Exam 2 pysch245

two core hypotheses (or beliefs) of attachment theory

1. A major determinant of attachment security is having a caregiver who is sensitive and responsive to the child's needs. But studies with other cultures found only a weak connection between parent sensitivity and security of attachment. 2. Secure attachment is best and it leads to later social competence. But the measures of competence have emphasized the child's autonomy or individuation. Competence is viewed very differently in other cultures.

Four categories of sex-role orientation:

1. Androgynous- someone who possesses a fair number (high number) of both masculine and feminine characteristics. 2. Masculine 3. Feminine 4. Undifferentiated

Home and Family Influences on Achievement

1. The quality of the child's attachments 2. The character of the home environment: Stimulating home environments (a variety of age-appropriate challenges and support to master them) will foster achievement. 3. The child-rearing practices that parents use: Parents who have an authoritative parenting style tend to raise children who achieve considerable success. And all of these three factors are influenced by culture. In addition, it is, again, a matching issue. Are there any universal self-relevant motive? Yes, psychologists have concluded that all humans have a need to feel good about themselves. This desire is known as the self-enhancement motive.

3 main types of cross-cultural studies

1.Cross-Cultural Comparisons 2.Ecological-Level Studies 3.Priming Studies

As an area of study in psychology, cross-cultural psychology is relatively new.

1.Methodological difficulties (such as translation of materials and sampling) 2.The high cost of conducting this type of research 3.A lack of familiarity with other cultures 4.The ethnocentric attitude of researchers 5.A fear of creating new or reinforcing old stereotypes . 6.The tendency among theorists to take a reductionistic approach, which led to the avoidance of studying complex variables like culture, or the belief that behavior is basically universal and independent of cultural influences

Definition Temperament

= It is biologically based and genetically influenced. = It demonstrates consistency over time, across situations. = Constitutionally based individual differences in emotion, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation.

Critical period

= behavior can only form within this time frame

Sensitive period

= more likely to form in this period, but it is still possible

Attachment:

A close emotional relationship • Attachments are reciprocal relationships, for infants become attach to parents (or other intimate companions), and they become attached to infants. • Parent's initial emotional bonding with their infant builds in strength as they gear their behavior to the infant's social signals and establish synchronized routines.

Attachment

A close emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity. Individual differences in our relationships later in life

Equivalence

A state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparisons to be meaningful. E.g.) Apples in one culture can be compared only to apples in another :) Only if 1.the theoretical framework, 2.the hypotheses, 3.the methods of data collection, 4.the methods of data analysis, 5.etc. have equivalent meaning in the cultures being compared, the results from that comparison will be meaningful

If you are interested in investigating the individual differences in activity level in 2 months-old baby, what would you do?

A. Observation or interviewing with caregivers! E.g.) If a baby shows the high activity level, he/she would move a lot while sleeping or wriggle when diaper is changed

To understand these practices, we need to think about:

Cultural attitudes : Virtuousness, chastity, and honor Cultural beliefs: A way to promote marital fidelity, control human being's sex drives, and even to enhance fertility among women. To understand this controversy (not just genital mutilation, but also other topics), we probably need to examine how our cultural filters shape the way we view issues related to sex or gender.

Some facts about gender differences

In all, males and females are far more psychologically similar than they are different, and even the most well-documented differences seem to be modest. And yet, we develop the gender-related stereotypes, gender specific behaviors and some gender differences. Question: When do we start and how do we develop these differences? Many kids are displaying gender-typed toy and activity preferences

Additions to WHO health definition

In recent years, this statement has been discussed whether we should include the ability to lead a "socially and economically productive life."

One of the factors that can reinforce achievement behavior is intrinsic/extrinsic orientation.

Intrinsic Orientation = A desire to achieve in order to satisfy one's personal needs for competence or mastery. Extrinsic Orientation = A desire to achieve in order to earn external incentives such as grades, prizes, or the approval of others. Both types can be an incredibly strong motivation. "People who are intrinsically motivated truly enjoy the process of working toward accomplishing their objectives."

Reasons why cross cultural psych more popular

It could be attributed to: 1. The ease, availability, and speed of travel to what were once isolated parts of the world 2. The fact that many psychologists had been exposed to foreign cultures 3. An increased availability of funding for psychological research 4. Increased awareness of the frequency of intercultural conflicts within and between countries 5. Etc.

Theories of Attachment 1: Ethological Theory

Lorenz: A baby's "kewpie-doll" appearance (large forehead, chubby cheeks, and soft, rounded features) makes the infant appear "cute" or lovable to caregivers. So babyish facial features or other reflexive responses (e.g., sucking, grasping, smiling, cooing, babbling) may well help to elicit the kinds of positive attention from others that will promote emotional attachments. But still mystery..... (Lorenz) the babies' appearance makes it appear cute and lovable, so it's easy for adults to become attached with baby. Perhaps, having baby-ish features at an older age may help others become attached, as well.

Myers founding- false uniqueness

Myers (1987) found that 70% of his American student participants thought they were above average in leadership ability. 0% thought that their ability to get along with others was below average! Clearly, at least 20% of these students are wrong about their leadership ability, and 50% are wrong about their ability to get along with others! This is self-enhancement motivation. However, there is also self-effacement motivation. Namely, some people efface their value rather than enhance it.

Temperament and Attachment as the Predictors of Individual Differences and Personality

Neuroticism- fearful distress and irritable distress

NEET

Not currently engaged in Education, Employment, or Training. A NEET is someone who is unwilling to work or receive any education or training, and typically lives at home supported by his/her parents (or anyone). This is one of the serious problems, because of its potential impact on the economy.

Problems with using Race

Problems with using Race: intended to categorize people biologically, Most studied constructs have demonstrated more variability within race than between races. What about ethnicity? Well, where race is primarily founded on biology, ethnicity is primarily founded on location Race is intended to categorize people biologically, on the basis of genetic differences and variations in appearance or physical characteristics (hair or skin color, facial features, & eyes), not shared behaviors, attitudes and values.

Ecological level studies

Profile a country

Culture and Gender Stereotypes: How do we come to develop such stereotypes?

The evidence suggests that stereotypes concerning gender differences are relatively constant across cultures. Even today, men are not encouraged to learn to cook as much as women are, unless you get to the chef level of cooking, and then there are more jobs for male chefs. Some people even say that the persistence of gender stereotypes across culture can only be explained by socio-biological models, rather than socio-cultural models.

Most research concerning cross-cultural differences in infant behavior does find significant differences. But what are those differences?

Why does infant temperament or behavior differ cross-culturally? We're not sure! Possibilities include: Environmental demands/ecological factors/baby's and caregivers' biological or social factors Infants in the U.S. who have a "difficult" temperament have been found to be at risk for later behavioral problems. However, having a "difficult" temperament in an extreme situation may be productive, improving the infant's chances of survival

Ethnic Group

a collection of people who share certain attributes, almost always including ancestral heritage and often including national origin, religion, customs, and language.

Konrad Lorenz on Imprinting

an innate or instinctual form of learning in which the young of certain species will follow and become attach to moving objects. (See picture below): is there a critical period within which imprinting occurs? • Imprinting occurs only within a critical period. (Lorenz) Over the course of many generations, the imprinting response eventually became an inborn, pre-adapted characteristic. When we see a baby, we are likely to say "How cute!" But why?

Gender-role stereotypes

are well-ingrained cognitive schemes that people use to interpret, organize, and represent experiences. The persistence of these "cultural myths" can steer males and females along different career paths. At least in American society, people believe that boys are better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks, whereas girls are better at verbal comprehension tasks. In fact, the data shows some degree of support

Gartestein et al (2003)

asked Russian and American parents to rate the frequency of their child's behaviors Gartestein et al. (2003) examined cross-cultural differences in temperament for Russian infants (N = 90) and U.S. infants (N = 90): Between 3 and 12 months of age. The Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised (IBQ-R) = Parent-report assessment tool 14 scales and 191 items Activity level: When put into the bath water, how often did the baby splash or kick? 2.Distress to limitations: When placed on his/her back, how often did the baby fuss or protest? 3.Smile and Laughter: How often during the last week did the baby smile or laugh when given a toy? 4.High intensity pleasure: During a peek-a-boo game, how often did the baby smile? 5.Vocal reactivity: When being dressed/undressed during the last week, how often did the baby coo or vocalize? 6.Cuddliness: When rocked or hugged, during the last week, how often did the baby seem to enjoy him/herself? Before talking about the cross-nation differences, they also checked the age differences. There were some age differences. activity distress to limitation high intensity pleasure fear What kind of age differences would you expect? Group 1: 3 - 6 months old Group 2: 6 - 9 months old Group 3: 9 - 12 months old • The researchers first looked at age differences. They found that activity, distress to limitation, high intensity pleasure, and fear all differed between age groups. Presumably, this main effect is observed because as the child gets older, their cognitive capacities for experiencing these dimensions are becoming refined. • They also found significant cross-cultural differences in activity, duration of orienting, smiling and laughter, and vocal reactivity. Can we then say that there are cross-cultural differences in infant behavior? Not yet. These results showed that the parents of infants in the U.S. reported higher levels of smiling and vocal reactivity than the parents of infants in Russia. This study relied on asking parents about the frequencies of their child's behavior. What are some concerns with this method? One concern is that the study may be capturing differences between what parents notice about their children rather than the actual behaviors of the infants. For example, parents in Russia may be less likely to notice their children smiling than parents in the U.S. because individual happiness is considered extremely important here. Thus, we could interpret the results in the following ways: 1. There are actual cross-cultural behavioral differences in infants. 2. Parents may report behavior based on cultural values 3. Procedural/sampling artifacts (e.g. linguistic, procedural, or sample inequivalencies). This means that the results may have arisen because of flaws/differences in the method or execution of the study, or in the sample that was obtained. So, instead of asking parents to rate their child's behavior, we can take an observation method by using a standardized scale, such as Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (Check the lecture power point to review the criteria/rule the researchers have used. For example, we should not observe the babies' behavior when they are sick or too hungry!) 1. At least one and a half hours had passed since the last feeding. 2. The infant had taken the normal amount of milk at the last feeding. 3. The infants body temperature had been within the normal Studies that observed the actual frequencies of babies' behavior also found cross-cultural differences. Are there concerns with this method as well?

Cross-Cultural Psychology

examining the differences and similarities between cultures

Nationality

has a culture and many subcultures One problem with equating culture and nationality is, again, it ignores the possibility of multiple and equally important cultures co-existing within a nation

National Origin

means country of birth or ancestors birthplace.

Lifestyle factors contribute

people in the U.S. have become more aware of how lifestyle factors can contribute not only to the absence of negative states but also to the presence of positive ones.

Self-handicapping

placing obstacles in our way so that if/when we fail, we can blame the obstacles rather than ourselves. For example, I could stay up all night before the exam, fail the exam, then think or say "I'm smart, I was just tired when I took the exam."

Heritage

refers to customs and traditions passed down to the present

Theories of Attachment 2: Psychoanalytic Theory

the mother becomes the primary source of security and affection It seemed logical to them that the mother would become the baby's primary object of security and affection (psycho-sexual developmental stages). Next, Learning theory. Primary reinforcer Through feeding, an infant should come to associate his mother with pleasant, so that the mother becomes a valuable commodity, then the mother has attained this status as a secondary reinforcer. Any stimulus that we have to learn to regard as positive. Would you agree with that?

Cultural differences in self-esteem and self-enhancement

these studies show that there is a tendency to view oneself and one's ability and traits more positively in comparison to others, at least in the U.S. What about the countries outside the U.S.? Research showed these biases did not necessarily exist in countries outside the U.S. For example, when Japanese students were asked to rate themselves in comparison to others on a number of abilities and traits, they claimed that about [ 50 ] % would be better than they are.

Helplessness

this involves claiming that our performance was out of our hands (e.g., "The professor didn't tell us what would be on the exam").

Defensive pessimism

this involves having poor expectations about our upcoming performance. (e.g. "I am not going to do well on this test.")

A basic aim of socialization/enculturation is

to build on children's inborn mastery motivation to encourage them to pursue important objectives, • to work hard to achieve them, and • to take pride in their accomplishments

Define hoarding

These researchers defined hoarding as acquisition of and failure to discard a large number of possessions that appear to be useless or of limited value.

Summary of masculinity

Maybe the more a boy feels he must constantly live up to masculine norms, the more at risk he may be for poor psychological adjustment. The constant pressure boys feel to maintain tough, strong, and confident facades can have harmful psychological consequences. Beliefs such as "there is nothing wrong with a guy who picks on his friends" are not commonly thought of as being associated with positive developmental outcomes; but the results showed opposites Maybe a boy who believes that being teased is abnormal maybe more likely to be seen as weak? Reacting to teasing as though it was hurtful may cause a boy to become the target for even harsher ridicule -Within such a peer climate, the belief that social teasing is normal may serve to reduce anxiety for many boys

Back Translation

1. Back translation 1.Taking the research protocol in one language, 2.Translating it to the other language(s), and 3.Having someone else translate it back to the original. 4. Compare the back-translated version with the original. If the back-translated version is the same as the original, they are generally considered equivalent. If it is not, the procedure is repeated until the back-translated version is the same as the original. But this procedure is neither perfect nor easy.E.g.1) Individual differences among translators E.g.2) The assumption is that any culture-specific concepts of the original language should be eliminat We want more than two translators, typically a mix of professionals from each language speaking culture. However, it's expensive and there are often differences between translators. If an item cannot be translated into another language properly (e.g. "I stick my tongue out at other drivers.") then it must be eliminated, but sometimes these items are very appropriate to one culture (and we do not want to eliminate it).

Characteristics of Culture:

1. Culture is dynamic. It is always changing. 2. Culture is not a single construct. It is a system of rules, attitudes, or values. 3. Culture is composed of both individuals and groups and exists at multiple levels. 4. The system of rules and values are intended to insure the culture's survival. 5. Culture can exist in the minds of its members. So culture can be both subjective and objective. 6. There are individual differences in beliefs and behaviors among members of a culture. 7. Culture is communicated to subsequent generations

Temperamental Profiles: some researchers want to place infants into categories.

1. Easy temperament: The child quickly establishes regular routines and adapts easily to novelty. 2. Difficult temperament: The child is irregular in daily routines and has difficulty in adapting to new experiences, often responding negatively and intensely. 3. Slow-to-warm-up temperament: The child is inactive and moody, and displays mild passive resistance to new routines and experiences. The child then adapts slowly to the novel stimuli.

Why do we see gender differences?

1. Evolutionary Theory: Recent evolutionary work explains gender differences by looking at differences in parental investment (i.e. the amount of resources that parents give to their offspring). For humans, think about the minimal amount of investment each sex needs to give to an offspring. Men could get away with very little whereas the minimum investment of women is very high. However, let's consider fish. Fish have opposite minimum parental investment from humans, and they also show opposite gender differences (i.e. female fish are more aggressive, they're larger, and they invest less in their offspring). Come see me if you want to learn a little bit more about this theory. Evolutionary theorists contend that gender-based division of labor have evolved over time because males and females faced different evolutionary pressures and challenges over the course of human history 2. Biosocial Theory: emphasizes biological development that occurs before birth (i.e. pre-natal) which influences the way a child is socialized. However, studies show that social labeling and gender-role socialization can play an important role in determining one's gender identity and the preferences. Biosocial theory emphasizes biological developments that occur before birth and influence the way a child is socialized. Counter example: Several studies illustrate that social labeling and gender-role socialization can play an important role in determining one's gender identity and role preferences. 3. Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud's idea that we all have inborn sexual energy, libido, attempts to explain gender differences by pointing toward development at the phallic stage where Freud thought sexuality (the sex instinct) was inborn. He believed that one's preference for a particular gender role emerges during the phallic stage (3 - 6) in order to resolve their Oedipus or Electra complexes 4. Learning Theory: Observation, positive reinforcement, etc. Social learning theorists believe that children acquire their gender identities and gender-role preferences in 2 ways. •Through direct tuition (or reinforcement). •Through Observational learning 5. Cognitive Developmental Theory: Kohlberg] Kohlberg's theory claims that children are self-socializers who must pass through the following three stages: 1. Basic gender identity: The stage in which the child first labels the self as a boy or a girl (by age 3). 2. Gender stability: The stage in which the child recognizes that gender is stable over time. (3 to 5) 3. Gender consistency: The stage in which the child recognizes that a person's gender is invariant despite changes in the person's activities or appearance. (5 to 7) However, research reveals that gender typing begins much [ ] than Kohlberg thought. 6. Gender Schema Theory: In-group vs. Out-group schemata. • In-group Schema: People are biased to pay attention to information that is relevant to in-group (information belonging to the out-group is filtered) • "Own-sex schema": We tend to retain gender-consistent information and behave accordingly. Both serve as scripts for processing gender-related information. Once formed, schema-consistent information is gathered and retained, whereas schema-inconsistent information is ignored or distorted. Which theory is the best account of gender differences? An eclectic, integrative theory is probably the best.

Six dimensions/attributes of Temperament: some researchers want to give infants a score on each of the following dimensions. The score would indicate the extent to which the infant behaves according to the dimension.

1. Fearful distress: fearful distress and withdrawal in new situations or in response to novel stimuli. 2. Irritable distress: Fussiness, crying and showing distress when desires are frustrated. 3. Positive affect: frequency of smiling, laughing, willingness to approach others and to cooperate with them. 4. Activity level: amount of gross motor activity (i.e. physical movement). 5. Attention span/persistence: length of time child orients to and focuses on objects or events of interest. 6. Rythmicity: a disposition toward habitual or rhythmic action. You could think of this as the stability in our actions. If we do the same things from day to day then we are high on rythmicity. Rhythmicity can be observed in the regularity or predictability of bodily functions such as eating, sleeping, and bowel functioning. E.g.) If a baby shows the irregular rhythmicity, he/she will awake at a different time each morning. E.g.) Size of feedings may vary, as well Fearful distress and irritable distress may predict neuroticism

They suggested several reasons why people hoard. For example,

1. Freedom From Anxiety: They hoard to protect themselves from anxiety in the future (e.g. I may need that receipt one day. If I throw it away I will worry that I'll need it one day, so I better keep it.). 2. Feeling Connected and Socially Engaged: e.g. saving newspapers can help someone feel socially engaged. 3. Feeling Needed by Others: Keeping things around because someone may eventually need them (e.g. Someone may need this single shoelace that I found, so I should keep it). 4.Feeling proud and productive (E.g., Hoarding possessions replaced work and made participants feel worthy or valuable) 5.Feeling in control (E.g., clinging to a perception of order, rejecting offers of help, and ritualized discarding) These are all examples of tactical self-enhancement (i.e. differing ways in which people self-enhance). Other reasons why people might hoard? Their parents hoard They believe that they're hoarding for a cause/purpose

Hofstede #1

1. Power Distance: the power difference between levels of employees (e.g. a manager has more 'power' than a janitor). Organizations that have cultures high on PD develop rules, mechanisms, and rituals that serve to maintain and strengthen the status relationships among their members. In general, cultures high on PD foster organizations with: Greater centralization of organization and process, Taller organizational pyramids Cultures high on PD foster organizations with: Taller organizational pyramids, Larger wage differentials, Lower qualifications for the lower strata of employees, Etc. The U.S shows somewhere middle! U.S. (40) - Score range is 1-120 Malayasia #1

Poortinga (1989) outlines 4 different ways in which the problem of nonequivalent data can be handled:

1. Preclude Comparison: any comparison would be meaningless because the samples are not equivalent. Don't do it! 2. Reduce the nonequivalence in the data: only make comparisons on the equivalent parts. Do it, but only with equivalent parts! 3. Interpret the nonequivalence: interpret the nonequivalence as an important cultural difference. Do it, and interpret the nonequivalence. 4. Ignore the nonequivalence: Do it and ignore the nonequivalence. In 2003, a review of 210 articles found that only 36% addressed equivalence despite its importance. 62% used back translation 56% used matching samples 15% ignored demographic differences 79% used country as a proxy for culture

Committee approach

2. Committee approach: Several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language. Then, they debate the various forms, words, and phrases that can be used in the target language, comparing them with their understanding of the language of the original protocol. The product of this process reflects a translation that is the shared consensus of a linguistically equivalent protocol across languages and cultures.

Hofstede #2

2. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) Every organization develops its own ways of dealing with the anxiety and stress associated with uncertainty. Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree to which people free threatened by the unknown or ambiguous situations, and have developed beliefs, institutions, or rituals to avoid them. Companies that have cultures high on UA may be considered rule-orientated. Cultures low on UA are less concerned with rules and rituals to deal with the stress and anxiety of uncertainty. Cultural differences on UA are directly related to concrete differences in jobs and work-related behaviors. Again, the U.S. has shown somewhere middle (scored 46).

Hofstede #3

3. Individualism - Collectivism(IC) People in individualistic cultures tend to regard their personal time as important and to make clear distinctions between their time and company time. People in individualistic cultures place more importance on freedom and challenge in their jobs, and initiative is generally encouraged on the job. ◆Collectivistic cultural values foster more compliance with company policies and more conformity in group, section, or unit behavior. ◆Collectivism also fosters a greater degree of reliance on group work and group orientation to company and organizational tasks. US highest--Guatemala lowest

Three types of Cross-Cultural Psychology Studies • Cross-Cultural Comparisons •Ecological-level studies - E.g.) Hofstede's 5 dimensions • Priming experiment

3. Priming Studies (Experiments) In cross-cultural studies, researchers really cannot create the cultural groups as we like. And of course, we cannot randomly assign participants to the different cultural groups. So we need to come up with some ideas. One of them is called "Priming Studies (Experiments)". Experimentally manipulates mindsets (related to culture) of participants and measures the resulting changes in behavior to examine whether behavior would be different as function of primed mindset.

Three types of Cross-Cultural Psychology Studies • Cross-Cultural Comparisons •Ecological-level studies - E.g.) Hofstede's 5 dimensions • Priming experiment

3. Priming Studies (Experiments) In cross-cultural studies, researchers really cannot create the cultural groups as we like. And of course, we cannot randomly assign participants to the different cultural groups. So we need to come up with some ideas. One of them is called "Priming Studies (Experiments)". Experimentally manipulates mindsets (related to culture) of participants and measures the resulting changes in behavior to examine whether behavior would be different as function of primed mindset. If participants behave differently, then can infer primed cultural mindset caused observed differences in behavior

Hofstede #4

4. Masculinity - Femininity (MA) Masculinity versus Femininity: The distribution of emotional roles between males and females. It is characterized on one pole by success, money, and things, and on the other pole by caring for others and quality of life. Cultures high on MA were associated with the greatest degree of sex differences in work-related values. Men describes themselves as more competitive than women. E.g.) Managers in cultures high on MA valued leadership, independence, and self-realization. E.g.) In high MA cultures, organizational interests, needs, and goals are viewed as a legitimate reason to interfere in the personal and private lives of employees. Japan highest ): the distribution of emotional roles between males and females (e.g. competitive vs. consensus oriented). Men describe themselves as more competitive than women. High MA value leadership, independence, and self-realization (Japan is high). OU ranks 4th in the country for largest female engineering faculty! Go Grizzlies

Hofstede #5

5. Long- versus Short-Term Orientation Long- versus Short-Term Orientation: The degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs among its members. this refers to the projects/goals that are set. U.S. is generally short term and Japan is generally long term. The degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material, social and emotional needs among its members. Cultures high in Long-Term Orientation: differentiate more between elders and younger persons, believe that humility is a great human virtue, focus on building relationships and market position rather than bottom-line profits, integrate business and family lives, and coordinate more hierarchically and horizontally.

Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation = A willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment. (in middle childhood) Achievement motivation is reflected differently in different cultures and has been conceptualized in very different ways. There are cross-cultural differences in the characteristics of "high-achievers"

Attachment summary

Again, attachment is considered a universal phenomenon. What may differ across cultures is the specific attachment behaviors exhibited by both the infant and the caregivers that indicate secure or insecure attachment. These studies may be helpful to define an [ optimal ] relationship between infant and caregiver as one that may be achieved in different ways, under different circumstances, in different cultures.

gender stereotypes

All societies not only make decisions about what only men can do and what only women can do, they also come up with decisions about what men and women should do. These decisions are not necessarily what only men or women can do. These practices affect our gender stereotypes. Gender stereotype: It refers to the psychological or behavioral characteristics typically associated with men and women. It refers to the traits that are perceived as uniquely characteristic of women versus men. This is important, because gender stereotypes affect important life outcomes such as: Hiring and promotion, Job performance evaluations, Sexual harassment, etc. Research has shown that many gender-related stereotypes are held universally across cultures (not just in the U.S.).

Allowing children to change gender: There are two practical issues:

Allowing children to change gender: There are two practical issues: 1) there will always be cheaters in every system. Namely, some children will lie about the gender that they identify with: 2) some children will be uncertain about which gender they identify with. With these practical issues in mind, we need to start thinking about ways to 1) identify cheaters, and 2) help children to determine which gender they best identify with.

2 ways to obtain linguistic equivalence

Back Translation, Committee Approach

Avoidant attachment

An insecure infant/ caregiver bond, characterized by little separation protest and a tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver. (18%)

Resistant/Ambivalent attachment

An insecure infant/ caregiver bond, characterized by strong separation protest and a tendency of the child to remain near but resist contact initiated by the caregiver, particularly after a separation. (25%)

Linguistic Equivalence

As you can imagine, cross-cultural psychology researchers collect data in multiple languages (most of the time), and we know that we need to establish the linguistic equivalence of the research protocols (e.g., items on questionnaires, instructions, etc.).

ADRESSING

Below is Hays' (1996) model of cultural identities (there are many groups that have cultures; thus he made the following list): Age and generational influences Disability: Persons with disabilities may share the same feelings, ways of thinking, motivations, etc. Religion Ethnicity or Race Sexual orientation: People sharing the same sexual orientation may also have distinctive psychological characteristics. Social status Indigenous cultural heritage National origin or Nationality Gender: Gender differences are also cultural differences, and men and women can be said to belong to different cultures.

Development of Gender-Typed Behavior

By age 3, they overall display gender segregation by preferring to spend time with same-sex associates and developing some prejudices against members of the other sex. This gender segregation has been observed in a variety of cultures. By age 6 or 7, children spend more than 10 times as much time with the [Same] -sex as with [opposite] -sex companions, and when a young child does play with other-sex peers, there is usually at least one same-sex friend present, statistically (there are a lot of exceptions). Research has shown that children who display a preference for cross-sex friendships are likely to be rejected by their peers. And there are gender differences. Boys face even stronger gender-typing pressures than girls do. Consider that fathers of baby girls are generally willing to offer a truck to their 12-month-old daughters, whereas fathers of baby boys are likely to withhold dolls from their sons. Why is that? How can we explain the differences between these two parental attitudes/ethnotheories? By age 3 - 5, boys are more likely to say that they dislike opposite sex toys. Different perception by peers: Overall, boys prefer a girl playmate who likes "boy" toys to a boy playmate who prefers girls' activities. A girl playmate who likes "boy" toys Versus A boy playmate who likes "girl" activities With respect to their actual gender-role preferences, young girls often wish more variety of toys, yet it is unusual for a boy to wish traditionally a feminine toy, in general

Cross-Cultural Comparisons:

Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Using individuals as the level of analysis. Namely, we study individuals strictly as a member of a culture. These types of studies don't help us identify why the cross-cultural differences exist, since there is only one grouping variable. Most common type of cross-cultural study. Research Question: Are the cultures different on the psychological variables of interest? Method: Participants in two or more cultures measured on psychological variables and their responses compared Results: Demonstrates that people of different cultures differ on psychological variables The limitations of this type of study include: We cannot be sure what aspect of culture, if any, produced the differences.

Cultural and Sub-cultural influences on Achievement

Cross-cultural viewpoint E.g.) Research showed that many 7- to 9-year-old US children are already so competitive that upon discovering that they can't win a prize, they then seek to lower their partner's score. Have you seen the similar situations before? Generally, people from individualistic societies are taught to be more self-reliant and to stress person accomplishments as indications of achievement. Thus, to them, individual accomplishments and evidence of personal merit are the most common indications that one has achieved, in general.

Disorganized/Disoriented attachment

Disorganized/ disoriented attachment: An insecure infant/ caregiver bond, characterized by the infant's dazed appearance on reunion or a tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver.(1%)

Dispositional optimism

Dispositional optimism = It refers to the way a person approaches the world and is defined as an individual's generalized expect It refers to the way a person approaches the world and is defined as an individual's generalized expectancies of the occurrence of good outcomes in one's life Americans also show higher optimism than Japanese in cross-sectional studies.

Theories of Attachment 3: Learning Theory

E.g.) Harlow's experiment: The wire and cloth surrogate mothers Infant monkeys became attached to the cloth mother even if it was the wire mother who fed them. Results showed that contact comfort is a more powerful contributor to attachment in monkeys than feeding or the reduction of hunger. Learning: Primary reinforcer is milk (i.e. babies become attached to mothers because they provide the reward of milk), and Secondary reinforcer is attachment because the infant realizes that attachment is necessary to gain milk (i.e. attachment becomes a method to gain milk). But then we have Harlow's experiment that seems to contradict learning theories. Infant monkeys became attached to cloth mothers even if a wire mother exclusively fed them. This suggests that contact comfort contributes more than feeding or the reduction of hunger. • Infant monkeys became attached to the cloth mother even if it was the wire mother who fed them. • Results showed that contact comfort is a more powerful contributor to attachment in monkeys than feeding or the reduction of hunger.

Cross-Cultural Studies Using the NBAS

E.g.1) The Peruvian infants who were raised in high-altitude (in the Andes) were less attentive, less responsive, less active, and had a more difficult time quieting themselves than the infants who were raised in low-altitude (Lima). E.g.2) The Nepalese infants (who by Western standards were undernourished) were more alert and had better motor performance than the U.S. infants. E.g.3) The Hmong infants in the Midwest were quieter and less irritable than the Anglo infants. These studies seem to suggest that there are cross-cultural differences in temperament. As we discussed, the cultural differences in temperament may be a reflection of what each culture values concerning appropriate ways of acting. Partly because: (1)it is difficult to establish a high day-to-day reliability. (2)infants mature quickly, stability should not be expected. (3)researchers are not necessarily free from bias, too. (4)etc.

Ecological Level Studies:

Ecological Level Studies: Using countries or cultures as the level (unit) of analysis. Namely, they profile a country. For example, Japan is high on collectivism whereas the U.S. is high on individualism. This is an example of reductionism. We are reducing each country to a set of values, traditions, ideologies, developmental states, etc. Note that this analysis is heavily reliant on gaining a representative sample! Cross-cultural comparisons research uses individual participants as the unit of analysis; however, ecological-level studies use countries or cultures as the unit of analysis. Research Question: 1) What are cultural dimensions that exist on ecological level? 2) How are cultural dimensions related to psychological variables on ecological level? Method: Data for cultures compared. So data obtained from individuals in different cultures then averaged for each culture and these averages are used as data points for each culture Results: Demonstrates that cultural means on psychological variables related to cultural dimensions on ecological level. Limitations: Cultural level findings are not applicable on individual level

Theories of Attachment

Ethological Psychoanalytic Learning

Critical/Sensitive period

Ex. Some people think potty training could be either. However, if there are any exceptions, we cannot really say that x has a critical period, but rather that it has a highly sensitive period.

FGM

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a procedure that involves partial or complete removal of female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-therapeutic reasons. In 1996, FGM was prohibited in the U.S. . It became a criminal act in 1997. Female genital mutilation has been practiced in some African, Middle Eastern, Asian, South American, and Pacific cultures. 33 It is estimated more than 30 million women worldwide have experienced FGM It can be carried out in settings as wide ranging as sterile, operating rooms in hospitals to homes with no anesthesia. Based on these information, I would like you to think about: Those who defend the practice Versus Those who condemn the practice Why??? As you probably described, those who condemn it emphasize the pain, suffering, and health risks involved, as well as human rights. Despite of that, there are some people who defend the practice of female genital mutilation. They argue that it is a requirement for marriage and emphasize the importance of upholding tradition. For many women in these cultures, not having FGM would prevent a woman from finding a husband, or to live life as a social outcast.

Development of the Gender Concept

First step: By age 2.5 to 3, children can accurately label themselves as either boys or girls. And yet, Many 3- to 5- year-olds still think that boys could become mommies or girls daddies if they really wanted to, or that a person who changes clothing and hairstyles can become a member of the other sex. Second step: Between ages 5 and 7, they come to realize that biological sex is an unchanging aspect of self.

John Bowlby 1907-1990

He was a British developmental psychologist in the psychoanalytic tradition, notable for his pioneering work in attachment theory. • He was British developmental psychologist in the psychoanalytic tradition, notable for this pioneering work in attachment theory. • Infants typically form affectional ties to their close companions during the first year of life. • There are multiple levels of analyses available to help explain attachment behavior. Consider evolutionary theory. Infants (which lack valuable resources) who form attachments to adults (which have valuable resources) are more likely to survive, grow up, and reproduce than infants who go it alone.

Atkinson (1923 - 2003): His revision of need-achievement theory

His revision of need-achievement theory pointed to two competing motives: the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure. This leads to greater individual differences in achievement behaviors.

Need Achievement Theory Atkinson (1923 - 2003):

His revision of need-achievement theory pointed to two competing motives: the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure. This leads to greater individual differences in achievement behaviors. This is what we explored in our discussion log. • Self-handicapping: placing obstacles in our way so that if/when we fail, we can blame the obstacles rather than ourselves. For example, I could stay up all night before the exam, fail the exam, then think or say "I'm smart, I was just tired when I took the exam." • Defensive pessimism: this involves having poor expectations about our upcoming performance. (e.g. "I am not going to do well on this test.") • Helplessness: this involves claiming that our performance was out of our hands (e.g., "The professor didn't tell us what would be on the exam").

Geert Hofstede

Hofstede has reported data from 72 countries involving the responses of more than 117,000 employees of a multinational business organization. He identified 5 major dimensions of work-related values. These dimensions have consequences for organizational structure and inter-organizational behavior.

Procedure Equivalence:

If I administer the scale via the internet in the original language, I must also administer it over the internet for the translated version.

Sampling Equivalence:

If I sample from Oakland University, I cannot then sample from Stanford University which is an Ivy League school overseas. 1. Make sure the samples are representative of their respective culture (e.g. 100 farmers from the Midwest would not be a representative sample of the entire U.S. as most U.S. citizens are not farmers). It's important to demonstrate the replicability of a finding across different sample within the same culture. 2. Make sure the samples are also equivalent on non-cultural demographic variables (e.g. age). We can control our sample both before we gather data (e.g. on our study advertisement we can request that only females participate) and after we gather data (e.g. exclude the participants that do not meet our criteria), by setting the inclusion/exclusion criteria. For example, think about socioeconomic status. How would you like to control for this variable. Getting $1,500 in the U.S. doesn't mean the same thing as doing so in other countries. It is nearly impossible to design any cross-cultural study that means exactly the same thing (equivalent) to all participating cultures. In 2003, a review of 210 articles found that only 36% addressed equivalence despite its importance. 62% used back translation 56% used matching samples 15% ignored demographic differences 79% used country as a proxy for culture

CAM

There is a growing field called Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) that incorporates medical and health care systems and practices that are not considered conventional medicine to treat illness and promote health. Acupuncture （鍼）, Herbal medicines, Spiritual healing, etc. There are large cross-cultural differences in the behavior when we catch a cold or even go to a dentist!

Temperament

It is influenced by our biological makeup, consistent over time, and consistent across situations. Temperament is constitutionally based individual differences in emotion, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation. Essentially, it refers to 'personality'. However, we must code the temperament of infants differently from the personality of adults because we cannot simply ask babies what they're like. Adults can communicate their natural tendencies verbally (e.g. "I'm bored when I'm not around other people" or "I'm always feeling anxious"); however, because infants lack verbal language, we must rely on other communicative signals such as the indicators below. Temperament and attachment:Individual differences and personality in later life

Gender-Role Ideology

Judgments about what gender roles in a particular culture ought to be (What males and females ought to be like or ought to do). = one's attitudes and beliefs about the positive and negative aspects of gender-role (one's preference for the gender roles) If you want to assess the degree to which a person holds a traditional attitude or egalitarian attitude, what would you do? • Judgments about what gender roles in a particular culture ought to be. • There are individual differences in the strength of gender-role ideology, not just the content. • Characteristics are not necessarily gender-specific • May be change as societies change The characteristics were not necessarily gender-specific. In one study (Gibbons et al), some gender differences emerged, with being good-looking more often mentioned as an ideal for women and being employed in a job as more of an ideal for men. Gender-role ideologies may be changing as societies undergo change. The increased interaction with people of other cultures and with mainstream American culture seems to have effected changes in the traditional values and expectations for Native American males and females, or Asian. Nonetheless, maintaining, not modifying, traditional gender roles in the face of modernization is also likely.

Let's talk about the article about the U.S. and Chinese college students (Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991). They were interested in "Self-cognition" and "Culture."

Let's see the manipulation they used. For the next two minutes, Condition 1 (private): Please think of what makes you different from your family and friends. What do you expect yourself to do?" Condition 2 (collective): Please think of what you have in common with your family and friends. What do they expect you to do? Please complete 10 sentences that begin with "I am ," Independent variable: Two conditions Dependent variable: 10 statements (Open ended responses) They thought at least there are 2 types of self cognition. 1. Individual oriented (such as personal quality, attitude, belief, or a behavior that was NOT related to other people): "I am honest." "I am intelligent." 2. Group oriented (such as a demographic category or a group with which he/she is likely to be experiencing common fate): "I am a son (This concerns membership in the family)." "I am a Roman Catholic." Next question is: Q. Are there cultural differences in these responses? They hypothesized: ◆ North American students will make more individual oriented responses and less group oriented responses than Chinese students. The important question will be: "Why is that?" That's why they "manipulated" the mindset. Research Method: ◆ The introductory psychology students (Chinese and North American) participated in this study. ◆ They were randomly split to receive either a private or a collective self-prime. Main Results of Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto (1991) 1.The participants reported [ ] individual-oriented self-cognition than group-oriented self-cognition. 2.American participants reported [ ] individual-oriented and [ ] group-oriented self-cognition than the Chinese participants. 3.Those who received the private self-prime reported [ ] individual-oriented than those who received the collective self-prime and vice versa. In their study, a priming experiment was used to find out these conclusions.

Mastery motivation

Mastery motivation = An inborn motive to explore, understand, and control one's environment. E.g.) We see this mastery motivation in action as we watch infants struggle to turn knobs, open cabinets, and operate toys - and then notice their pleasure when they succeed (in infancy)

Need Achievement Theory

McClelland (1917-1998): He proposed a theory of achievement motivation. His theory is that achievement motivation is a predictor of achievement behavior. Atkinson (1923-2003) revised McClelland's theory. His revision of need-achievement theory pointed to two competing motives: •the motive to achieve success •the motive to avoid failure These two motives influence achievement behavior. Atkinson also focused on cognitive factors. Atkinson broke new ground by stressing that two achievement-related cognitions are important determinants of achievement behaviors. achievement expectancies (cognitive expectations of succeeding or failing) E.g.) As you know, people are more likely to work hard when they feel that they have a reasonable prospect of succeeding than when they see little chance of attaining a goal. achievement value (the value one places on the success she/he might attain)

Article on Fear of Happiness Scale

Most of the Western research on happiness shares the assumption that personal happiness is a valuable goal that should be actively pursued. E.g.) In the US, "failure to achieve happiness can be seen as one of the greatest failures a person can experience." But the studies in the other cultures revealed that some people possess negative views of happiness. E.g.) In Japanese culture, happiness can be considered hazardous in that it can cause suffering. Happiness will ultimately revert to unhappiness and vice versa. 1.I prefer not to be too joyful, because usually joy is followed by sadness. 2.I believe the more cheerful and happy I am, the more I should expect bad things to occur in my life. 3.Disasters often follow good fortune. 4.Having lots of joy and fun causes bad things to happen. 5.Excessive joy has some bad consequences. 7-point: 1 (strongly disagree) - 7 (strongly agree) [Results] They found that East Asian cultures scored higher on the FHS than Western cultures, supporting their hypothesis. How does this mentality affect us? Japanese individuals are higher on the scale. Americans were lower on the scale.

Cross-cultural differences in achievement Are there universal and self-relevant motives?

Most psychologists agree that all humans have a need to feel good about themselves. This is known as the self-enhancement motive Three legged races in the U.S. compared with 31 legged races in Japan portrays cross-cultural differences in the meaning of achievement. There are also cross-cultural differences in effort toward achievement. Home and Family influences on achievement

Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal?

Not exactly, where secure may mean independent in the U.S., secure may mean collaborative in Japan. 1. A major determinant of attachment security is having a caregiver who is sensitive and responsive to the child's needs. a. But studies with other cultures found only a weak connection between parent sensitivity and security of attachment. 2. Secure attachment is best and it leads to later social competence. a. But the measures of competence have emphasized the child's autonomy or individuation. Competence is viewed very differently in other cultures Weinfield's focus on individuation seems to lead to devaluing reliance on others as a way of meeting one's needs. The terms (secure versus insecure) that Ainsworth chose to describe attachment may reflect the underlying bias. Crittenden (2000) suggests that we should stop using value-laden terms such as "secure" and "insecure" in describing the attachment relationship. Not always easy to come up with the alternative idea though :) "Overall, research has suggested that early attachment history does contribute to the child's effectiveness (self-reliance and efficacy) in the world. o Children with secure histories seem to believe that they can get their needs net through their own efforts. o In contrast, children with anxious histories seem to believe that they must rely extensively on others who may or may not meet their needs." • Crittenden (2000) suggests that we should stop using value-laden terms such as "secure" and "insecure" in describing the attachment relationship. Again, attachment is considered a universal phenomenon.

Our views on health defintion

Our views of health tend to be heavily influenced by the biomedical model of health and disease. In this model, health is characterized as the lack of disease. If a person remains free of disease, the person is considered healthy.

Defining Culture

Over the years many scholars have attempted to define culture. But there is no real consensus concerning the definition of culture in psychology. Culture can get fuzzy, and is not a reductionist approach by itself; however, when we clearly piece apart and explain components of culture, it can be useful

Bem Sex-Role Inventory

Participants: 671 individuals in Louisiana area. Bem Sex-Role Inventory involves 20 masculinity items and 20 femininity items. 7-point Likert Scale (1) Never true - (7) Always true. Instruction = Below is a list of words that could be used to describe an individual. Please indicate in the space next to each word the degree to which you believe that word describes you. This list, called the Bem Sex Role Inventory, includes 20 items for Masculine category and 20 items for Feminine category

WHO health

Physical, mental, social well being, not the absence of disease 1948

Priming Studies

Priming individuals to manipulate the cultural mindsets of participants. For example, half of us could think about what makes us different from our family and friends, while the other half could think about what we had in common with them. We can then answer ten statements starting with "I am..." This allows us to talk about causation because we have experimental manipulation. To make this design stronger, we could also add a control condition where there is no priming or priming that reads "think about your family and friends." The idea is that certain cultures are constantly being primed with one or the other which eventually shapes their general cognitive processes. Manipulation Example: o Condition 1 (private): Please think of what makes you different from your family and friends. What do you expect yourself to do? o Condition 2 (collective): Please think of what you have in common with your family and friends. What do they expect you to do?

[Characteristics specific to animal hoarders]

Problems with early attachment Chaotic childhood environments Significant mental health concerns (possible hoarding of objects, substance abuse, etc.) Presence of more dysfunctional current relationships

Temperament and Culture

Quiet baby versus active baby: -Caregivers in one culture: "You are such a nice baby" -Caregivers in another culture: "What's going on? Are you OK?" Caregivers' belief and reactions to babies and babies' temperament should influence each other. So it's a matching issue. Goodness-of-fit! A particular type of temperament may be adaptive in one culture and maladaptive in another. E.g.) Researchers identified difficult and easy Masai infants in Kenya and followed them for several years (e.g., deVries, 1987, 1989). What was considered a "difficult" temperament by Western standards became a [ ] factor against malnutrition during a time of drought ( = A long period of time when there is little or no rain). The difficult infants were very active and fussy, and demanding. The difficult infants received more feeding and caring from their mothers. In their studies, those infants who were classified as "difficult" had a greater chance of survival compared with their "easy" counterparts. These findings caution us about how we label the "difficult" or "easy" temperamental styles.

Many kids are displaying gender-typed toy and activity preferences

Recall the NY Times author who argues that citizens would be outraged if we marketed specific toys to certain racial demographics based on ethnic stereotypes, yet we constantly market toys to specific genders based on gender stereotypes. Pink aisles with dolls for girls, and blue aisles with guns for boys. What do you think?

Multi-dimensional Masculinity- 4 dimensional inventory:

Recently, researchers (Oransky & Fisher, 2009) thought that perhaps "masculinity" itself is multi-dimensional. They created a four dimensional inventory to assess endorsement of adolescent male gender role norms 1. Emotional Restriction • This dimension reflects the assumption that to be masculine, boys must be emotionally stoic and refrain from sharing their feelings with others • E.g.) It is weird for a guy to talk about his feelings with other guys. 2. Heterosexism • This dimension reflects the norm that masculinity is defined in opposition to homosexuality and femininity, and that one must distance oneself from behaviors and attitudes traditionally thought of as "girly" or "gay." • E.g.) A guy should be embarrassed to "run like a girl." 3. Social Teasing • This dimension reflects the assumption that to be masculine, one must be able to both dole out and standup to teasing and taunting in the peer context • E.g.) It is normal for guys to make fun of their friends. 4. Constant Effort • This dimension reflects the belief that to be masculine, one must constantly, and without interruption, maintain one's tough, confident, and strong public persona. • E.g.) A guy should never back down from a challenge in pub

Reductionism

Reductionism means an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts, or to simpler or more fundamental things.

False uniqueness effect

Research on the way to enhance self-esteem has also found the false uniqueness effect. False uniqueness effect = The tendency for individuals to underestimate the commonality of one's desirable traits/abilities and to overestimate their uniqueness. E.g.) They are happier than us. Most of the time, we don't really know how people are doing, so we assume that other people are doing things that we are supposed to do (or that we should do ideally).

Gartstein, Slobodskaya, & Kinsht (2003) Results

Results showed that the parents of infants in the U.S. reported higher levels of smiling and vocal reactivity than the parents of infants in Russia. Russian infants - U.S. infants There are several possibilities: (1) Because infants in the U.S. in fact smile more and engage more vocal reactivity than the babies in Russia. Nutrition Imitation/observation Reinforcement Actually happier (2) Because of some cultural values and biases In Russia, happiness or smiling may be perceived as an ephemeral (= lasting for only a short period of time), fleeting phenomenon that should be protected from others or that does not have to be demonstrated. In the U.S., smiling is a generally encouraging social practice to tell or show others when one is happy. This difference may result in an under-emphasis of positive emotional expressions in Russia, coupled with an over-emphasis on such displays in the U.S. Do you think smiling is over-emphasized in the US? (3) Because of the procedures (i.e., sample equivalence) Caregivers' education was similar. Age was not similar (Russian M = 27.0; American M = 31.4). Marital status was not similar (72% for Russian; 91% for American married) (4) Because it is the parent's report! They did NOT assess the baby's behaviors directly. To overcome these limitations, what can we do? That's why much cross-cultural research on temperament has been conducted using an observational methodologies by researchers. In the observational study, the Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (NBAS; Brazelton & Nugent, 1995) has been widely used. The NBAS was designed to document individual differences in behavioral and interactive style. E.g.) Orientation to voice, irritability, activity, smiles, etc. In addition to the systematic training, the researchers had to decide on a couple of rules: -At least one and a half hours had passed since the last feeding. -The infant had taken the normal amount of milk at the last feeding. -The infant's body temperature had been within the normal range in the morning.

SNEP

SNEP (Solitary non-employed persons) 20 to 59 years old

What percentage of the scientific articles actually address the issues of equivalence in their papers?

Schaffer and Riordan (2003) A. Only 36% (63 studies)! Out of 210 articles, Used back translation: 108 (62%) Used matching samples: 94 (56%) Ignored demographic differences: 25 (15%) Used country as a proxy for culture: 157 (79%) Regardless of how researchers choose to view these issues, their effects should be acknowledged and incorporated in data analysis in cross-cultural comparisons.

Schmitt et al. (2003)

Schmitt et al. (2003) evaluated whether men and women across a variety of cultures differ in their desires for sexual variety This is one of the biggest survey! o 16,288 people from 52 nations o 118 coauthors o Using back-translation method (27 languages) Question: Ideally, how many different sex partners would you like to have in next month? Main finding: Sex differences were evident. And these sex differences were universal; however, the exact number showed cross-cultural differences. Conclusion: Schmitt et al. (2003) Regardless of the statistical techniques, participant's current relationship status, married or single, heterosexual or homosexual, men consistently desire larger numbers of sexual partners than women do. Over 50% of men (but less than 20% of women) desire more than one sexual partner in the next month. It may be due to culturally universal features of gender socialization and social-role stereotyping. E.g.) Short-term mating with multiple partners may be central to every world region's view of masculinity. More research is needed!

Four attachment classifications

Secure Resistant/Ambivalent Avoidant Disorganized/Disoriented

Secure attachment

Secure attachment = An infant/ caregiver bond in which the child welcomes contact with a close companion and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment. (57%)

How do people come to feel good about themselves, and are there cross-cultural differences?

Sedikides et al. (2003) found that while Americans self-enhance through individualistic attributes, Japanese participants self-enhanced on collectivistic attributes. This suggests that self-enhancing is universal, but that people (specifically those from different cultures) self-enhance in different ways! Sedikides et al. (2003) call this tactical self-enhancement.

Self-Enhancement Motivation:

Self-Enhancement Motivation: A collection of psychological processes individuals use to maintain or enhance their self-esteem (i.e. the extent to which they like themselves). • Self-deceptive enhancement scale • Individuals high in self-enhancement are relatively unaffected by potentially traumatic events exposure!

Sex and Gender: Definitions

Sex generally refers to the biological and physiological differences between men and women, the most obvious being the anatomical differences in their reproductive systems. Gender refers to the behaviors or patterns of activities that a society or culture deems appropriate for men and women. These behavior patterns may or may not related to sex, although they often are. Sex differences lead to some inevitable differences in sex roles, which in turn contributes to sex identity.

Sexism (Glick et al., 2000

Sexism (Glick et al., 2000) suggested that there are different types of sexism. Hostile sexism "Women exaggerate problems they have at work." A subjectively negative orientation of gender segregation toward women. E.g.) Women exaggerate problems they have at work. Benevolent Sexism "In a natural disaster, women ought to be rescued before men." A subjectively positive orientation of protection, idealization, and affection directed toward women. E.g.) In a disaster, women ought to be rescued before men. Researchers developed a 22-item Ambivalent Sexism Inventory HS and BS are highly correlated (the size of the correlations is slightly different from culture to culture, but consistently shows "positive" direction). Note that these findings are robust (i.e. they are trustworthy). HS shows the universal tendencies (i.e., men consistently showed higher score than women across the cultures), whereas BS shows the cross-cultural differences (i.e., men showed higher score than women in some cultures, but men showed lower score than women in the other cultures).

Cultural Variations in Attachment

Since Much of what we know about the origins of secure and insecure attachments comes from research conducted in European and North American cultures, "insecure" does not necessarily mean "insecure" in some cultures. Ainsworth found that about 57% of mothers-infants were classified as securely attached, 25% as ambivalent, and 18% as avoidant. E.g.1) Of Israeli children who are raised on a kibbutz (collective farm), half display [ambivalent] attachments, and a third appear to be securely attached (Sagi et al., 1985). E.g.2) Children raised in traditional Japanese families are also characterized by a high rate of [ambivalent] attachment, with practically no avoidant types.

Characteristics and Antecedents of people who hoard animals

Sketetee et al. (2011) also investigated characteristics and antecedents that might explain hoarding behaviors by comparing animal hoarders and animal owners (See Additional Reading on Moodle). They found the themes that are common to both groups (e.g., stressful life events) and the themes that are specific to animal hoarders These researchers focus on "hording animals" and studied the differences between animal hoarders and animal owners. Hoarding participants (n = 16) --- They were included if they had experienced some legal difficulty such as being raided or fined because of failure to provide adequate nutrition, sanitation, and medical care for the animals. Animal owners (n = 11) --- They were included if they own a large number of animals (20 or more) that appeared to be adequately cared for and lack of noticeable interference in home or personal functioning.

Are people who are intrinsically motivated happier than extrinsically motivated individuals?

Stipek thought that it would depend on age. Stipek and her colleagues (1992) found that children progress through three phases in learning to evaluate their performances in achievement situations; Phase 1: Joy in mastery Before the ages of two, infants and toddlers are visibly pleased to master challenges, displaying the mastery motivation. Phase 2: Approval seeking As they near age 2, toddlers have begun to anticipate others' approval or disapproval of their performances. Phase 3: Use of standards Children age 3 and older evaluate their accomplishments against performance standards and can experience true pride or shame, depending on how successfully they match those standards.

Individual Differences in Attachment Security

Strange Situation procedure (Mary Ainsworth) •Most commonly used to asses the quality of attachments that 1- to 2-year-olds have formed. •Four attachment classifications have been identified. 1.Parent and child 2.Child explores alone 3.Stranger enters the room 4.Parent leaves the room 5.Parent returns stranger leaves 6.Parent leaves 7.Stranger enters 8.Parent returns

[Characteristics common to both groups] animal owners and hoarders

Stressful life events for both childhood and adult Strong emotional reactions to animal death Strong caretaking roles and attitudes toward animals Intense feelings of closeness or attachment to animals.

Self-effacement

Studies suggested that Asians engaged in more of the opposite tendency, that is to self-efface. Self-effacement = The tendency to downplay one's virtues. Research has shown that Chinese and particularly Japanese are not only more self-effacing, but they are more negative about themselves, and are more attuned to negative than to positive self-evaluations, in both private and public settings. Much of the cross-cultural research has focused on cross-national differences in math achievement. Research shows cross-cultural differences in counting performance already emerging at the age of 3! E.g.1) The Japanese language has unique verbal labels only for the numbers 1 through 10. Number 11 is then "ten-one", 12 is "ten-two", 20 is "two-ten". E.g.2) English has unique labels for numbers 1 through 19 as well as the decade numbers (20, 30, 40, etc.) Math Anxiety is also cross-cultural

Tactical self enhancement

Tactical self-enhancement = The idea that people of different cultures all self-enhance, but they choose to do it in different ways.

Ten sex differences (note: these are statistical 'averages'

Ten sex differences (note: these are statistical 'averages'. Differences are statistically significant, but not large and there are still individual differences within sexes) 1. Verbal Ability: girls outperform 2. Visual/spatial abilities: boys outperform 3. Mathematical Ability: boys outperform 4. Aggression: boys outperform 5. Activity Level: boys outperform 6. Fear, Timidity, and Risk-Taking: Girls outperform 7. Developmental vulnerability: Boys outperform 8. Emotional Expressivity: Girls outperform 9. Compliance: Girls outperform 10. Self-esteem: Boys outperform And yet, these differences are not large and may not be evident elsewhere. And the findings imply that most sex differences are not biologically inevitable and that cultural and other social influences play an important role. Life expectancy - WHO (2011) U.S.A. --- 76.3 (males) versus 81.1 (females)

androgynous

The androgynous person is someone who possesses a fair number (high number) of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Research shows that androgynous people do exist, are relatively popular and well adjusted, and may be adaptable to a wider variety of environmental demands than people who are traditionally gender typed Studies conducted in the U.S., Israel, and Hong Kong have found that: Adolescent girls who adopt an androgynous identity have higher levels of self-acceptance. Adolescent boys who adopt a masculine identity have highest levels of self-acceptance.

Hoarding Behavior: Assigned Article (Anderson et al., 2008)

The first systematic definition was published in 1996. Hoarding has been defined as involving three characteristics: 1. The acquisition of and failure to discard a large number of possessions that appear to be useless or of limited value. 2. Living spaces that are sufficiently cluttered so as to preclude activities for which those spaces were designed. 3. Significant distress or impairment in functioning caused by the hoarding. Anderson et al (2008) sought to gain a "deeper understanding of emotional issues that underpin hoarding behaviors by older people." Methods: Ethnography • Naturalistic observation and unstructured interview Eight people in Canada were selected. • 71 years old to 90 years old

Masculinity and Femininity

The psychological attributes "masculinity" and "femininity" were once considered to be at opposite ends of a single dimension. However, Bem (1974) has proposed that masculinity and femininity are two separate dimensions

What about nutrition?

There are cross-cultural differences in diets. The diet of the mother could affect the prenatal development of the child or the child's diet could affect their development.

Sexuality

There are cultural differences in the degree of importance placed on values concerning chastity, especially for women. Some cultures view chastity as a virtue among unmarried women.

William & Best Studies

They sampled people in 30 countries, 52 to 120 respondents per country, for a total of almost 3,000 individuals. Adjective Check List (ACL) - 300 adjectives. Respondents were asked to decide whether each adjective was considered more descriptive of a male or of a female • Many gender-related stereotypes are held universally across cultures. • Results indicated a high degree of pancultural agreement across all the countries studied in the characteristics associated with men and women. • Pancultural gender stereotypes are the psychological characteristics differentially associated with women and men across many cultural groups. • Both men and women wanted to have more traits traditionally associate with males The factors may come from various sources: Expectations from parents or society Modeling of gender roles by peers Images of males and females in the media Etc. Main results of their research showed universal aspects. The results indicated a high degree of pancultural agreement across all the countries studied in the characteristics associated with men and women. The degree of stability of these findings across a wide range of countries and cultures provides a strong base of evidence for some pancultural universality in gender stereotypes

Amala and Kamala

They were two young girls discovered living with wolves in 1920 in India. They exhibited wolf-like behaviors; both girls have developed thick calluses on their palms and knees from having walked on all fours. They did not show gender-related behaviors (Kamala was about 8 years old, Amala about 18 months when they were found). 25 It is often very difficult to raise a child without referring to his/her gender (especially in English)!

Hoarding Behavior: Assigned Article (Anderson et al., 2008) Things to consider about this research

Things to consider about this research: 1. The study implements ethnographic methodology. Ethnography is typically a research method used by anthropologists and sociologists rather than psychologists. This is because the data obtained is qualitative rather than quantitative. They use naturalistic observations and unstructured interviews. Namely, we can't express it in numbers. 2. Their sample size is 8.They base their 5 reasons why people hoard off of 8 participants! However, this does not mean that the study is useless. You can think of it as an extended case study. This is useful preliminary work; however, it should be supplemented with additional quantitative research.

Trafimow, Triandis and Goto (1991):

Trafimow, Triandis and Goto (1991): first study that attempted to bring culture into the lab! This research example theorizes that there are two types of cognition (i.e. individual oriented and group oriented). Make sure you understand the overall results, effect of nation, and effect of priming! Independent variable: Two conditions Dependent variable: 10 statements (open ended responses) Ex. I am _______________ 1. Individual oriented (such as personal quality, attitude, belief, or a behavior that was NOT related to other people) "I am intelligent" 2. Group oriented (such as a demographic category or a group with he/she is likely to be experiencing common fate) "I am a son" 3. • They collected data from Chinese and North American Psychology students. o They were randomly split to receive either a private or a collective self-prime. Results: • The participants reported more individual-oriented self-cognition than group oriented self-cognition. • American participants reported more individual oriented less group oriented self-cognition than the Chinese participants. • Those who received the private self-prime reported more individual oriented than those who received the collective self-prime and vice versa.

Assessing optimism:

Using a self-report inventory such as LOT-R Using a judgment question (How likely is it that you will be hit by a bus before the age of 50? - Rose et al., 2008) Consistently, US people show higher optimism than Japanese people.

How should we measure temperament, with six dimensions or with three categories?

Using the six dimensions tells us a much richer story because it relies on interval data which gives us a picture of how each infant scores on each dimension. With the temperamental profiles, we lose much of the richness of the data. For example, infants may not clearly fall into one category or the other. However, the temperament profiles are easier to understand and to communicate.

The impact of behaviorism

Watson's belief that psychology should be a science led to the assumption that there are basic laws of behavior consistently observed by all humans.But then cross-cultural psychology is becoming popular now. And there are several reasons

Why does temperament or baby's behaviors differ across cultures?

We don't know exactly! But these differences may be due to multiple factors. ◆What temperamental styles are valued in each culture. ◆Specific environmental demands (such as living in poverty or in a high-altitude environment). ◆Biological factors of baby ◆Physiological aspects of mother and father (There are cultural differences in the behaviors or the conditions of mother during pregnancy.) ◆Etc. Diet or any culture-related practices may contribute to a prenatal environment.

weak points of Strange Situation procedure (Mary Ainsworth)

•This method cannot necessarily reflect everyday life. •Four types may be artificial Secure, Ambivalent, Avoidant, and Disorganized •This method isn't very useful for characterizing the attachments of children much older than 2, who have become quite accustomed to brief separations from caregivers. •Etc. Attachment between infants and their mothers/caregivers is considered a universal phenomenon. However, the percentages of infants and toddlers who fall into the various attachment categories differ from culture to culture • This method cannot necessarily reflect everyday life. • Four types may be artificial. • Attachment between infants and their mother/caregivers is considered a universal phenomenon