Exam 2 - Management of Public Problems & Solutions

Define institutional racism.

"Describes a form of racism where race and its intersections with other identity markers such as gender, sexuality, and class are an endemic part of society and are institutionalized in and by the law and public policy." - Institutional and structural racism: policy issues - Housing: the federal housing administration and redlining - Environment: environmental justice - Education: affirmative action

Define structural racism.

"Includes the interactions among institutions and more broadly societies, which produce insurmountable obstacles and barriers to Black and Brown people in their efforts to achieve social, political and economic equality with Whites."

What is overhead democracy?

(DOES NOT WORK) -Citizens elect representatives to pass policies that they desire -These representatives then set up and oversee agencies who are responsible for implementation -agencies are controlled by politicians, and these politicians are held accountable by elections

What are the advantages and disadvantages of incrementalism to decision-making?

- Both an empirical argument about how the world really works, and a normative argument about the best ways to make decisions. - Lot of evidence that budgets tend to be largely incremental; less work in looking at other kinds of decisions. - Less risk, at least in most cases - Consistent with principles of bounded rationality -Politically expedient.

System 1 vs. System 2

- Dominance of system 1 in decision-making. - Because system 2 is who we typically think "we" are, we assume that it is the one in charge most of the time. In practice, however, the vast majority of our decisions happen via System 1. - System 2 is simply too slow and resource-intensive for us to employ all the time. - Most of the time, system 1 reacts in quick decisions. System 1 makes mistakes. - Intuition can be misleading, and emotions can bias us and ultimately cause us to make decisions that work against our best interests. - System 2 is often not even aware that System 1 has made a mistake, and we make these errors repeatedly without even realizing it or devising strategies to avoid them.

How does adverse selection and moral hazard relate to the relationship between Congress and the bureaucracy?

- Legislatures can do a few things to limit the ability of bureaucrats to "shirk" -Aggressive oversight and monitoring (post-facto). -Write very specific statutes that constrain bureaucratic decision-making. -Unfortunately, these things impose costs on the legislature. -Take resources away from more personally beneficial activities (running for re-election). -Reduce the amount of time and energy that can be spent dealing with new problems or issues.

What can individuals do, and how does this relate to decision-making in organizations?

- Organizations can be designed for parallel processing. -Design of federal bureaucracies, committee system in Congress, etc... - Allows for parallel processing at the organization or system level -Most policymaking in the US happens within relatively autonomous policy subsystems that focus on a single issue. -Relatively obscure and self-governing, but occasionally subject to macro-political forces and institutions. -Include the agency (ies) responsible for policy implementation, the congressional committees responsible for oversight, interest groups, journalists, academics, and think tanks. - Even at the organizational level, the capacity for parallel processing is not infinite. - Some key actors (President, agency leaders, members of Congress, Supreme Court justices, etc..) will eventually have to make a final decision, and that decision-maker will be constrained to serial processing of information. -This limits the amount of information that the system can absorb and process. -Deciding which issues to pay attention to, and which aspects of issues are most salient is a highly political process.

What are punctuated equilibriums, and how is this concept related to incrementalism?

- Policymaking in the US is characterized by a system with punctuated equilibriums. Long periods of relative stability and incrementalism, followed by brief periods of rapid change. -Punctuations occur when focusing events or reframing a problem by issue advocates causes attention to be focused on new issues or new aspects of issues.

What is incrementalism?

- Policymaking is characterized by a series of decisions, each instituting modest change.

What were the conformity experiments, and what were the major findings from this research?

- Pressure to conform can create problems where people are uncomfortable sharing dissenting opinions. - The desire to remain part of the group is more powerful than making the right decision. - Can lead to extreme and unethical decisions and actions. - Followed the other person and all stood up at the ring noise.

Define satisficing

- Rather than try to make the best decision possible (global optimum), people tend to make decisions that are "good enough" (local optimum). - Reducing the number of choices to consider saves time and energy and makes decision-making more manageable. - Often only consider small (incremental) changes from the status quo. - Some minimum threshold that is desired, and once an option meets this level stop looking for options that might be even better.

Case study on administrative enforcement of speeding laws

- The speeding laws are not always shown. There is a debate about police officers deciding who to stop people. - Police officers are responsible for enforcing laws on the road. -Developed by police chiefs and other senior law enforcement officials.

What is the politics-administration dichotomy, and how is it related to the progressive movement? What was the primary goal that was associated with public management during this era, and what was the most important quality for public administrators to have?

-After WWII, increasing realization among scholars that it was impossible to separate politics from administration -Importance of normative values in design and management democracy, in reaction to the rise of fascism and WWII -Recognition of limits to human cognition and rationality - Politics an inevitable part of the administrative process and vice-versa Civil rights and women's rights movements during the 1960s and 1970s further strengthened these concerns. -Legal and political efforts to end discrimination -LBJ and the "War on Poverty" and "Great Society" programs vastly expanded the federal government's role in social welfare

What are some of the tensions and challenges surrounding protecting and empowering potential whistleblowers?

-Fear of retaliation or alienation prevents many whistleblowers from coming forward -Organizations often adopt policies aimed at protecting whistleblowers, though these are not always effective -Balancing between transparency to the public and the need to protect sensitive information creates gray areas

Case on bias in technology and the use of facial recognition software.

-Governments want to use facial recognition software to monitor civilians which will help everyone be safe. -More efficient -Easy to find wanted people, monitor large groups of people, and eliminate the potential for danger. - In the public sector, could become a violation of privacy. -Biases are evident in technology and flaws exist. -Should be used for police departments only to reinforce evidence that supports other sources of information.

Define compliance costs.

-It refers to the time, effort, money, and other resources that individuals need to expend to follow through with problem application, certification, or recertification. -Provision of information and documentation to demonstrate standing. -Financial costs to access services (such as fees, legal representation, and travel costs). -Avoiding or responding to discretionary demands made by administrators.

When will Congress tend to be more aggressively take control or monitor?

-Often times it is impractical to write legislation that deals with every possible situation and attempts to make things too rigid can cause problems. -Kids are expelled from school for bringing toy guns or pocket knives, due to zero-tolerance policies. -Sometimes these controls can erode the internal morals/ethics of bureaucrats and lead to perverse outcomes (unintended consequences). -No Child Left Behind and "teaching to the test". -Crime statistics and police departments.

Define principal-agent dilemma.

-Principals (electoral institutions) hire an agent (bureaucracy) to accomplish some task but are unable to completely monitor the agent's behavior. - Agents are able to exploit this lack of oversight and control to "shirk" responsibilities.

Recent Supreme Court ruling on affirmative action.

-Race-based university admission policies -Current Supreme Court rulings outlaw quotas and numerical rubrics, including the use of race -Important to note that these policies mostly impact higher education

Define psychological costs.

-Stigma arising from applying for and participating in an unpopular program -Loss of autonomy that comes from intrusive administrative supervision -Frustration at dealing with learning and compliance costs, unjust or unnecessary procedures -Stresses that arise from uncertainty about whether a citizen can negate processes and compliance costs

What should public managers do when given orders or commands that are illegal or unethical?

-The "Nuremberg defense" does not hold up under scrutiny -Bureaucrats should attempt to uphold the law and allow legal channels for addressing concerns whenever possible. -The Constitution is an important set of rules and principles that government officials should uphold -Professional standards may serve as a useful guide. -The role of personal values and morality can be complicated.

Define administrative burden.

-The learning, psychological, and compliance costs that people experience in their interaction with the government. -Focused on individual citizens rather than private businesses, nonprofits, or interest groups. -All programs create some level of burden -Builds on theories of bounded rationality and findings from behavioral economics -These costs are often hidden and are not recognized or considered in an analysis of programs -Raise important equity concerns regarding access to government services

Define learning costs.

-Time and effort to learn about the program or service -Eligibility status -The nature of benefits -Conditions that must be satisfied - How to gain access

What are executive orders and how have presidents used these in the past to influence policy?

-Traditionally, the office of the President has been viewed as having limited formal powers and mostly achieving policy goals via persuasion and the ability to set an agenda. The Limitations of Presidential Power: -Presidents appoint fewer than 1 percent of the executive branch. employees (about 7,000 people) -High-level appointments require Congressional Approval. -The merit system makes it difficult to fire or replace most bureaucrats. -Interest groups and competing advocacy coalitions pull agencies in directions other than those favored by the president. -Bureaucracies must follow the laws governing the programs they are entrusted with. Executive control of the bureaucracy: Despite these limitations, presidents still have significant influence over administrative policymaking Appoint agency directors who are sympathetic to the President's policy goals. Use counter-bureaucracies to help audit and oversee bureaucracies and to gain procedural control over bureaucratic decision-making processes. Use executive orders to unilaterally create mandates and directives for agencies.

What would happen for monitoring the bureaucracy to help members of Congress get re-elected?

-Voters would have to know a lot about whether an individual member of Congress has been engaging in oversight, and whether the oversight has been effective, and then vote accordingly. -The benefits of good oversight would have to be more valuable during an upcoming election than other things that the Congressperson could do with their time (i.e. media appearances, fundraising, campaigning).

Define choice blindness

1) We are often much less aware of our surroundings than we imagine ourselves to be. 2) When making decisions, our brains will seek to find meaning or logic, even when the decision itself is arbitrary and meaningless. 3) We are unaware that these things are happening, so we believe that we are much more rational and logical than we actually are.

What would have to be true about the American political system for overhead democracies to work?

1. People would have to hold Congress and the President accountable for adopting undesirable policies, or not addressing major issues. a. Know what going on b. Get involved and participate (vote, write letters, etc...) 2. Congress would have to hold bureaucrats accountable for effective implementation. a. Know what it is that the bureaucracy is actually doing b. Have detailed knowledge of how policy should be implemented.

When will Congress tend to delegate?

1. Under a divided government, Congress views the bureaucracy as ideologically closer to the President than itself and less likely to delegate. 2. If the policy is very complex/technical and/or there is great uncertainty about how a policy will work, Congress is more likely to delegate, because they don't have the expertise and don't want to get blamed if things go bad. 3. If policies bestow benefits to constituents; congress is less likely to delegate. 4. When there has been some type of crisis/disaster; or when the agency is doing something to harm important constituent groups and people want action, Congress is more likely to take an aggressive role.

What is the theory of representative bureaucracy?

A theory that claims public sector performance is directly related to fit between demographic characteristics in the community/society as a whole and the people who work in a given government agency. Improved fit = improved performance Research has mostly focused on race, ethnicity, and gender Less work on income, religion, and sexual orientation.

Ethical benefits to society.

Actions that produce the greatest good for the greatest number. -Focus on problem-solving -Awareness of social needs and conditions -Willingness to change policies or procedures when new problems emerge -Rational and efficient use of resources to maximize positive impact -Pragmatic approach to implementation when confronting political or financial limitations -Consider both current citizens and future generations

What are the three major causal mechanisms linking diversity/representation to performance? Be able to define

Advocacy - members of under-represented groups serve as advocates for their group members, improving outcomes for these individuals. Legitimacy - as organizations more closely mirror the population they serve, the organizations are viewed as more legitimate by those populations. Learning- organizations benefit from the diversity of experiences and perspectives to be able to learn and adapt to challenges. - Client advocacy and representative bureaucracy - Several studies have found that as representation of women or minorities increases in organizations, outcomes for women and minority clients improve. Black and Hispanic teachers > Black and Hispanic students in K-12 standardized test and disciplinary actions Female police officers > sexual assault arises Female staff > less gender pay gap in the US Universities. The key mechanism is that bureaucrats in these instances actively use their power/autonomy to advocate for group members.

Define whistleblowing.

An employee discloses what they believe to be unethical or illegal behavior to a higher-level manager (internal) or to an actor outside the organizer like the media or general public (external).

What strategies can managers use to avoid groupthink?

Brainstorm before discussing the course of action. People in power positions (leaders) should refrain from expressing early opinions. Invite outside experts - seek information that does not support the preferred course. Devil's advocate - encourage members to raise objections and concerns (challenge norms). Foster diversity in group membership.

How are administrative burdens distributed in the US?

Burdens can mean the difference between getting access to life-altering services or going without. -Voting rights - Immigration - Education opportunities - Job training -Healthcare -Housing -Income support and food - How much you pay in taxes

How do the garbage can model of decision-making posit that decision-makers approach problem-solving?

Decision makers are as likely to start decision-making from the solution side as the problem side. -"If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail" mentality to problem-solving. -Create decision-making opportunities that they can solve with ready-made solutions based on their competence and skills. -People push for competing solutions, based on their perceptions of the nature of the problem and the attractiveness of their solutions to those problems.

What are the four major components of ethics?

Duties, virtues, principles, and benefits to society.

Define lot equality.

Everything should be divided up equally with each person in the group receiving an identical share.

System 1 of decision-making

Fast Unconscious Automatic Everyday decisions Error-prone

What role did the federal government play in promoting racial segregation in housing policy, and what impacts did this have on the racial wealth gap?

Hazardous Division -Communities hosting commercial hazardous waste facilities in the U.S. saw a rise from 41% to 44.9% in the The population of People of Color from 2000 to 2010. - The African American population in these areas increased from 21.1% to 21.2%, and the Hispanic or Latino population rose from 15.9% to 19.3% in the same period. Unbalanced -U.S. counties with high exposure to COVID-19 and hazardous air pollutants showed a diverse composition: -38.2% of People of Color. - 29.8% Black (non-Hispanic). - 10.6% Hispanic. Comparatively, in areas with low exposure risks, the White (non-Hispanic) population dominated at 85.5%.

Ethical principles.

Fundamental truths that form the basis for behavior: -Follow the law and all policies and regulations. - Act with fairness and treat all equally. - Protect confidential information. - Do not lie. - Do not steal. - Follow the "golden rule"

Define motivated reasoning

Happens when people make or evaluate arguments in a way that promotes a preferred position rather than an objective search for truth.

Define anchoring effect

Illustrates how we place disproportionate weight on the first piece of information we receive, even if that information is random, arbitrary, or unreliable. - Still happens even when we know that the information is not a valid criterion for decision-making. - Examples can be found in negotiations, sales, and a variety of other important decisions, particularly when assessing the value of a good or service.

What is bounded rationality, and how does it differ from pure rationality?

In response to some of the problems with the comprehensively rational model (i.e. rational choice), Herbert Simon developed the concept of "bounded" or "intended" rationality. -People do not have the capacity to be perfectly rational. -Importantly, the ways they fail to be rational are repeatable and predictable rather than random. -Instead of pure rationality, people are rational within certain limits (i.e. they try to make the best decisions they can, but they often fall short of achieving pure rationality).

What are the three types of costs that administrative burdens pose for individuals?

Learning costs, compliance costs and psychological costs.

Who is most impacted by these burdens? Why?

Many programs aimed at helping the poor are not accessed by all who qualify: -40-60% for Supplemental Social Insurance -65% for SNAP -50-70% for Medicaid -40-52% for TANF -30-60% for Unemployment Insurance Burdens reinforce inequalities. Those without resources are the most disadvantaged (those who often need the help the most) and are typically most severely impacted.

Define prosperity theory

Models built on assumptions of rational behavior assume that actors make decisions based on maximizing wealth or utility. In reality, however, people approach outcomes relative to some reference point (the current state). Most importantly, people respond differently to perceived losses than to perceived gains. -Losses are often weighed between 2 and 3 times as heavily as logically equivalent gains. -Losing $10 hurts about as much as winning $20-30.

Define loss aversion

One way that this differential reaction to losses versus gains impacts decision-making is with respect to decisions about risk. - Because losses hurt more than gains feel good, people are generally risk-averse - But if a decision can be framed in such a way as to be thought of as avoiding a loss people will become much more tolerant of risk and willing to take chances. - Logically equivalent decisions are treated differently depending on how the decision is framed.

Define person-regarding equality.

People have different needs and that resources should be determined based on individual circumstances. - Some people may have been historically disadvantaged and thus require additional resources to make up for lost ground. - Others may have experienced trauma or face challenges brought on by injury or disability.

What does it mean to say that administrative burdens are constructed?

Political actors can use burdens as an alternative way to reduce access to services that they believe the government should provide: -TANF and beliefs about welfare -Requirements for legal immigration -Political lobbying around efforts to simplify income taxes -Medicaid Expansion and Obamacare -Unemployment benefits -Voter ID laws While these efforts are usually defended as part of a legitimate effort to prevent fraud or abuse, they are often employed to accomplish some political goal that would not otherwise be possible to enact via legislation.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the "fire alarm" approach?

Positive: - Is much less costly than the "police patrol" approach. -Allows Congress to take the credit for responding to problems and concerns that people have raised, without wasting time on issues that may not be important to constituents. Negative: -Assumes that people will have the ability to recognize problems and to sound the alarm and that all groups will be able to do this equally well. -Assumes that there won't be a lot of false alarms.

What are some major threats to ethical behavior? How do these threats manifest in terms of unethical activities?

Shame and/or inconvenience: -Efforts to hide past mistakes or poor performance -Attempts to avoid lengthy or cumbersome rules/regulations Conflict of interest: -Hiring of friends or family members -Investments or other financial holdings that may threaten impartiality -Use of confidential information to improperly benefit oneself or others -Accepting bribes and/or inappropriate gifts: -Political influence -Pressure from political superiors to deliver a particular result -Inappropriate involvement in campaign activities or lobbying efforts

Ethical virtues.

Qualities that define what a good person is: -Honesty & integrity -Respectfulness -Thoughtfulness and attention to detail -Competence -Open-minded -Consistency and dependability -Empathy and compassion

Define decoy effect

Refer to situations where selection of an option can be influenced by including a clearly inferior version of one of the choices. -Including the clearly inferior option should not influence purely rational actors, as this is not an option that they would ever choose. -In reality, however, the inclusion of an inferior version of one alternative makes the better version of that alternative seems more attractive. -Also makes it easier for you to justify choosing that option because it is clearly better than the inferior "decoy".

What are the two philosophical perspectives in terms of approaches to promoting ethical behavior? What kinds of actions does each philosophy employ to achieve ethical public management?

Rules, Restrictions, and Regulations: -Adopt explicit policies outlawing behavior that constitutes an ethical violation -Legalistic framework for investigating and punishing those who break the rules - Top-down mechanism of accountability Internal Sources of Ethical Values: - Create and maintain an ethical workforce via organizational culture and strong norms around ethics -Stresses the need for employees to rely on their own professional and moral judgment -Bottom-up mechanism of responsibility

Define ethical dilemma.

Situations where values and codes of conduct are in conflict and where a choice must be made between options with good rationales existing for each choice.

System 2 decision- making

Slow Conscious Effortful Complex decisions Reliable

What is the difference between police patrol and fire alarm approach to Congressional oversight?

Some have argued that Congress can adopt oversight, strategies that are less costly, in terms of time or effort. - Wait for somebody to complain about a problem, otherwise assume that the bureaucracy is doing what it is supposed to be doing. -This is the "fire alarm" approach to oversight, as opposed to the "police patrol" approach that we have talked about so far.

What was New Public Administration, and how does this compare to the idea of neutral Competence?

The new public administrators movement in the 1960s argued that administrators should be active participants in promoting social justice. ASPA's code of ethics explicitly states that administrators should promote social equity. Neutral competence was stressed as an important quality for public administrators to have: Politics- administration Dichotomy Implement the rule of law without bias or favoritism. -Provide technical expertise and advice to legislators and policymakers

What strategies can be used to reduce administrative burdens?

Technology can help reduce burdens by making it easier for people to get information and to provide documentation. -Can publish information on programs and eligibility requirements online and then email/text people with a link to the site. -Ability to fill out forms and submit materials online rather than hand deliver them to a physical location. -Apps on your computer or smartphone that allow you to take a picture of a document rather than finding a working fax machine. -Use of videoconferencing programs can reduce the need for in-person visits and appointments. -Important to retain autonomy for workers and ensure that it is user-friendly for people not experienced with the system. One way to reduce the burdens that citizens confront is to have government take on more of these costs. -Outreach efforts to increase awareness of policies and programs -Design processes that reduce wait times -Have case workers meet with recipients at home or at work -Merge and combine already existing administrative data sources to better communicate and share information -Auto-enroll people who are eligible

Why does racial gap exist today in the US with respect to housing policy?

The Federal Housing Administration was created in 1934 in response to the Great Depression. -Insured home loans at lower rates, with lower down payments, and for longer periods of time than was previously available. -Was widely successful at improving homeownership for low and middle-income families. The FHA also devised a lending framework that cemented racial segregation and excluded African Americans from access to home loans - Developed a series of guidelines for which homes/neighborhoods would qualify for federally insured loans -Color-coded ranging from Green (Best) to Red (Hazardous) -Explicitly based on race -Instructions to HOLC Agents: Any threat of infiltration of foreign-born, negro, or lower-grade population? If so, indicate these by nationality and rate of infiltration like this: "Negro-rapid."

Ethical Duties

The behaviors expected of persons who occupy certain roles; the obligations taken on when assuming a role or position. -Serve the public -Avoid conflict of interest or personal gain -Act as a steward of public resources -Take responsibility for your actions; be accountable -Share or disclose information to the public

What is redlining?

The pattern of discrimination against people trying to buy homes in minority and racially changing neighborhoods

How is attention related to the policymaking process?

This pattern of disproportionate information processing results in a policymaking system that often pays too little attention to a problem for a long time until things reach a breaking point, at which attention shifts and the system becomes focused on the issue.

How do "bottom-up" approaches seek to achieve accountability? How do these compare and contrast with "top-down" methods of accountability?

Thus far in class, we have mostly talked about top-down mechanisms for ensuring bureaucratic performance, accountability, and democratic representativeness (leadership and directives from public managers or legislative bodies towards bureaucracies. Another mechanism for achieving these goals is through bottom-up approaches: - Emphasis on providing "street-level" bureaucrats with the necessary authority and discretion to act -Also stresses the role of education, socialization, training, etc.. of these street-level agents -The idea is to strengthen "inner checks", by creating a bureaucracy staffed with people who have strong ethics/morals and who are responsive to the needs and demands of citizens/clients. -Debate is about whether formal/legalistic controls (top-down) can work, or whether such efforts are more likely to create perverse incentives or unintended consequences than they are to improve policy implementation.

Define means approach.

Two people have the same probability of receiving an outcome assuming they have the same qualifications. - Everybody in this class is graded the same way, and students will obtain the same grades when their assessment scores are the same. -Legitimate inequality is based on differences in merit, talent, or skills.

Define prospect approach.

Two people have the same probability of receiving an outcome. -I randomly selected groups last time using random.org. -Draft lotteries randomly select people to serve in the military.

Define agency loss.

What happens when the agents exploit this lack of monitoring to pursue their own interests at the expense of the principal.

What is groupthink?

When group members striving for agreement (norm for unanimity), fail to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. Examples: the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the Columbia and Challenger space shuttle disasters, and the Iraq War. - Pressure to conform can create problems where people are uncomfortable sharing dissenting opinions. - The desire to remain part of the group is more powerful than making the right decision. - Can lead to extreme and unethical decisions and actions. - Groupthink can cause bad decisions to be made because people are uncomfortable or unable to speak up.

Define moral hazard.

When one party acts overly risky/irresponsibly because they will not feel the full force of penalties. Examples: the banking industry and housing crisis of 2008; bad teachers in public schools. - Civil service reforms, other protections, and political monopolies can serve to insulate bureaucracies from punishment for poor performance. Bureaucrats who believe that they likely won't be fired for doing a bad job may take advantage of this for their own personal gain.

Defne adverse selection.

When principals (in this case, Legislatures) are unable to effectively differentiate between the quality or competence of people they hire to do some task. - Will sometimes hire "bad" agents who are lazy or incompetent. -Unable to directly observe the work that agents do. -Difficulty knowing who or what is to blame when things go wrong.

Define confirmation bias

When we seek out information that supports our existing opinions and ignore or discount information that challenges our beliefs Emotionally painful to change our minds or admit we are wrong. - The importance of social connections and standing within a group often outweighs the desire to get the "right" answer - Not related to intelligence or knowledge

What does it mean to be a rational actor?

You are able to rank-order your preferences, based on the expected utility of each option. These rank-ordered preferences are stable and transitive. You analyze all the possible alternatives and know which alternatives will work the best (i.e. you have perfect information). You select the alternative that maximizes your utility.

Define serial processing

dealing with problems/decisions one at a time.

Define parallel processing

dealing with several decisions simultaneously.