number of times he's gone to the pencil sharpener in a single day.

A. A student tries hard to earn the reinforcer his teacher has told him he will get for good behavior.

Lori has learned that when she wants to say something in class, she must raise her hand before doing so. At home, however, she speaks without ever raising her hand ahead of time. We can say that the classroom has become a(n) ______ for Lori's hand-raising behavior. Antecedent stimulus Negative reinforcement Generalized stimulus Positive stimulus

A. Antecedent stimulus

Which one of the following statements provides the most credible explanation for the fact that human beings seem to surpass all other animal species in their thinking and learning capacities? Human brains are smaller than those of other intelligent species (e.g., elephants, dolphins) and therefore can transmit messages more quickly and efficiently. Only human beings have the capability to make tools. Human beings have a huge repertoire of instinctual behaviors from which they can draw when they encounter new experiences. Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they've learned to future generations.

A. Human beings have a huge repertoire of instinctual behaviors from which they can draw when they encounter new experiences.

Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth. The major result of this capacity to learn is that Humans can benefit from their experiences. Human thought becomes less logical with each generation. New instincts begin to emerge. Humans are the only species whose behavior cannot be analyzed in terms of stimuli and responses.

A. Humans can benefit from their experiences.

A mother has been paying her daughter Melissa one dollar an hour to shovel snow off the driveway. At the end of January, the mother raises the rate to two dollars an hour. Based on research related to contrast effects, we can predict that Melissa will probably Shovel more snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour Shovel half as much snow as she would have otherwise, and then she'll quit Shovel the same amount of snow as she would have at a dollar-an-hour rate Shovel less snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour

A. Shovel more snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour

The texbooks's perspective regarding various theories of learning is that- There is currently no "right" theory, but one will eventually be developed. Different theories may be applicable in different situations. Cognitivist theories are probably more accurate. Behaviorist theories are probably more accurate.

A. There is currently no "right" theory, but one will eventually be developed.

Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one? Amy knows she is a good singer. Darlene recently got a score of 120 on an intelligence test. Carmen enjoys being with her friends. Berta swims the fastest butterfly on the swim team.

Amy knows she is a good singer.

In the human brain, a great deal of synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood. This pruning appears to be An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment Reflective of the fact that the forebrain is slowly taking over responsibility for functions that have previously been regulated by the hindbrain and midbrain The unfortunate results of insufficiently stimulating home environments Due to imbalance of important nutrients, and especially to low levels of the B vitamins in many children's diets

An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment

Which one of the following best illustrates the self-reaction aspect of self-regulation? Clint doesn't like striking out when it's his turn at bat because his teammates will think he's a bad baseball player Adele feels terrible when she inadvertently hurts a classmate's feelings Daryl check his watch frequently as he takes a standardized test to be sure he can finish the test in the allotted time.

B. Adele feels terrible when she inadvertently hurts a classmate's feelings

John is an adolescent who makes impulsive decisions (e.g., ditching school) and engages in risky behavior (e.g., driving well over the speed limit). His behavior can best be explained by which of the following? During adolescence, synaptic pruning has stopped. Adolescents' pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties. Adolescents' brain stems are still not fully developed, and will not be until middle adulthood. Adolescents have limited concepts of consequences and punishment.

B. Adolescents' pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties.

Mr. MacDonald wants his students to ask him for help on their geometry problems only after they have tried to solve the problems independently for at least five minutes. Mr. McDonald should reinforce students' help-seeking behavior on a __________ schedule. Differential rate of high responding Differential rate of low responding Variable ratio Fixed ratio

B. Differential rate of low responding

John and Bill have both learned that when they whine and complain, their teacher will hurry over to see what's wrong. John's teacher gives him attention every time he complains. However, Bill's teacher gives him attention only on some of the occasions he complains. Both teachers eventually realize that they are reinforcing the boys for inappropriate behavior and so both stop attending to the boys when they whine and complain. From a behaviorist perspective, we can predict that- A. Both boys will whine and complain even more than before. B. John's complaining will decrease more rapidly than Bill's. C. Both boys will stop their whining and complaining almost immediately D. Bill's complaining will decrease more rapidly than John's

B. John's complaining will decrease more rapidly than Bill's.

According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most true regarding factors that influence brain development? Environmental factors are particularly influential in abnormal brain development. Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span. Genetic factors have the strongest influence on brain development, particularly later in life. Environmental factors and people's experiences have the strongest influence on brain development in middle childhood.

B. Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span.

From the perspective of social cognitive theory, which one of the following children most clearly reflects a key ingredient of self-regulation? Bob is proud of the fact that he always keeps a promise Donald refrains from punching a classmate because he thinks his teacher might be watching. Carol knows she will be tested on the information being presented in class. Anne does her chores so that she will get her weekly allowance.

Bob is proud of the fact that he always keeps a promise

Which one of the following best describes how neurons transmit messages to one another? By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them By stimulating the growth of surrounding glial cells By fusing the axon of one with a dendrite of the other By attaching themselves to the same terminal buttons

By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them

A principle of learning can best be characterized as An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning A description of the results of a particular research study

C. A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning

Extinction is one method of eliminating undesirable conditioned responses, but there are several problems associated with its use. Which one is not a problem encountered in using extinction? Some responses extinguish slowly, if at all. Organisms tend to stay away from stimuli they have learned to fear, thus preventing their exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Extinction often occurs too quickly too be controlled. Extinguished responses may reappear through spontaneous recovery.

C. Extinction often occurs too quickly too be controlled.

Mr. Limpitlaw wants to increase his female students' self-efficacy for mastering simple car maintenance procedures. He can best do this by Having the students read a book with clear, step-by-step instructions for changing the oil and the air filter Describing how easily he learned these things when he was their age Having the students watch other girls successfully change the oil and the air filter Presenting a film that shows an experienced auto mechanic at work

C. Having the students watch other girls successfully change the oil and the air filter

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of baseline as behaviorists use the term? A. Marsha starts copying her best friend's homework assignments regularly after she finds out that she gets better grades if she does so. B. Dimitri is afraid of the school swimming pool after he almost drowns in it during a swimming lesson Correct! C. Justin talks in class all the time, even though his teacher and classmates do nothing to encourage him D. After Louisa notices the attention she gets from boys on days she wears tight clothes, she often wears tight sweaters

C. Justin talks in class all the time, even though his teacher and classmates do nothing to encourage him

Which of the following is the best example of the central nervous system (rather than peripheral nervous system) at work? Cells in the retina at the back of the eye transmit information about light. Some cells in the skin are sensitive to heat or cold. Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate. Some cells in the nose respond to certain kinds of chemicals.

C. Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate.

In which one of the following situations should we be most concerned about missing a critical period in a person's development? Although Ross knows how to count, he gets no formal instruction in mathematics until he is 15. Phoebe doesn't learn how to write until she is 12 years old. Rachel is born with a cataract in her left eye that is surgically removed when she is 8 years old. Joey has his first tennis lesson when he is 25.

C. Rachel is born with a cataract in her left eye that is surgically removed when she is 8 years old.

Which one of the following research findings is most consistent with the concept of core knowledge as described in the textbook? Some motor skills are prerequisites for others; for example, children must learn how to walk before they can learn how to run or skip. Children must have basic knowledge of numbers and counting before they can master arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication. Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects. Some linguistic knowledge is prerequisite to other knowledge; for example, children must know how to read before they can learn how to write.

C. Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects.

Which one of the following strategies is most likely to promote self-regulation in students? Mr. Adams knows that many students have trouble learning algebra. He spends the first few weeks of class having students engage in activities that will make algebraic concepts concrete and understandable. Mr. D'Amato asks his students to look in a mirror and write a poem about what they see. When assigning a lengthy research project, Mr. Barnett advises his students to break the project down into a number of smaller tasks and then to reinforce themselves after they complete each one. To build endurance, Mr. Carruthers asks his physical education students to run progressively longer distances each week.

C. When assigning a lengthy research project, Mr. Barnett advises his students to break the project down into a number of smaller tasks and then to reinforce themselves after they complete each one.

In Mr. Medeiros's classroom, students are given play money each time they turn in an assignment; they receive additional amounts of money if the assignment is turned in on time and if it is done correctly. At the end of each week, students can use their "money" to purchase special privileges (free time, field trips, etc.). Mr. Medeiros' approach to teaching can best be characterized as programmed instruction a group contingency a token economy a contingency contract

C. a token economy

Three of the following illustrate various ways that learning might be reflected in a person's behavior. Which one of the following changes does not necessarily reflect learning? Lewis occasionally asks for help when he has difficulty with his classwork, but most of the time he just struggles quietly on his own. After his teacher assures him that asking for help is not a sign of weakness or inability, he begins asking for help much more frequently. Day after day, Martin practices his basketball skill (shooting, dribbling, etc.) on a basketball court at a local park. With each practice session, his movements become faster and smoother. Even as a young child, Jerry could tell you that his grandparents immigrated to the United States from Ireland. But after a conversation with his grandmother, he can now describe the circumstances of the family's immigration in considerable detail. Although it's a school night, Dean plays video games until well past his usual bedtime. As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate on what he's doing.

D. Although it's a school night, Dean plays video games until well past his usual bedtime. As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate on what he's doing.

A theory of learning can best be characterized as The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning A description of the results of a particular research study An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

D. An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

Given what psychologists believe to be true about how information is typically stored in the brain, how is the concept dog probably represented in your brain? As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in the left parietal lobe As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in one of the occipital lobes As a single neuron located in the prefrontal cortex As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions

D. As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions

Mr. and Mrs. Mercado don't allow their daughter Maggie to chew gum at home and have punished her severely on the few occasions they have found her with gum in her mouth. Now Maggie rarely chews gum at home but chews it almost constantly at school, where she is not punished for doing so. Maggie's different behaviors at home and at school illustrate an effect of punishment known as A. Reversal B. Emotional arousal C. Restitution D. Behavioral contrast

D. Behavioral contrast

Which one of the following alternatives best describes the disinhibition effect that social cognitive theorists describe? A. People are less likely to engage in behaviors they have previously been punished for. B. People are less likely to engage in behaviors they have seen other people punished for. C. When people are punished for one behavior, they will tend to refrain from exhibiting that behavior; however, they will be more likely to engage in similar behaviors that are not punished. D. People may engage in a previously prohibited behavior if they see someone else being reinforced for that behavior.

D. People may engage in a previously prohibited behavior if they see someone else being reinforced for that behavior.

Which one of the following instances of learning can be explained more easily by social cognitive theory than by behaviorist views of learning? Brad discovers that to get his teacher's approval, he must turn in his writing assignments without a single error in grammar, spelling, or punctuation. Craig finds that he gets one "special" girl's attention when he shows off on the playground. Darren has stopped trying in school, because he seems to get low grades no matter what he does. Playing the role of a German soldier in the school play, Andy says his lines using a German accent similar to one he's heard in the movies a few times.

D. Playing the role of a German soldier in the school play, Andy says his lines using a German accent similar to one he's heard in the movies a few times.

When Lily is presented with money after many different behaviors (e.g., cleaning her room, getting a good grade or eating her vegetables) she is more likely to perform each of those behaviors. The fact that this single reinforcer (i.e., money) can increase many of Lily's behaviors is explained by- Instrumental conditioning Classical conditioning Secondary reinforcement theory Transituational generality

D. Transituational generality

Which one of the following best illustrates Skinner's concept of superstitious behavior? David usually struggles with his geography exams, but he recently got high scores on two occasions when he wore a Denver Broncos sweatshirt to school. He now wears his Broncos sweatshirt whenever a geography test is scheduled. Bradley thinks his reinforcement for cleansing his apartment is the good feeling that a clean place gives him. In reality, he cleans only when company is coming, and it is his company that makes him feel good. Alice is praised for her accurate bookkeeping at work. After that, she continues to keep accurate books at work. She also begins to be more careful about balancing her personal checkbook each month, even though she receives no reinforcement for doing so. Charlotte misinterprets a teacher's praise as sarcasm and therefore as punishment rather than reinforcement.

David usually struggles with his geography exams, but he recently got high scores on two occasions when he wore a Denver Broncos sweatshirt to school. He now wears his Broncos sweatshirt whenever a geography test is scheduled.

Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement? Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate Getting a new outfit you think is "cool" Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework Being told that you did a good job

Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Three of the following common criticisms of using behaviorist approaches in the classroom are valid ones. Which ones usually is not true about behaviorist approaches? When a student has cognitive deficits that interfere with performance, simply reinforcing desired behaviors will be insufficient to bring about important changes. Reinforcing a student simply for doing a task, without regard for the quality of performance, can encourage the student to do it quickly rather than well. If some misbehaviors are reduced through reinforcement or punishment, other misbehaviors will always spring up to replace them. When a student who enjoys an activity is given extrinsic reinforcement for doing it, the student's intrinsic interest in the activity may decrease.

If some misbehaviors are reduced through reinforcement or punishment, other misbehaviors will always spring up to replace them.

Tracy enjoys reading mystery novels and reads at least two a week. Her mother wants to encourage Tracy's reading and so begins to pay her daughter one dollar for each completed mystery novel. Considering research the extrinsic reinforcement of intrinsically reinforcing activities, we would expect Tracy eventually to Lower her rate of reading mystery novels Stop reading mystery novels altogether Double her rate of reading mystery novels Triple her rate of reading mystery novels

Lower her rate of reading mystery novels

Three of the following are principles of learning. Which one is a theory of learning rather than a principle? Students tend to remember more of a lecture if they take notes on the lecture's content. A response that is rewarded every time it occurs increases more rapidly than a response that is only occasionally rewarded. People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge. A behavior that is followed by punishment decreases in frequency.

People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge.

Which one of the following alternatives best describes the disinhibition effect that social cognitive theorists describe? People may engage in a previously prohibited behavior if they see someone else being reinforced for that behavior. People are less likely to engage in behaviors they have previously been punished for. People are less likely to engage in behaviors they have seen other people punished for. When people are punished for one behavior, they will tend to refrain from exhibiting that behavior; however, they will be more likely to engage in similar behaviors that are not punished.

People may engage in a previously prohibited behavior if they see someone else being reinforced for that behavior.

Matthew knows that his teacher will give him credit for each assignment he completes on time, without regard for the accuracy of what he does. As a result, Matthew often completes his work quickly, sloppily, and sometimes incorrectly. This situation illustrates which one of the following concerns regarding the use of behaviorist techniques in the classroom? Applied behavior analysis ignores the cognitive factors that affect learning Reinforcement is a form of bribery Reinforcement of some behaviors may impede optimal learning Even very mild punishment adversely affects his self-esteem

Reinforcement of some behaviors may impede optimal learning

In what way does the concept self-efficacy differ from such terms as self-concept and self-esteem? Self-efficacy appears only after we begin to regulate our own behavior. Self-efficacy results primarily from vicarious reinforcement and punishment. Self-efficacy varies depending on the specific task to be performed. Self-efficacy refers only to those behaviors we learn through modeling.

Self-efficacy varies depending on the specific task to be performed.