Exam 2

What are altruistic exhortations?

verbal encouragement to help, comfort, share, or cooperate with others.

Display rules

Culturally defined rules specifying which emotions should be expressed and which shouldn't and under which circumstances. (like showing happiness when you get a gift, never disappointment). This is complex, only starts to occur at age 3. (you've gotta hide one emotion, which is major regulation, and then use a schema for another emotion and fake it) Because it's cultural, you've got to teach it to kids ("no, kid, it's NOT okay to do ___, next time you've gotta do ______")

How does culture influence altruism?

In less industrialized countries, because children are often expected to contribute to the family's survival at a young age (work, caring for other, younger children, etc.), they are more altruistic. In Western nations, if children are assigned housework that benefits everyone (like cleaning a family space, or doing the dishes after dinner) they are more altruistic. If the family focuses more on having the kid be #1 and encourages them to be like #1, then they'll be less altruistic.

How does the biological view explain gender differences in aggression?

-studies reliably show more a difference in agression at 2-2.5 years of age - doesn't seem like it can be socialized, since they're SO young - just two years to socialize them is unlikely. -Studies across the WORLD, across societies, find boys are more aggressive - must be something biologically in them. -There are studies that show great apes have more aggressive males - closest cousins to humans, so maybe we're like this too. -more testosterone can contribute to aggression. (studies show this)

What is attachment? Who was the father of attachment theory?

A close emotional relationship between two people, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity (desire to stay together). Can be romantic, but we're focusing on just the one between the baby and the caregiver. Father: John Bowlby (he proposed in the ethological theory) - pushed for the necessity of attachment relationships.

What is emotional bonding?

A term used to describe the strong affectional ties that some parents may feel towards a neonate (new born from birth to ~1 month old); some theorists believe that the stronegst bonding occurs shortly after birth, during a sensitive period.

What is the doctrine of specificity?

A viewpoint shared by many social learning theorists that holds that moral affect, moral reasoning, and moral behavior may depend on the situation one faces as much or more than on an internalized set of moral principles. Challenged because studies have found that moral behavior of a particular kind are reasonably consistent across time and situations. And, the 3 components of morality become stronger with age, so there's some consistency between moral characters and the situation.

Bradshaw Article

About bullying - are bullying intervention programs effective? Yes, they can be, but to make them good you should have: - solid child supervision in popular bullying places (playgrounds, for ex.) - enforced school rules - training for both students and parents, also community - more effective with older kids that have higher cognitive abilities, but preventative and early action measures are needed too. - 3 tiered approach - most kids (80%) will benefit from the basic bullying prevention program, then 10-15% need more beyond that, then 5% need more beyond that. What research still needs to be done? --> effects of programs specifically for bullies, how they should measure efficacy, cost benefit analysis to show policy makers, which particular components of programs are effective specifically (not just overall programs), programs for specific cultural subgroups. Note that culture and setting of program have an impact - not all purported results will transfer to every setting and culture.

What is relational aggression? Which gender is more likely to demonstrate this form of aggression?

Acts such as snubbing, exclusion, withdrawing acceptance, or spreading rumors that are aimed at damaging an adversary's friendships, self esteem, or social status. MUCH more common in girls, and when this is taken into the definition of aggression, girls are JUST as aggressive as boys.

Condry Ross (1985) - what was the study about, what did it show?

Adults were shown two kids in (gender neutral) snowsuits that concealed their gender playing in the snow (starts out roughhousing, then one child starts getting aggressive). They were either told that it was 2 girls, 2 boys, a girl aggressor and boy victim, or a boy aggressor and a girl victim. The adults rated the behavior of the aggressor based on amount of aggression and whether the behavior was playful/affectionate/active. Results: 2 boys - low aggression, high affection boy aggressor and girl victim - high aggression 2 girls AND girl aggressor - high aggression the ultimate take away is: boys and girls are judged much differently in terms of what constitutes them being aggressive.

What are the three components to morality?

Affective/Emotional Component - the feelings that surround right/wrong action and motivate moral thoughts and actions Cognitive Component - the way we conceptualize right and wrong and how we make decisions on how to behave Behavioral Component - how we behave when faced with temptation to violate moral rules (don't lie, cheat, steal, etc.)

Instinct theory of aggression - Lorenz's Ethological Theory

Aggression is naturally there because it ensures the survival of the individual and species through -dispersing population since if we all were in this small area we'd fight all the time and deplete all the resources of the small area, and so to avoid fighting, we move away from others and thus have more resources. -protecting young; can't do it w/o aggression. -stronger males fight and win females and end up producing strong babies, wimpy genes are phased out.

What are other methods, aside from the strange situation experiment, that can be used to measure attachment?

Attachment Q-set (Q Sort): Sort cards describing kid and how they act at home, to measure attachment parents do the sorting. Compares to "perfectly secure child" sort to determine attachment. Adult Attachment Interview (AAI): Asks adults about their childhood. If they are secure, they share happy memories rich in details, if they are preoccupied/resistant, they share unhappy memories. If they are were anxious/avoidant, they said something to the extent of "I don't know". This may have the social desirability bias.

How do children learn cognitive strategies for coping?

Caregiver teaches child about WHY negative emotions happen; this helps to develop cognitive strategies for self regulation like distraction (when there's not much you can do about the situation, like a death in the family) and teaching an understanding of emotions (if you know WHY you're upset, you can probably figure out how to deal with it).

What role do dads play in attachment? ***

Dads are fascinated by their babies just as much as moms and like to interact. They are also more involved when happily married. Infants form attachments with dad usually during latter half of first year of life, seen as more of a playmate than mom. Secure relationship with dad can compensate for insecure relationship with mom.

Goodness of fit hypothesis

Development is optimized when parents' child rearing practices are sensitively adapted to the child's temperamental characteristics. Ex. a difficult child who has parents who won't bring a bunch of strangers to him will have fewer problems than a difficult child whose parents bring several strangers to him.

What are some subcultural variations in aggression? What is collective efficacy?

Different cultures are more or less aggressive, depending on what they value. Some cultures will mostly flee, rather than fight, and others will mostly fight, rather than flee - it really comes down to their belief systems, which they will instill in their children, thus influencing their levels of aggression. Further, social class has an effect - lower SES children exhibit more aggressive behavior and higher delinquency than their age-mates from the middle class. This may come from the fact that lower SES parents are more incluned to model aggression by using physical punishments for aggressive acts and non compliance. Since they are under greater stress and busy lives (multiple jobs, for example), it makes it difficult to manage/monitor children's friends, activities, and places they hang out, which may also contribute to aggression. Collective efficacy: term used to describe neighborhoods in which residents are well connected, neighborly, and tend to monitor events in the neighborhood (including activities of neighborhood youth) to maintain public order. --> children from lower SES backgrounds also end up living in neighborhoods in which there is no collective efficacy, and further, might be neighborhoods in which they witness or hear of a lot of violence and aggressive, fostering the idea that these are acceptable ways to deal with issues.

How does culture play a role in the links between temperament and developmental outcomes?

Different temperaments are percieved differently in different countries. So, as a result of mostly Western research dominating the field of temperament, you see a lot of "good temperaments are __________ and bad temperaments are ______". For example, shyness is perceived negatively in the US, whereas (it used to be) that in China, shy children were seen as more mature, and in Sweden, where shyness is a detriment to men in the US, there, shyness does not hinder their jobs. Additionally, historical era and gender matter when we're picking what lens to look at temperament through. There is no one temperamental profile that is most adaptive in all culture.

Integrative theory of gender theory

Each of the of theories can be seen as more pertinent at different ages: Prenatal: biosocial - bio plays a part Birth - 3: social learning - can't explore on your own, so you're really just getting info from what's around you 3 - 6: gender schema - now you can interact with the world, figure things out 7 - puberty: cognitive development - you are really thinking now about how this all affects you and all. Puberty and beyond - all

What are the early temperament profiles?

Easy Temperament: even tempered, positive mood, adaptable to new experiences, regular in habits --> 40% Difficult Temperament: active, irritable, irregular in habits, reacts vigorously to new situation, slow to adapt --> 10-15% Slow-to-warm-up Temperament: inactive, moody, slow to adapt, reacts to novelty mildly in negative ways (not intensely) --> 10-15% Not all babies neatly fit into these

Functionalist approach (theory of emotional development, 1 of 2)

Emotions are not discrete early on in life, they emerge later on and for little kids are just positive or negative, you don't need to break it down anymore than that. Their purpose is to influence behavior and achieve a goal (I'm sad, so I'll cry and mom will come and hug to to make me feel better.). It is important to learn to regulate emotions, and use them to our benefit, this is what growing up is about. They learn how to express emotions and what emotions go with what actions from other people. Probably wrong because a 6 week old starts to smile at that age in the same way across all cultures, and they're all young so they're not very good at learning social cues and not ALL of them would learn at exactly the same way, so it's probably more biological.

What is empathy?

Empathy = the ability to experience vicariously the same emotions that someone else is experiencing. This happens in two ways: Self-oriented distress - the feeling of personal distress or discomfort that may be elicited when we empathize with a distressed other. This often inhibits altruism because it leaves us feeling bad and frozen up, unable to help. Sympathetic empathic arousal - feelings of sympathy or compassion that may be elicited when we empathized with a distressed other. This is what enables us to be altruistic.

What is conduct disorder (CD)?

Encompasses the behavior present in ODD AND includes the violation of basic rights of others, social norms, standards, and rules, such as aggression to people/animals, destruction of property, theft, serious violation of rules, etc. It's more serious and bad than ODD. Biological causes - don't really have capacity to feel empathy, that sort of thing. Then when they get older, after 18 the diagnosis turns into antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Can't have ASPD without having CD before.

Gender schema theory (define in group/out group schema and own sex schema)

Establishing basic gender identity motivates children to learn about the sexes and incorporate this info into gender schemas. in group/out group schema = general knowlegde of the mannerisms, roles, activities, and behavior that characterize males and females. Internalize my own group's stuff. own sex schema = detailed knowledge or plans of action that enable one to act consistently with their gender or enact his/her gender role.

Why do the two types of fear exist? What does the evolutionary theory say? What does the cognitive developmental theory say?

Evolutionary theory: these are natural clues to danger - new people might be a predatory animal (stranger anxiety) and mom can't protect me if she's gone (separation anxiety) Cognitive Developmental Theory: stable schemes have been developed for familiar people and new faces can't be explained by them, they have a schema for "person", and then that gets thrown out the window and you have to assimilate this new info into your old schema, and this is kind of a scary thing before their schemas are good enough to deal with strangers.

Family vs day care - who has more of an effect on kids? are families worse off from daycare? are there good things that come out of daycare? ***

Family variables are more predictive of child's traits, and daycare is not more effective than parenting. Childcare doesn't reduce effect of family, but can be a good buffer for a problematic family. Finally, optimal development comes from high quality care at home AND at daycare.

Social learning theory of gender development

2 methods of learning: 1. Direct tuition - directly reinforced for acting appropriately (ex. punish little boy for wearing a dress or playing with barbies) 2. Observational - imitate same sex models (more concerned about the label of the object than the sex of the model, ex. if a boy sees a boy playing with a girl toy, he won't play with it, and if he sees a girl playing with a boy toy, he'll play with it - so the label of the toy matters more than the gender of the model)

When do kids gain emotional understanding? How did they test this? When do they gain complex emotional understanding?

3 y/o - identify "happy" events 4 y/o - identify "sad" events Late preschool/early elementary - identify anger, fear, surprise, disgust (but the testing method on these isn't so great) Late elementary/early middle school - explain situations that evoke shame, pride, jealousy, envy, etc. since they have greater cognitive ability (understand self evaluation, more complex situations = more complex emotions) test by looking at a picture book and pointing at the happy things, sad things, etc. But, we're probably underestimating their abilities, because they've dealt with fear before, so it doesn't make sense that they couldn't identify them. It's probably bc the exercise with the picture book requires theory of mind.

What are Kohlberg's stages of moral development? • Know the stages and the levels! • Make sure you could identify which stage someone is in from an example • Make sure you could also explain what type of reasoning would occur at each stage

6 stages, 3 levels, which he ascertained from clinical interviews about the reasoning behind moral decisions. Morality is based on... Level 1: Preconventional Morality - rules are external, not internalized at all, small children think this way. Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation - punitive consequences Stage 2: Naive Hedonism - rewards you get for obeying rules Level 2: Conventional Morality - rules and norms, in order to win approval or maintain social order Stage 3: Good boy or bad girl orientation - what pleases/helps/is approved by society Stage 4: Social Order maintaining morality - whatever the law says is what we should do Level 3: Post conventional or Principled Morality - what's right and wrong, as defined by broad principles of justice. Stage 5: Social contract orientation - laws that express the will of the majority and further human values (and if the law doesn't, they you don't follow it, you change it) Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of conscience - what's right and wrong based on your own self chosen ethical principles.

Reciprocal Relationship - what is it? Is this idea true?

Baby is going to attach to caregiver and caregiver is going to attach to baby - originally proposed by Bowlby. However, this is now contested - there are plenty of parents who are abusive or neglectful, maybe a teen parent who didn't want the baby and would rather be hanging out with other friends, not wanting to stay with baby. This is just one way - baby is attached to caregiver, caregiver not attached to baby.

What is the social learning theory of aggression

Bandura's Social Learning Theory said that our aggressive responses are acquired in two ways - observational learning (imitate aggressive acts you see) and direct experience.

Cognitive-developmental theory of attachment

Based on some necessary cognitive skills: need to understand object permanence (mom isn't gonna disappear on me) and to be able to discriminate attachment figures from others. In order to love someone, baby must know that attachment figure will always be there for them.

Gender Role Standard

Behavior, value, or motive that members of society consider more typical or appropriate for members of one sex. Socialized into us. 2 main roles: expressive and instrumental

Behavioral Definition of Aggression vs Intentional Definition of Aggression

Behavioral: Any action that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism --not such a great idea, since you might accidentally bump into someone OR someone might try and hurt you but fail, but the intention still matters. Intentional: Any action intended to harm or injure another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment --brings in intention which is good --sports where you're trying to take someone else down, doesn't count that cause you don't want to /harm/ them.

How does emotion regulation develop within the first year of life?

Initially caregivers regulate babies' emotions by soothing and preventing overstimulation. (why it doesn't work to let them cry it out and self soothe bc they don't have that ability to do so until at leaaast 4 months) 6 months - reduce negative stimulation by turning away End of first year - strategies for reducing negative emotions (sucking thumb, rocking themselves, etc.), still aren't too great at regulation, but they're getting better.

Should the primary caregiver work (career-wise)? ***

Moms are happiest and more sensitive caregivers when their employment statuses are consistent with whether they want to be a full time or working mom. It's actually best when she has positive attitudes towards working AND being a mom. Best too if spouse is supportive.

What is social perspective taking?

the ability to infer others' thoughts, intentions, motives, and attitudes

What is behavioral inhibition?

a tempermental attribute reflecting the fearful distress children display and their tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people and situations. More inhibited babies are more aroused (higher heartrates) when their uninhibited counterparts are barely phased at all. It is moderately stable over time, influenced by both biological things (higher electrical activity in right cerebral hemisphere) and environmental things (parents that are over protective or that don't express sensitivity to their feelings ('don't be such a baby'))

What is reactive attachment disorder?

an inability to form secure attachment bonds with other people; characterizes many victims of early social deprivation and/or abuse.

What are inhibitory controls?

an inhibitory control is an ability to display acceptable conduct by resisting the temptation to commit a forbidden act.

What is insightfulness (in relation to attachment/caregiving)?

caregiver capacity to understand an infant's motives, emotions, and behaviors, and to take them into account when responding to the infant; thought to be an important contributor to sensitive caregiving.

What are affective explanations?

discipline which focuses on a child's attention on the harm or distress that his or her conduct has caused others.

What is the social-roles hypothesis?

the notion that psychological differences between the sexes and other gender-role stereotypes are created and maintained by differences in socially assigned roles that men and women play (rather than attributable to biologically evolved dispositions)

What is the aggressive cues hypothesis? (goal driven theory)

the notion that the presence of stimuli previously associated with aggression can evoke aggressive responses from an angry individual.

What is a benign attribution hypothesis?

the tendency to give the benefit of the doubt to peers rather than quickly assuming that their displeasing actions reflect a hostile or antisocial intent

What is prosocial moral reasoning?

the thinking that people display when deciding whether to help, share with, or comfort others when these actions could prove costly to themselves.

Baby Gender Study: Michael vs Michelle - what was the experiement? What were the results?

Observed adults interacting with baby dressed in gender neutral color, yellow. Half were told baby was "Michael" other half were told baby was "Michelle". Turns out that they treat them MUCH differently based on gender expectations. Those that were told baby was "Michelle" were gentler, softer vocalizations, called her "sweetie", "sugar", or "honey". Those that were told baby was "Michael" were rougher, louder, bounced more, called him "sport", "tiger", or "buddy"

Evolutionary theory on gender development and its criticism

Says: natural selection created fundamental differences btwn males and females - think: parental investment theory - males are agressive for more mates and resources, female are nurturant for babies, determine gender differences in labor, for example, spatial skills are important for hunting. Criticisms are that gender roles are ASSIGNED and it ignores the cultural and historical differences (if this is right, then every single culture in the role would see the same gender roles, but this is certainly not the case - notoriously the Amazon Warrior Women).

What is sexuality? How have ideas about sexuality changed in recent years?

Sexuality is the aspect of the self referring to erotic thoughts, actions, and orientation. In recent years, sexual attitudes have become increasingly liberal. A majority of adolescents think that sex with affection is acceptable and are rejecting the double standard (sexual behavior that is appropriate for members of one sex and less appropriate for the other) for sexual behavior. Teen sexual activity has changed, but more in girls than boys..

According to the cognitive perspective, what are the 4 phases of prosocial development?

1. 2 years old - they can share and demonstrate signs of sympathy and empathy, like if they see a kid being distressed, also getting distressed, and then trying to bring them a toy or get an adult to help them 2. 3 - 6 years old - they think of prosocial acts in terms of what they can get out of it, cause they're in the egocentric phase. 3. Middle childhood and pre adolescence - they start helping others for the sake of helping those who are in need, not because it's good for them, but they really only help those connected to them 4. Adolescence and later - want to help all others, not just those they know, but EVERYONE who is in need; they feel a sense of greater personal responsibility and guilt.

Kohlberg's 3 Stages of Gender

1. Basic gender identity - at age 3, children can label themselves as boys or girls 2. Gender stability - Understand that gender is stable over time (ex. boys can't grow up to be moms) 3. Gender consistency - sex is stable across situations (ex. can't change sex by cross dressing.) Self socialization happens AFTER stage 3!

Fact or fiction? (1 of 2) 1. Girls have better verbal abilities. (Macooby and Jacklin, 1974) 2. Boys have better visual/spatial abilities. (Macooby and Jacklin, 1974) 3. Boys are better at math 4. Boys are more aggressive. (Macooby and Jacklin, 1974) 5. Boys are more physically active 6. Girls are more timid. 7. Boys are more vulnerable to disease. 8.. Girls are more emotionally expressive.

1. FACT - pick up language a little faster than boys, small but consistent verbal advantage 2. FACT - moderately robust, starting at age 4 3. FACT - beginning in adolescence, boys have advantage, but if you look earlier, girls do better in computational math. 4. FACT - physically and verbally aggressive, but if you count gossiping and relationally destructive forces, females are equal to males 5. FACT - male babies more active at birth and during childhood. 6. FACT - females more cautious and take fewer risks 7. FACT birth hazards and disease 8. Somewhat true - no difference at birth, develops later on. Boys show anger more and girls show all other emotions more.

What are Piaget's stages of moral development?

1. Premoral Period - birth to 5 yrs old, no respect or awareness of socially defined rules 2. Stage of Moral Realism (Heteronomous Morality) - 5 - 10 yrs old - rules come from adults and absolutely CANNOT be changed and everyone has to follow them - naughtiness is judged based on consequences NOT intention - punishment will ALWAYS happen, you can't do something bad and not get in trouble, and they don't have a concept for punishing based on what the intention was, just consquences. 3. Stage of Moral Relativism (Autonomous Morality) - 10 yrs old - adult - Rules are just arbitrary agreements that we can make or break with the consent of the governed. - reciprocal punishment (in relation to intention) is favored - no longer think all acts are punished

Fact or fiction? (2 of 2) 1. Girls are more compliant. 2. Boys have higher self esteem. 3. Girls are more "social" than boys. 4. Girls are more "suggestible" (easily lead) than boys. 5. Girls are better at simple, repetitive tasks, boys are better at higher level cognitive tasks. 6. Boys are more "analytic" than girls. 7. Girls lack achievement motivation.

1. TRUE - tactful and polite suggestions (males more demanding) 2. TRUE - small edge over girls which increases in adolescence. 3. FALSE - equally interested in social stimuli. 4. FALSE - no sex differences in conformity 5. FALSE - no sex is superior here 6. FALSE - no difference in analytical or logical reasoning 7. FALSE - no differences!

How is aggression seen/how does it develop in: 1. infancy 2. preschool 3. grade school

1. infants aren't really aggressive, but by one year they start to try to overpower a peer for an attractive toy, which seems to be the beginnings of instrumental aggression. 2. unfocused temper tantrums diminish and are uncommon after 4 y/o. Aggression peaks between 2 and 3 y/o and declines over preschool period. 2-3 y/o are more likely to be physically aggressive, usually instrumental in nature (usually for a toy, if not, then it's for food) versus older kids that verbally harass and are more hostile in nature. 3. Physical aggression declines in grade school, as they are better able to to interpret others' behavioral intentions. However, retaliatory aggression is viewed as normal or acceptable (if you ask them "is it okay to hurt someone if they hurt you first?" they'll say "yup!").

How common is teenage pregnancy? What are some consequences for the mother and the baby?

10% of 15 - 19 year old girls in the US become pregnant. This is twice as high as in Canada and most European nations. For the mother, consequences include interrupted education, loss of contact with social group, and be forced to stick with low paying jobs. For the baby, they are often not given good prenatal care (mom is more likely to drink or do drugs during pregnancy), and thus are born with complications or low weight, then don't receive very sensitive or affectionate parenting since young moms are under more financial and personal stress they were unprepared to deal with. These babies grow up typically to show intellectual and behavioral deficits in toddlers, and then later on show poor academic achievement, poor peer relationships, and delinquent behavior.

How do we measure attachment? What was Mary Ainsworth's experiment?

Ainsworth was a student of Bowlby, believed not all babies have same attachment relationships with caregivers. Experiment: 1.Parent and infant are introduced to the experimental room. 2.Parent and infant are alone. Parent does not participate while infant explores. 3.Stranger enters, converses with parent, then approaches infant. Parent leaves conspicuously. 4.First separation episode: Stranger's behavior is geared to that of infant. 5.First reunion episode: Parent greets and comforts infant, then leaves again. 6.Second separation episode: Infant is alone. 7.Continuation of second separation episode: Stranger enters and gears behavior to that of infant. 8.Second reunion episode: Parent enters, greets infant, and picks up infant; stranger leaves conspicuously. Four aspects of the child's behavior are observed: 1.The amount of exploration (e.g. playing with new toys) the child engages in throughout. 2.The child's reactions to the departure of its caregiver. 3.The stranger anxiety (when the baby is alone with the stranger). 4.The child's reunion behavior with its caregiver.

What is the biological (evolutionary) explanation of altruism? What is the problem with this perspective?

Altruism is instinctive; it got passed down through natural selection since the people who were altruistic were the ones that got to live successfully in a group and those groups were the people that survived. Altruism has biological components, like the fact that we empathize in our brain, with mirror neurons, really /feeling/ the pain of others (though maybe not to their extent). People bring up the problem of "why would someone lay down their life for a complete stranger?" and the response to this is that most of the time, it's adults laying down their lives for children, and that happens because children have a likelihood of continuing future generations. Additionally, people are more likely to save people who are like them (physically, economically, emotionally) because it's similar to passing their genes down.

Secondary (complex) Emotions -when do they appear? -when do children demonstrate them? -what capacities must the child have to demonstrate them?

Appear during 2nd - 3rd years, require cognitive capabilities, self evaluative and self conscious emotions, as the emotions are: - Embarrassment: the simplest complex emotion and requires you to be able to recognize yourself in the mirror - Self evaluative emotions: shame, guilt, pride - need self recognition AND understanding of rules to evaluate your conduct and people can evaluate me poorly bc of it or really well bc of it, understand that I have an effect on other people and they have an effect on me. Young children only demonstrate these when someone else is watching. Later on we internalize these so much, that we don't need other people to be around to be embarrassed, even if no one saw the embarrassing act.

When can babies recognize emotions?

Birth or shortly afterward - they can understand the difference by listening to the pitch of the voice at 3 months they can recognize and interpret facial expressions, but this is tested with looking preferences which we know is faulty.

How does the interactive (biosocial) view explain gender differences in aggression?

Both biological factors and social-environmental influences promote sex differences in aggression. For example, the evocative effects where the biological differences prompt caregivers to treat the children differently, which prompts reactions from the child, and so on.

How does attachment influence relationships? Mention Bowlby's theory and internal working model.

Bowlby said that your attachment style will last your entire life and influence your future relationships. The internal working model comes from the cognitive representation of yourself, others, and relationships that babies construct from their relationships with caregivers. They get there scheme for relationships from their own relationships.

According to the Nansel study, what are the characteristics of bullies, victims, and bully victims?

Bullies and victims BOTH had poor psychosocial adjustment. Victims: trouble making friends (so they might be easy targets, since no one else is gonna defend them), poor relationships with others, greater loneliness, greater parental involvement in school (cause (teasing) or result (parent is coming in to try and see how they can help)? Probably a little of both), socially isolated and lack social skills, less frequency in alcohol and cigarette use. Bullies: more likely to be involved in problem behaviors (drinking, smoking, etc.), poor school adjustment (low achievement, don't care about school as much, not motivated), and greater ease of making friends (not socially isolated), usually have friends that are all aggressive and bullies. People who reported being victims AND bullies: especially high risk (in terms of life outcomes) - socially isolated, poor school achievement, involved in problem behaviors.

What influence does parenting quality have on attachment? Why might parents act poorly? ***

Caregiving hypothesis: depending on the care the child recieves, they will have different attachment styles. If mom is sensitive and responsive --> securely attached baby. If mom is inconsistent --> resistant baby. If mom is impatient or unresponsive OR overzealous --> avoidant baby. If mom is abusive --> disorganized baby. Parents might act poorly because they're depressed, so they're not as responsive. Or, they were abused as a child, so they never got a good model of parenting, expect perfection from their kids, and feel rejection when baby cries. Or, if the pregnancy is unplanned/the baby is unwanted, they probably won't be as responsive and nurturing for a kid they don't want to raise.

What are some suggested techniques to control aggression? Which techniques would likely work, and which ones probably would not work?

Catharsis Hypothesis - let kids vent their anger on inanimate objects. Based on Freud - they have aggressive urges that must be released by witnessing or committing real or fake aggressive acts. THIS WILL NOT WORK. Children who are taught this actually have been MORE aggressive in studies. Creating non aggressive environments - minimize the likelihood of conflict by not giving aggressive toys, giving a large amount of play space, and providing enough toys for all. This is probably not as effective - you can just take any toy and use it for aggression (can hit other kids on the head with dolls!). Eliminating payoffs for aggression -incompatible response techniques: parent ignores undesirable conduct while reinforcing behavior that is incompatible with that conduct. --> child will not act out for attention -time outs for aggressive behaviors

Temperament - what is it? How is it measured?

Characteristic modes of emotional and behavioral responding to environmental events. It is a building block to one's adult personality and present at birth. It is measured by talking with parents and in lab settings (with coders).

How is parenting related to aggression?

Cold and rejecting parents who use power assertive discipline (physical punishment) are more likely to raise aggressive children. Permissiveness of aggression or willingness to tolerate it in children is related to the child having more aggression. The child's temperamental impulsivity also predicts aggression, but a parent that tries to counteract that (no, you can't just explode to get what you want, let's discuss what to do next time) cam reduce that aggression. Parental conflict, especially when the child doesn't see a resolution, increases child aggression. The home environment the parents provide has an influence. If the environment is coercive, with lots of bickering and little affection, the child may learn that the only way to get attention is to irritate others.

What is Trolleyology? How does it evaluate moral development?

Comes from the trolley problem, in which there are 2 situations - first you're told that you are standing at a lever and trolley is headed towards 5 unsuspecting people and if you switch it, it will only kill 1. Other problem is that you're standing on a bridge watching the trolley head for 5 people and there's a fat guy you could throw onto the tracks, killing him, but saving the 5 people. Given to 200,000 people from 100 different countries and they all said that they'd flip the lever but not kill the man. These are supposed to be morally equivalent dilemmas, but with the lever, it's just a reasoning thing, and with the fat guy, it didn't just activate reasoning, but also emotion.

What are the biological influences on attachment?

Cute features elicit a helpful, nurturing response from caregiver, cuteness makes people forget about all that bad stuff sucking, grasping, smiling - all are inborn and reflexive responses that reinforce caregiving --> seeing first smile that's actually direct at you is overwhelmingly amazing and continues to reinforce taking care of it adults are biologically predisposed to care - can't ignore a crying baby, warm up to a smile BUT, NOTE: we are biologically prepared to form attachments, however this will not occur if we don't learn how to respond appropriately.

What are the goal driven theories of aggression? (learning theories, frustration aggression hypotheses)

Frustration/Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et al, 1939) - the early learning theory of aggression (we can be reinforced by times we punch a kid and then get his cookie), says that all aggressive acts can be traced by to frustration. Berkowitz's Revised Frustration/Aggression Hypothesis (1965) - Frustration makes us angry and creates a readiness for aggressive acts. Also says there must be an aggressive cue to trigger aggressive acts (cause sometimes we're frustrated but don't act aggressive - something has to set us off).

Psychoanalytic theory of attachment - what is it? what did Freud and Erikson have to say about it?

General idea: attached to the person that nourishes them. Freud's take - attracted to those who satisfy oral needs. Erikson's take - he says that it's more than just food sources that kids get attached to, it's that they get attached to those who respond to their needs, fostering a sense of trust.

What are synchronized routines?

Generally harmonious interactions between two persons in which participants adjust their behavior in response to the partners actions and emotions. Babies like to have sychronous interactions with their caregiver, so when the baby turns away, you let it (you don't try and stick your face in their line of vision), when it turns back, you interact again, sorta like you and the baby are on the same wavelength.

What has research found regarding the genotype and aggression?

Genes account for 40-50% of variability in aggression, nonshared environmental influences account for 40%, and shared environmental influences account for about 15%. Physical aggression appears to be more genetically influenced that relational aggression or our propensities to be proactively or reactively aggressive. However, virtually all kinds of aggression and antisocial conduct are influenced in some part by genetics. This is not to say that some of us inherit "aggressive" genes. It's more likely that certain genes interact with certain environments to create more aggression in a person.

What did Bandura's experiment say about maintaining aggression?

His theory is the only one that discusses maintaining aggression. - why do we keep acting aggressive more than once in our lives? Maintaining: -satisfies other goals - use aggression to get what you want. Thus likely to continue because it worked once, so why not again? -terminates others' noxious behaviors -is socially sanctioned by aggressive peers -is intrinsically rewarding for aggressor

Shame VS Guilt? How do parents influence shame and guilt?

Guilt = failed to live up to obligations to others, approach others to make reparations - what other people want and I failed them Shame = self focused, avoid others - I said up standards for myself and I failed myself. Parents' reactions influence which emotions the kids express - failure: accentuating the negatives increases shame and results in little pride in success - breaks a rule: belittling (you stupid kid, how could you be so idiotic as to do ______ --> attacking kid as human being) increases kid's shame (I am not a good enough human being to do _______), criticizing (explain why action taken is bad) increases guilt (oh no, I let down dad, I need to fix this)

What influence does home environment have on attachment?

Hardship, such as economic, legal, or health problems are not likely to be sensitive caregivers. Poor marital relations hinders sensitive parenting.

What is Haidt's theory about the role of disgust on morality?

He thought that our moral ideas came from a gut reaction of disgust, from which we then reasoned why it is "morally bad".

What influences temperament?

Hereditary: present at birth, so there's gotta be some biological component, which similarities in monozygotic twins supports. Environment: home environment and nonshared invironment

How does parenting influence morality?

Hoffman compared 3 parenting techniques - love withdrawal (withhold attention/affection/approval if child misbehaves), power assertion (use of superior power, such as spanking, grounding, or commands, to control child's behavior), and induction (explain why behavior is wrong and should be changed). Love withdrawal and power assertion did NOT work at promoting morality. Induction fostered development of all 3 components of morality. Sometimes a little bit of power assertion (in the form of grounding and stuff like that) can help a bit to get the kid to listen to the induction.

What are the two types of aggression?

Hostile = Aggressive acts in which the perpetrators main goal is to harm or injure a victim -- aggression is the end goal. Instrumental = aggressive acts for which the perpetrators main goal is to gain access to objects, space, or privileges. -- aggression is a means to and end.

What is Dodge's social information processing model and how does it relate to aggression and the hostile attribution bias?

Hostile attribution bias = view harm under ambiguous circumstances as having stemmed from hostile intent on the part of the harm-doer. It is a characteristic of reactive aggressors and comes from more aggressive tendencies at every step of the social processing model.

What is the difference between committed compliance and situational compliance?

In a mutually responsive relationship, depending on whether the kid has a good or bad relationship with the parent (either the parents are sensitive or controlling, basically), kids will do what they say for different reasons. Committed compliance = when kid has good relationship with parent - parent is responsive, sensitive to kid's needs, kid feels heard - they'll cooperate with what the parent says to do bc the kid thinks they have their best interest at heart and really know best, they know what's right. Situational compliance = when kid has bad relationship with parent - parent is controlling, uses power moves without explanation (do this cause I said so!) - kid cooperates because they're afraid of what happens if they don't, not cause they think the parent is right.

Androgyny - what is it? What are traits androgynous children and how do they fit it? What is the bem adrogony test and how has it been criticized?

Incorporates large number of those masculine and feminine attributes into his/her personality. Often end up behaving more flexible, having higher self esteem, are better adjusted, but are at risk of rejection by peers bc they don't conform or match what peers expect. criticism of bem androgyny test: dated, self reporting bias, social desirability bias, stereotype basis, scale is hard to determine and relative to each person, there are some weird things there (like childlike is supposed to be a feminine trait? Weird)

How does prosocial behavior evolve across childhood and adolescence?

Infancy: upon hearing another baby cry, that baby will cry as well (but this may be because they don't like the sound of the other baby crying, or it reminds them that they want something as well, or something like that) 12-18 months - feel personal distress when others are distressed and may try to help by getting another adult to comfort them. 20-23 months - tries to comfort the person themselves. -not every toddler evolves prosocially in the same way - inhibited toddlers (shy, reserved, timid, high in anxiety) usually feel more distress than others and parents who talk to their kids about emotions have kids who are more understanding of emotions and better with prosocial behavior. Toddlerhood: not very self sacrificial, but when asked to share or do something nice by adult or peer, will do so. Elementary school: sharing, helping, and other prosocial behaviors are more spontaneously organic from child, they don't need an adult to tell them to be good. Children who have siblings are faster at this maturation than children who do not have siblings, since they never had to learn to share, but those children do learn!

How does psychoanalytic theory explain altruism and morality? What is the norm of social responsibility?

It just says that we develop our moral compass after the oedipus/electra complex, in which we internalize the values and practices of our parents. Since we see our parents engaging in altruism, we will learn that that's what we should do too. The norm of social responsibility is a principle that says we should help people who are in some way dependent on us for assistance. This norm is what we internalize when we're internalizing the values of our parents that enables us to be altruistic.

Money's John/Joan experiment

Just how much influence does biology have on gender identity? Parents had a boy, John, but penis was badly damaged during circumcision. John Money was consulted (he was the biggest sex and gender development person at the time - emphasizing that bio was way less important - sociolization is SO strong that it overrides the bio influence) and he said to reassign gender. Parents went through with operation, began to socialize John (now Joan) as girl. Bonus: John/Joan had a twin brother - a built in genetic control! John/Joan never fully embraced "female" identity, really wanted to play with "boy" toys - everything the brother had, rough house with brother. Was socially awkward, didn't really fit in with girls, didn't really fit in with boys. Teachers/adults who didn't know about J understood that there was something "different" about him. Money met with the twins every year for therapy (was a little creepy - had them undress and point out what was different about their bodies). He pushed for the family to have more surgery and take estrogen supplements. At age 17, Joan was sinking into depression and was doing awfully, so parents told him about his past --> he was relieved and went through another sex change operation. Eventually got married and settled down into anonymnity, but struggled with depression, and eventually committed suicide. Interestingly, the brother was schizophrenic and died of a drug overdose (unclear if it was suicide). Criticism: Well, parents knew, so maybe they were treating him very unusually? Pushing towards girl too hard? This study presented strongly towards a biological basis for gender, but also not at all proof.

What is morality? What is internalization?

Morality is the ability to distinguish right from wrong, act on this distinction, and experience pride in virtuous conduct and guilt or shame over acts that violate one's standards. Internalization is the shift from externally controlled actions to actions that are internally governed based on one's own standards and principles. Only really moral if internalization has occurred (otherwise you're just acting so you don't get in trouble or whatever)

Discrete emotions theory (theory of emotional development, 2 of 2) What evidence is there for discrete emotions theory?

More popular, Dr. Comer believes in this one! Has more research to support! Based in evolutionary theory, says that emotions are biologically programmed in order to help you adapt, and they are simply responses to a particular set of physical reactions. The evidence is that emotions are the same universally, across cultures and people, etc. - everyone smiles when they are happy, everyone widens their eyes when they are afraid, furrows eyebrows when mad.

Emotions (and what are the characterized by?)

Motivational construct that is characterized by 1. feelings 2. physiological reponses 3. cognitions 4. goals

Bullying in the US - Nansel et al (2001), Wang et al (2009) - What did they each find? Which gender bullies more, frequency of bullying thought the ages, what subjects aren't ok to bully about, and how do males and females typically bully?

Nansel - 29.9% of sample involved in bullying, 13% as bullies, 10.6% as targets 6.3% as both. Wang - types of bullying - 20.8% physical, 53.6% verbal, 51.4% social, 13.6% electronic. Found that bullying was more prevalent in males, a greater frequency in middle school than high school, derogatory statements about religion and race are rare, and that males bully more physically and verbally, while females bully verbally (taunting and sexual comments) and spread rumors.

What are some subcultural variations in gender typing?

Not all social classes and ethnic groups hold the same gender typing norms. For example: Middle class adolescents hold more flexible gender role attitudes than their low SES peers. This might be because they typically have a wider array of educational and occupational apotions available to them. African-American children hold less stereotyped views of women than European-American children do. This might be because their fathers don't feel as constrained to gender roles and there is a larger proportion of these children living in single parent households and/or the mom employed outside the house. Finally, kids raised in houses in which parents promote more egalitarian views of gender role attitudes end up with less gender stereo typed kids.

What is prosocial behavior? What is altruism?

Prosocial behavior are actions that benefit others (such as sharing, comforting, helping, etc.). Altruism is concern for the welfare of others expressed through prosocial acts.

How does Freud's psychoanalytic theory explain gender role development?

Oedipus/Electra complex - during phallic stage of development, from 3 - 6 y/o, kids develop an incestuous desire for their opposite sex parent. Then, for boys, kid internalizes father's attributes and behaviors as a means of reducing his fear that his father will castrate him as punishment for his wrong desires. first girls, kid internalizes mother's attributes and behaviors in an effort to become like mom so that the father will be pleased (or, when she realizes that this dad thing isn't happening, some guy who's /like/ dad will be pleased)

Expressive Role (gender)

One should be cooperative, kind, nurturing, and sensitive to the needs of others. Usually associated with females.

Instrumental Role (gender role)

One should be dominant, independent, assertive, competitive, and goal oriented. Usually associated with males.

What influence does infant temperament have on attachment? ***

Psychologist Kagan said that the strange situation experiment didn't measure attachment, but rather measured the individual differences in infant temperament, but there's evidence against this theory. If this were the case, then you'd see the same attachments to everyone, but you don't, so it must measure attachment to specific person you're looking at. Additional evidence: training moms to have different parenting styles can produce different attachment, and there's no genetic evidence in twin studies.

How does the social learning view explain gender differences in aggression? What was the Feshback study and what did it contribute?

Parents acting more roughly with boys. Parents react more negatively to aggression from girls, talk more about why it's wrong, how to deal with negative emotions not using agression, etc.. Boy toys have more aggressive themes, usually. Feshback study had 5 - 8 y/o boys and girls in structured (lead by an adult) play sessions that were either neutral (grocery store, circus, farm) or aggressive (pirates, soldiers, etc.). Then were sent into another room for free play sessions (can do whatever they want) - observed what happened during free play. They looked at thematic aggression (appropriate for previously play session type, continuing that behavior) and inappropriate aggression (verbal taunts or physical aggression not appropriate for session type). There was higher thematic AND inappropriate aggression in the aggressive type sessions. Therefore, aggressive play influences later behavior ---> supports social learning since boys get all the aggressive toys, so it make sense that they end up all aggressive.

What are some explanations for the finding that lower SES children exhibit more aggression than middle-class children?

Parents are more likely to rely on physical punishment More stress on the family (not much money, working multiple jobs to make ends meet) and when parents are stressed, the first thing to go is sensitive parenting. Not as much community support structures - don't have support from other people, like places to take the kids (public parks), babysitting resources, etc.

How do parents influence kids' emotional understanding?

Parents who discuss emotions with their kids have more emotionally understanding kids (Nancy Eisenburg). They are more likely to discuss why people feel negative emotions, which leads to kids' greater understanding of negative emotions and understanding of classmates' negative emotions.

What are the two types of victims?

Passive = socially withdrawn and anxious children whom bullies torment, even though they appear to have done nothing to trigger such abuse. Easy targets, they haven't done anything to trigger abuse. Provocative = restless, hot tempered, and oppositional children who are victimized because they are often disliked and irritate their peers. Not very friendly, perceived as whiny, cry babies, etc. Seen as triggering the abuse - either they annoyed everyone else too much OR it's amusing to see them explode since they have such a hot temper.

What is oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)?

Pattern of opposition, defiance, and disobedience that usually leads to conflict with parents, teachers, siblings, peers, etc. ALL kids are oppositional, defiant, etc., but this is taking it to a new level, in which it's really becoming a big hindrance to the kid's functioning. To have ODD, one must present 4 negative/hostile behaviors like talking back, arguing, temper tantrum, refusing to comply with anything (will you please put on your shoes? NO ABSOLUTELY NOT). Opposition and defiance overlap.

What are the critiques of instinct theories of aggression?

Peaceful tribes of people Empathy is a powerful inhibitor of aggression and we can use language to end disputes. Children can end disputes w/o aggression Aggressive behaviors can be wiped out through social learning.

What is the self fulfilling prophecy? How might this create sex differences found in research? Give math example.

People cause others to act in accordance with the expectations they have about those others. So, because there are different expectations, socially, of boys and girls, the research will reflect people acting according to expectation. Math example: parents of twins, a son and a daughter, expect son to do better in math, and then attribute his success to natural ability, attribute daughter's success to hard work. Boys begin to feel confident in ability, girls lose confidence. Girls become less interested in math bc they suspect they have low math abilities, thus are less inclined to pursue math careers.

How can daycare centers give proper, high quality care to children? ***

Physical setting must be clean, well lit, ventilated, free of hazards. Ratio should be 3 infants or 4 - 6 toddlers per every adult Caregivers should be trained in child development and first aid and should be warm and sensitive Toys should be age appropriate, supervised play. Parents should be involved in day care Should be state licensed.

What cultural bias exists in Kohlberg's theory?

Post conventional morality does not appear in all societies, since it has to do with a Western idea of justice. It's biased against non western cultures, such as collectivist cultures in which societal harmony is more important than personal harmony, which is the conventional stage, according to Kohlberg.

What are the two types of aggressive children?

Proactive - they're highly aggressive, think aggressive acts are easy to perform, rely on aggression as a means of solving social problems or achieving personal objectives. Reactive - high levels of hostile, retaliatory aggression.

Emotional regulation

Process of adjusting one's emotions to appropriate levels of intensity to accomplish one's goals (by managing feelings, psychological arousal, cognitions, and behaviors). (ex. 2 y/o having a temper tantrum - parents tell kid "take a deep breath" cause kid doesn't really know how to manage their responses and calm themselves down. )

What are the components of temperament?

Remember with Acronym SEA Sociability: how interested/involved child is in interacting with others Emotionality: How much the child responds with extreme emotion Activity Level: how active the baby is

According to Piaget's theory of moral development, what are the two aspects of moral reasoning?

Respect for rules - who follows the rules? who creates them? can they be changed? Justice - does everyone always get punished when they do something wrong? how do we decide how to punish people?

Learning theory of attachment

Rewardingness leads to love. Mom was a previously neutral stimulus, but is paired with pleasurable stimulus (feeding, soothing, diaper changes, etc.), so because she's associated with rewarding feelings, the baby loves mom. She becomes a secondary reinforcer --> through the classical conditioning of pairing up mom and pleasurable things, mom elicits pleasure just by being there. probably isn't that straight forward, classical conditioning, but it might play a part.

What cognitive and affective factors are involved in altruism?

Role taking abilities: ability to take on another's perspective, which helps people recognize and appreciate factors that contribute to another's distress. Role taking is a little broader than and includes social perspective taking. Social perspective taking: This is the ability to infer others' thoughts, intentions, motives, and attitudes, which helps people be more charitable, cooperative, and concerned about others. Prosocial moral reasoning: The thinking that people do when they are trying to decide whether to help, share with, or comfort others when these actions can prove costly to themselves.

What are the 4 attachment styles, as per the "strange situation"?

Secure attachment - upset when mom leaves, easily comforted by mom when she returns - seeks physical contact from mom when distressed. --> good outcomes linked with secure attachment. Insecure attachments: Resistant (preoccupied) - stays close to mom (clingy) and gets VERY VERY upset when she leaves, ambivalent (remain VERY VERY upset) when mom returns and resistant to physical contact from her, even though baby wants mom to stay close (DOES seek promimity) - baby seems kinda angry at mom for leaving them. Avoidant (anxious) - little distress when mom leaves (seems like they don't care or notice), ignores mom when she returns (don't seek proximity), and may be sociable with strangers Disorganized/Disoriented (fearful) - confused about whether to approach mom - appears dazed/confused, usually a sign of abuse.

What are some long term correlates of secure and insecure attachments?

Securely attached babies became better problem solvers, more complex and creative in their symbolic play, display more positive and fewer negative emotions, and are more attractive playmates to other toddlers. Later on they were better socially, with more friends and good close friends. Insecurely attached babies became socially or emotionally withdrawn, hesitant to play with others, less curious and interested in learning, and less forceful in pursuing goals. Later, they continued on this path being withdrawn, displaying deviant behaviors, and less able to deal with constructive criticism.

Money and Ehrhardt biosocial theory of gender development

Several Stages: 1. X or Y chromosome at conception (your sex will play a role in your gender - y chromosome determines that you'll be male) 2. Testosterone released () 3. Growth of male genitals 4. Social factors begin at birth --1 through 3 are all prenatal. These combine to form the basis of gender roles

What was Carol Gilligan's criticism of Kohlberg's theory? What is the difference between morality of justice and morality of care? Which gender did Gilligan expect to engage in each?

She said that Kohlberg's theory wasn't good enough for ALL people - since he only used boys, then it might not apply to everyone. In fact, she said that girls reason differently. Boys, she thought, reason based on the morality of justice (focused on justice through law and fairness) and girls reason based on the morality of care (focused on the compassionate concerns for human welfare). Empirically, we don't agree (although women do think care-oriented situations are more of a moral issue than men).

Social competence vs emotional competence?

Social competence is the ability to achieve personal goals while in a social situation while maintaining a positive relationship with others Emotional competence is the ability to display mainly positive emotions in front of others, to read others' emotions and response appropriately, and to adjust one's own emotions.

What are the disclaimers in fact or fiction gender differences study?

Socialization forces may be influencing these!!!! Data is from group averages (ie math scores from many people), so obviously one girl can be more aggressive than one boy, and vice versa. Most of the "fact" differences are small. This is not necessarily consistent across all cultures. Ultimately, we are more similar than different! --> few differences compared to so many that we share. Does not consider experiences of those whose gender identities are different from their sex identities.

What did Darley & Batson (1973) find in their "Good Samaritan" study? Include what the study actually was.

Split seminary students into two groups and asked one group to write a sermon on the good samaritan parable, and the other group to write one on careers after seminary school. Then, split each group into three further groups (six groups total), and 1 was told to rush over to give the sermon, another was to just go, and the last was told to take their time going. Along the route to the pulpit, a confederate was lying on the ground, in obvious need of some help. Results: Those that were primed to do good (good samaritan writers) didn't stop significantly more than those who wrote about careers! The significant difference only came from the time they were given to get to the pulpit - almost no one from either writing group stopped to help if they were in the rushed group. Rushed were less likely to stop than non rushed. This showed that even if you ARE altruistic, time constraints can really take a toll on your behavior!

What are the two types of fear? When do they start to occur and/or peak?

Stranger Anxiety - wary or fretful of strangers; shows once they make emotional attachments, not before (~6 months) Separation Anxiety - wary or fretful of being away from caregiver - starts at 6-8 months, peaks at 14-16 months

What is moral disengagement?

The ability to avoid self condemnation when engaged in immoral behavior by justifying one's own actions as appropriate, minimizing their effects, or blaming others for one's conduct.

What is a secure base?

The attachment object for baby often serves as a secure base, or someone that baby can come back to if he gets scared or needs emotional support, but can venture out from and explore (knowing that his secure base is there for him).

What is imprinting? What is a preadapted characteristic?

The ethological theory of attachment originated from studies with animals where they learned about: imprinting - innate or instinctual form of learning in which the young of certain species will follow and become attached to moving objects (usually their mothers). Only happens during critical period and is irreversable. preadapted characteristics - an innate attribute that is a product of evolution and serves some function that increases the chances of survival for the individual and the species.

What is the motivational/intentional view of altruism and what is the behavioral view of altruism? Compare/contrast.

The motivational/intentional view of altruism is that altruistic acts are those that are carried out with the primary motive of addressing the needs of others. The behavioral view is that altruistic acts just benefit others, regardless of motives.

What is gender typing?

The process by which a child becomes aware of his or her gender and acquires motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for members of that sex.

What are the criticisms of the Strange Situation experiment?

The situation is too strange - it doesn't actually mimic real situations continuous dimensions - the 4 discrete types are too artificial and would be better if the attachment differences could be categorized on continous dimensions. not useful after age 2, since kids get used to being away from mom cultural differences

Social referencing

The use of others' emotional expressions to gain info or infer the meaning of an otherwise ambiguous situation. They will monitor parents' emotions as a guide in new situations. There may be an evolutionary basis for this, since it is beneficial to adapt to reference.

How does the social learning theory explain altruism?

This is difficult for social learning theory to explain, since there are all these risks and dangers and bad things, generally, that have to be rewarded somehow, since that's what will reinforce us to be altruistic in the future. So how does altruism pay off? It can get rid of the emotional distress we feel when empathizing with someone, it can make us feel good about ourselves (when we're kids adults praise us to high heaven for engaging in prosocial behavior, and we then praise ourselves later on when the adults stop)

What are emotions like early on in life? Is it universal?

When they're born, you can see interest, disgust, distress, and contentment (NOT the same as happy - more like ok, I'm good, this is a good thing, I'm now full or had a good nap so I'm not tired, etc.), and between 2 and 7 months, their primary emotions develop into anger, sadness, joy, surprise, and fear. This development happens at the same time in the same way for all babies everywhere.

What is the felt-responsibility hypothesis?

Theory that empathy causes one to reflect on the altruistic societal norms, which makes them feel some obligation to help others who are distressed.

What is social domain theory? What are the three types of rules in this theory?

There are different types of rules that judge whether an action is right or wrong. These are: 1. Moral rules - these don't change in the situations, countries, etc. - they're universal. Once a moral rule, always a moral rule. 2. Social conventions - indicate what's appropriate in specific contexts based on social consensus. Not the same everywhere, can change if majority agrees. 3. Personal Choices - it's up to you here. Sometimes conflicts when one person thinks the rule is a personal choice and another thinks it's moral or social convention.

What has research found regarding temperament and aggression?

There are evocative genotype/environment correlations, since if you're an irritable or have an otherwise difficult temperament, then you will evoke more negative reactions from tohers and that mike make you think that others are mean to you, which makes you want to react by aggressively retaliating. If these children become more aggressive, then they're likely to to associate more with aggressive children, which perpetuates their aggressive behavior. At that point that's just an environmental influence.

Why might early deprivation be harmful? What is the maternal deprivation hypothesis? What is the social stimulation hypothesis?

There are two theories: The maternal deprivation hypothesis, which is the notion that socially deprived infants develop abnormally because they have failed to establish attachments to a primary caregiver who provides them warm, loving attention. But this doesn't explain how there exist infants who were cared for by multiple, responsive caregivers appeared to be quite normal and well adjusted later on in life. In contrast, the social stimulation hypothesis says that socially deprived infants develop abnormally because they have had little contact with companions who respond contingently to their social overtures (baby's signals - crying, smiles, pointing, babbling - are well responded to).

Are there any sex differences in altruism? If so, what are they?

There's a very very small difference, in that girls are a little more helpful, comforting, and sharing than boys, but not across all situations. They still experience the same amount of physiological arousal in seeing someone distressed and also girls do not seek out more help than boys, and both prefer to recieve help in indirect ways, like with hints.

Where do we see gender typed behavior? How does gender segregation go down? Masculine behavior - who can take part?

Toy preferences - as early as 14-22 mo. they will reach out for the toy that matches their gender (most likely socialized) Gender segregation: prefer same sex playmates (but may be due to in-group bias?) not always, but usually. Masculine behavior: more valued, more "ok" for girls to engage in cross-sex behavior and NOT ok for boys.

Gender role stereotypes - how to are these perceived through childhood development?

Understand that toys, activities, and achievement domains are considered appropriate for different genders. - girls: dress up, tea party, dolls, etc. ; boys: trucks, balls, trains, etc. - girls: dance, gymnastics, etc.; boys: football, martial arts, etc. 3 - 7 y/o: very rigid about sex roles, keep them distinct to help them clarify them for themselves. -get upset when other genders do things that aren't part of the steoreotypes --> probably because it's too confusing if different genders are doing things that aren't part of the schema they have in their head. 8 - 9 y/o: more flexible - it's probably better if you do the stereotypes, but it's okay if you step outside of the stereotypes sometimes Adolescence: gender intensification - maybe because of dating purposes, you try and emulate what potential mates want, which goes to the extreme

Harry Harlow's Research - what was it? which attachment theory did it support?

Used to study psychoanalytic theory of attachment - is it really food that leads to attachment? They used monkeys to model humans, since they couldn't ethically use humans, and thus the assumption is that monkeys attach in a similar manner to humans. Harlow had one fake cloth "mother" and one wire monkey "mother" who had food attached to "her", and looked to see where baby went when frightened and when baby was more comfortable and confident when one or the other was around. The baby monkey came attached to the cloth mother and this showed that contact comfort is KEY in forming attachment, which is why the kids in the russian orphanage way back in the 70s or so had issues - they didn't get contact comfort.

Ethological theory of attachment

Uses ethological assumption that we are born with innate tendencies that promote the survival/adaptation of our species. Attachment is one of those - it has adaptive significance - protects babies from predators and ensures needs are met.

Does daycare hurt social and emotional development? ***

Usually does not hurt - it actually promotes social responsiveness and intellectual growth, especially with disadvantaged children (head start programs). The age baby enters the day care or amount of care baby receives does not seem to influence the attachment to mom. The two biggest influences are quality of care and the parents' attitudes towards work.

Instinct theory of aggression - psychoanalytic

We naturally build up this aggressive energy, so it's gonna come out somehow. Could come out through work or play, which is how a healthy person does it, but an unhealthy person discharges it through harmful things like hitting others. We have the aggressive energy because it keeps you motivated to engage in your daily activities, so it's adaptive to us to have aggression.

What is self oriented distress?

feeling of personal discomfort or distress that may be elicited when we experience the emotions of (that is, empathize with) a distressed other; thought to inhibit altruism.

What is a sympathetic empathic arousal?

feelings of sympathy or compassion that may be elicited when we experience the emotions of (that is, empathize with) a distressed other; thought to become an important mediator of altruism.

Kohlberg's cognitive development theory of gender

gender dev. depends on cognitive development - need to understand what gender is. And, he says that children socialize themselves (before people were more just talking about the affect of everyone else on the kid, and thought the kid was passive - he pushed for an active child role view).

What are family influences on gender differences in emotion?

gender does not inherently influence emotions, it's the way that you treat your kid and talk to them and what they see in society. Displaying emotions: display more with girls Talking about emotions: talk about them more with girls, mothers use more emotion words than fathers Anger: encouraged more in boys

How do happiness, anger, sadness and fear develop? How is happiness tracked?

happiness is tracked with smiles. --> first sign is a rudimentary smile, shows happiness with smile, but this is a reflex, it's not conscious. Deep biological roots! All in same time/same way across cultures! 6-10 weeks: social smile (smile directed at people) appears, they'll smile at anyone though, not saved for anyone. 2-6 months: anger and sadness appear (not just general distress), occur due to harm or inability to control events (like trying to get mom to smile but she's just not responding - will get sad or angry!) 6-7 months: reserve biggest smile for familiar people, fear is the last emotion to emerge and it is more than just being startled - they really think there is a threat to them out there.

Aggression and antisocial conduct in adolescents; what are the two trajectories of antisocial conduct?

highest crime rate in adolescents - why are they engaging in so much criminal behavior? Moffit wanted to find out. Moffit (1993) Adolescent-Limited Offenders = they have no antisocial problems prior to adolescence (seem "normal"), and none continue into adulthood. During adolescence they might shoplift, skip school, vandalize things, drinking, etc - MINOR crimes, misdemeanors, not felonies like murder or sex offenders or anything. Lifecourse-Persistent Offenders = problems in childhood (seeing antisocial behavior - biting/kicking in preschool, cruelty to animals in youth, stealing cars in adolescence) that continue into adulthood (when they commit major crimes). They commit major crimes (rape, robbery, murder, etc.) and make up a large portion of the major crimes committed. we should be much more interested in helping or locking up lifecourse persistent offenders.

Gender Identity -what is it? -how do people identify different genders? -when do kids understand that gender is permanent?

one's (psychological) awareness of one's gender and its implications. - know that one is a boy or girl and that that is unchanging. - able to discriminate males from females. ---first place self in category ---use vocal pitch at first ---next use hair length ---do not understand gender is permanent until about 5-7.

What kind of parenting produces each of the four attachment styles?

secure: the parent is sensitive, positive (in attitude and in showing affection for infant), synchronous (smooth, reciprocal interactions with infant), joint attention, and gives a lot of attention and interacts a lot with (stimulates) infant. resistant: caregiver is inconsistent with caregiving, reacting enthusiastically or indifferently to baby, depending on their moods. Baby tries esperately through clinging, crying, and other attachment behaviors to get caregiver to support and comfort, but get angry or resentful when these effects fail. avoidant: case 1 - caregiver is impatient with or insensitive to baby's signal, likely to express negative feelings about baby, derives little pleasure from interaction with baby. case 2 - overzealous caregiver that keeps providing high levels of stimulation, even when the baby does not want it. disorganized/disoriented: caregiver has flightened, neglected, or physically abused baby, so baby doesn't know whether to approach caregiver for comfort or retreat from caregiver for safety.

What are the stages to attachment (Schaffer and Emerson, 1964)? What ages do they occur during?

watched infants and caregivers, observed the following: 1. Asocial Phase, 0-6 weeks: many stimuli produce favorable reaction 2. Phase of indiscriminate attachments, 6 weeks - 6/7 months: enjoy human company, specifically, like to interact with people more than doing other things in the environment, but enjoy the company of just about anyone. Can reserve biggest, best smile for familiar people, but will still smile for anyone. 3. Specific attachment phase, 7-9 months: protest when separated from 1 individual, usually mom because that's who baby usually spends the most time with, but if it's someone else that they're spending all their time with, like dad, then they'll attach to dad. If it's 50/50, it's a bit of a crapshoot as to who baby will form attachment with first. But, other develops soon after. 4. Phase of multiple attachment, weeks after stage 3: becomes attached to others (dad, babysitter, grandma, etc.) -seek out different attachment person in different situation. Usually mom is nurture, dad is playmate. If child feels sick, wants mom, if child feels playful, wants dad.