Exam 1 Terms
Antiretroviral therapy (ART)
A technique used to fight HIV infection, in which a combination of HIV medicines is administered every day to prevent HIV from multiplying; in 1990s, blacks were significantly less likely to receive this treatment or prophylaxis
government-sponsored residential schools
schools that Indian, Inuit, and other indigenous children were forced to attend; many suffered from physical, cultural, and sexual abuse; schools were in operation for more than a century and were financed by the government for economic motives
homo economicus
the individual who acts only in his narrow self-interest; Sen disagrees with this perspective because humans are not simple
global south
the non-western world of Africa, Asia, and Latin America (although most in Latin America can claim western inheritance)
social construct
the notion that sexual orientation is a modern invention, with which a person might or might not affiliate; doesn't mean "not real"; have tremendous real world power
Michel Foucault
French philosopher who is known as the grandfather of queer theory and a central architect of the "construct" conception of sexuality; wrote the History of Sexuality
flaws and problems
GAVI criticized for several flaws by William Muraskin, who claimed bottom-up philosophy is illusory; nonprofits focus too much on devoting resources to less important diseases
structural violence
Social structures (economic, political, legal, religious, and cultural) that stop individuals, groups, and societies from reaching their full potential; structural because they are embedded in society and violent because they cause injury to people; ex: racism, poverty; lessens both access and adherence to effective therapy
John Snow (Metropolis Rising)
Soho doctor that published pamphlets/papers arguing that cholera was a waterborne disease; ideas considered with skepticism in the medical community and were ignored by public health authorities; used Broad Street epidemic to prove that cholera was a waterborne disease and turned tide against miasma theory
subclinical infections
diseased individuals who show no symptoms or only mild symptoms; never look sick at all; 10%-20% of flu patients exhibit this type of infection
gazes and gestures
Tulp reproduces the movement of the corpse with his left hand; interpretation enforced by the gaze of the surgeons towards the dissecting table
Identity and Violence
a book written by Amartya Sen that argues against the solitarist approach to human identity; avoids trite appeals to the common humanity of those in savage conflict; neglects what some people consider to be common sense
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
a declaration that requires that issues involving the lands, territories, and resources of aboriginal people be subject to their "prior and informed consent"; government is reluctant to adopt this because they fear that this requirement would essentially give aboriginal groups a sweeping veto over Canadian law
Black Death
a pandemic of bubonic plague that hit Europe in the mid-14th century and killed millions of people
Broad Street
a street in a crowded working-class neighborhood of Soho; near a public water pump known for reliably clean and cool water
desocialization
a tendency to ask only biological questions about what are in fact biosocial phenomena
homosexuality
a type of sexuality; some people argue over whether it should be classified as a chosen construct or a natural condition; "deviant" sexuality
prophylaxis
actions to prevent HIV/AIDS after the patient is exposed to it
Peasant's Revolt of 1381
after the plague, there was a labor shortage, and peasants demanded higher wages; British landowners turned to Parliament, Parliament imposed controls, and the peasants revolted; British crown crushed them, but momentum couldn't be stopped
ambitions and goals
aims of these foundations/nonprofits are hugely ambitious; ex: upping childhood immunization rates to 90% or providing "universal access" to anti-HIV drugs; achieving these goals has been more difficult than anticipated
bottom-up
an approach in which countries are asked how they would use the money to increase coverage with existing and new vaccines
single point source
an epidemic emanating from a single contaminated source (ex: a diseased water pump)
solitarist approach
argues that human beings are members of exactly one group; Sen disagrees with this perspective
choice (Abusing Foucault)
arguments over whether homosexuality is a decision, not a biological fact; some of the supporters of this position willfully misunderstand Foucault
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
at forefront of global health efforts, have pledged $6 billion to fight HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis since 1999; have been criticized for focusing too much on research instead of delivering drugs/preventatives
progroms
attacks/violent expulsions/murders of Jews because Christians believed that Jews were purposely causing the plague; began in France in 1348; economic motives because Jews were moneylenders and Christians owed them money
Kwame Anthony Appiah
author of "There is No Such Thing as Western Civilization"; believes that western civilization is not at all a good idea and western culture is no improvement
Little Optimum
between approx. 1000 and 1250, the temperature increased by more than 1 degree Celsius across Europe; resulted in larger harvests and the European population increased; reversed around 1315
accompagnateur
chosen by the patient (usually a neighbor); a person trained to deliver drugs and other supportive care in the patient's home
PIH model
clinical and community barriers to care are removed as diagnosis and treatment are declared a public good and made available free of charge to patients living in poverty; developed in Haiti; both distal and proximal care
combined sewers
collect human waste, industrial waste, and stormwater runoff into a single pipe for treatment and disposal; overflows from this are "the largest category of our Nation's wastewater infrastructure that still needs to be addressed"; must handle surges of stormwater, which can cause overflow into surface water; weren't designed to handle waste from toilets because they were invented when toilets didn't exist
humors
common to assume that diseases reflected an imbalance of the four ______ (blood, phlegm, and yellow and black bile); imbalance ascribed to a large range of behaviors and environmental factors
squatter communities
communities built on land that is illegally occupied -- without official title deeds, electricity, running water, or waste removal systems; waterborne diseases such as cholera are still rampant due to miserable health and sanitation resources
imploding sewage
could occur as population living in India's cities is expected to double from 340 million to 680 million by 2030; several cities already suffer water scarcity and pollution problems due to encroachments into bodies of water
biology and culture
debate over whether sexuality is chosen construct or natural condition; debate remains serious point of contention in LGBTQ community and beyond; Foucault partly responsible for this debate
anatomic structure and function
depicted in Rembrandt's choice to paint the dissection of a hand and demonstrate the function of the flexor digitorum superficialis
quarantine
different definitions: can be isolation in homes. gathering those infected in a single location, or cordoning off whole communities; suggested as a possible solution to H5N1 outbreak by President Bush, but could not stop a pandemic influenza; dates from 15th century Italian regulations to control the spread of plague by sequestering those thought to have the disease, means "space of 40 days"
cholera (Metropolis Rising)
disease transmitted through contaminated water that threatened cities before the creation of modern sanitation methods
miasma theory of disease
dominant theory at the time, held that cholera was a disease caused by the inhalation of poisoned air
"bring down your dead"
during the plague, a cart would come along the street in the morning and the driver would yell this phrase (heard in Monty Python)
Asiatic cholera
emerged in India in 1817; pandemic of this type of cholera reached Southeast Asia, East Africa, the Middle East, and Caucasus, but petered out in 1823; several pandemics from 1820 to 1854 in which tens of thousands of people died in Britain and the Americas
cholera as a "Third World" illness
epidemic cholera is now this type of illness; appears in wake of civil wars and natural disasters; major killer only in places lacking infrastructure for effective emergency treatment (Africa, Asia, Latin America)
public dissections
events at which a dead criminal was dissected; popular events in the life of the city and mostly took place in the winter
social disease
ex: venereal disease and tuberculosis; social analysis occurred in studies of these diseases; often AIDS is considered in this category
norms and normal
expected, "acceptable" sexuality and methods of behavior; social pressure to adhere to this standard
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp
famous painting by Rembrandt that serves as a true lesson in physiology and symbolizes the break with the descriptive anatomy of Vesalius which occurred during this century; not a true demonstration of 17th century dissection because the corpse was intact
European
first recorded use of the word as a kind of person occurred after the Battle of Tours (754); Muslims were attempting to conquer Europe; word first used to contrast Christians and Muslims
Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI)
half of funding supplied by Gates Foundation, helping 72 countries fortify the immune systems of their children; took a "bottom-up" approach to drive down vaccine prices and prevent corruption; poor countries have struggled to independently fund health programs, so bridge funding has been extended
Multi-Country AIDS program (MAP)
have hugely invested in AIDS programs in developing countries; World Bank program that provides more flexible aid to deliver medicines and build health systems; doesn't offer enough technical guidance or conduct adequate monitoring and evaluation
cholera (Sick City)
horrific illness with a quick onset and a 50% fatality rate; symptoms include explosive watery diarrhea, vomiting; water loss from diarrhea leads to sunken eyes, agonizing cramps, leathery skin, blue face and lips, drops in blood pressure, irregular heartbeat; death follows after hypovolemic shock; victim has full consciousness throughout the disease; spreads with alarming speed; now easy to treat using large amounts of fluids and electrolytes
western culture
idea that Greek culture passed through Rome and then Europe (golden-nugget story); term is relatively modern (1890s); at its core is individualistic, democratic, liberty-minded, tolerant, progressive, rational, and scientific
miasmas
idea that certain planetary alignments could foster illness by creating clouds of noxious air; seen in Arab treatises; many people believed that this was the cause of the Black Death, and people were advised to avoid pore-opening activities to prevent skin penetration
vaccination
immunization programs have been a cornerstone of public health programs because they provide a lot of bang for the buck; have widespread success but don't have complete effectiveness; underimmunization of children remains a major concern
the west
in recent years, refers to the north Atlantic -- Europe and her former colonies; can appear to be a euphemism for white; "realm"; idea emerged in the 1890s during a period of imperialism
public-private partnerships
link big pharmaceutical companies or smaller biotechs with academics, nongovernmental organizations, and multilateral groups such as WHO; recent trend (1 to 100 within 10 years)
Herodotus
lived in the 5th century BC, believed the world was divided into three parts: Asia (east), Libyan (southern continent), Europe; used the word European solely as an adjective, not a noun
cities, water, & waste (general mechanisms and problems)
management of solid waste and sewage is a national problem; sewage pollutes water, reducing sources for potable water in India's cities; cities such as Ahmedabad have built over some of their lakes (65 of 137)
medieval medicine
mixture of the ancient "four humors" theory and the astrological formulations of the Arabic physicians of the end of the first millennium; no effective cure for the plague
city planet (pros and cons)
more than 50% of people now live in large urban areas; pros: cities are engines of economic growth and social tolerance, raise life expectancies/lower childbirth rate, energy efficient cons: rogue viruses, terrorism, wealth inequality, deadly sanitation issues in cities with 20 million people
urban and rural
more than 87% of people in India's cities (33% in rural areas) have access to a toilet, but leaking/incomplete sewage systems contaminate rivers and lakes
infrastructure
neglect of sewage, less than 30% of India's officially recorded sewage is treated in proper facilities; old pipelines have not kept pace with India's expanding cities, so large urban areas lack planned water supply and sewage treatment
President's Emergency Plan for HIV/AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)
new effort from Bush Administration, pledged $15 billion to help selected countries; large investment in AIDS programs in developing countries; top-down approach; criticized for their conservative agenda (recipients of grants must oppose prostitution, and 1/3 of budget is devoted to abstinence efforts)
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria
new effort, has promised $4.8 billion to 128 countries; have hugely invested in AIDS programs in developing countries (biggest AIDS donor); avoids top-down approach; criticized for their operating policies; struggles to raise enough money
Partners in Health (PIH)
nonprofit organization that has sought to address AIDS and TB in Africa
deviance
not "normal", ex: homosexuality; detected/corrected by maintaining constant vigilance over young children to identify abnormal tendencies as early as possible
cultural genocide
occurred under the Canadian policy of forcibly removing aboriginal children from their families for schooling
categories
of sexuality; society may construct them, but they also construct us; not set in stone
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
older organization
World Health Organization (WHO)
older organization; led failed 3 by 5 program (3 million people on AIDS treatment by the end of 2005); multilateral group
World Bank
older organization; released Investing in Health, an influential report; parent organization of MAP
Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons
organization that was given permission to dissect the body of an executed criminal each year for the purpose of teaching anatomy; anatomy lessons were open to the public
Rembrandt
painted The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, which was one of his most famous paintings
distal intervention
performed late in the process, when patients are already sick
culture
provides a source of identity for contemporary human beings; most likely follow Tylor's broad definition defined by our customs of dress and greeting, the habits of behavior that shape relations between men and women, parents and children, cops and civilians, shop assistants and consumers; fuses beliefs of Tylor (everyday) and Arnold (ideal)
virulence
quarantines can increase this term and create a deadlier flu; ex: the 1918 flu and the Western Front during WWI
mother-to-child transmission (MTCT)
rates could be reduced from 25-40% to 2% by providing combination ART therapy to the mother during pregnancy, enabling formula-feeding and close follow-up of infants, and launching potable water projects in catchment areas
Vesalius
refuted the anatomic descriptions of Galen, abolished the distinction and practice when teaching medicine and anatomy
factors and forces
social or structural factors account for most epidemic diseases; difficult to ignore social factors because they are so closely linked to the distribution and outcome of chronic infectious diseases
fully-functioning urban areas
some squatter communities (ex: Rocinha area in Rio de Janiero, Squatter Colony in Mumbai) have matured, contain most of the comforts of the developed world (electricity, running water, cable television)
avian flu (H5N1)
strain of chicken flu; killed birds in Asia from 2003-2005; slightly more than 100 people have contracted this disease and 60 have died; no sign that the flu has begun to spread from person to person
climate change
temperature increase led to huge population growth in Europe between 1000 and 1250; cities bloomed, universities were founded, trade exploded, harvests grew; reversed in the 14th century, resulting in decay and disease
Yersinia pestis
the bacteria that is the source of bubonic plague; primary carrier is the flea; identified in 1890s by Alexandre Yersin
Rattus rattus
the black rat; carries the flea that carries the plague; common to the Central Asian steppe
shantytowns
these towns have exploded at the margins of today's megacities; by 2030, 1/4 of the world's population will live in these areas; they are places of dynamic innovation and creativity
biosocial
these understandings of medicine are urgently needed; includes the emerging phenomena of acquired resistance to antibiotics -- including antibacterial, antiviral, and antiparasitic agents
Nuisances Act of 1848
tragically inept public health intervention that emptied many of the city's cesspools into the Thames to try to combat the dangerous smells in the city streets
proximal intervention
tries to prevent illness through efforts such as vaccination or improved water and housing quality
septic tanks
underground tank were waste products separate into solid and liquid layers and partially decompose; liquid layer flows out into a drainfield that disperses it into the soil, while the solid layer stays behind as sludge and must be pumped out periodically; used by 20% of Americans
green technology
use of approaches such as rain gardens and green roofs to divert stormwater from the waste stream going to its treatment plants; seeks to avoid large investments in infrastructure
security
use of military to enforce quarantine?; creates false sense of safeness
influenza
virus that spreads explosively; coughing, sneezing, or speaking launches flu particles in an aerosol cloud of tiny droplets that can drift long distances in the air; people can spread the virus before they realize they're sick
municipal water-treatment plants
waste from homes is carried to treatment plants that separate solid and liquid wastes (primary treatment), use bacteria to break down contaminants (secondary treatment), then treat water with chlorine and release it into a nearby body of water; used by 80% of Americans
Primitive Culture (1871)
written by Edward Burnett Tylor; considered to be the first work of modern anthropology
History of Sexuality
written by Foucault; mandatory reading in LGBTQ studies courses; Western society's views on sex have undergone a major shift over the past few centuries in that 1) the idea that our desires reveal some fundamental truth about who we are and 2) the conviction that we have an obligation to seek out that truth and express it
Culture and Anarchy
written by Matthew Arnold
John Kelly
wrote "The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time"
Matthew Arnold
wrote Culture and Anarchy; believed culture was the "pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world"
Edward Tylor
wrote Primitive Culture; believed anthropology is study of something called "culture", which he considered "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society"; director at the University Museum in Oxford
Amartya Sen
wrote the book Identity and Violence; noble prize winner in economics; witnessed a murder when he was 11 in India
