Exam 2 SOC Power in Society

Chapter 10: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS • Collective action is a way to compensate for the disparity in power between people or groups and stronger opponents • Can be violent or non-violent • May be revolutionary but does not always call for revolution o Revolutions are a particular type of collective action wish to fundamentally transform the political or socioeconomic order generally by overthrowing one or more governments or states • Other forms of collective action call only for reform o Can emphasize a single issue and lead to significant social change short of a revolution

Defining civil society- Refers to both the private and public spheres of association and conversation that fall outside the direct control of the state Includes the dialogue and interaction through which political views take shape and through which groups negotiate their interests in relationship to each other and the state. It is in part constituted by rights to assemble, communicate and associate Must be defended from the twin threats of the modern state and the modern economy Place where social movements are initiated. THE NATURE OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Charles Tilly • Think of social movements as a sustained series of interactions between a specific set of authorities and various spokespersons for a given challenge to those authorities (not as groups). • Interaction is a coherent and bounded in roughly the same sense as a war is bounded or a political campaign is bounded • Collective action is a process created by a collective, organized, sustained and non-institutional challenge to some target o The target can be the state, corporation, religious institution, global financial institution, civil society or some combination. o Social movements can also target laws or cultural beliefs and practices.

Framing Frames: schemes and templates for organizing experience according to certain rules and strategies

How a specific story is told and organized (who are the protagonists, what is the logic of the story, who did what to whom, what are the issues at stake). Shanto Iyengar • The way people attribute responsibility about things such as crime or poverty depends largely on the way the media construct and tell the story • The media not only furnish images but provide a very powerful representation of the way we think about the world.

Olsen proposes that organizations must provide an array of Selective incentives that will encourage people to participate in actions of specific interest to the organization. o Money o Fun and joy of participation o Duty

Theoretical challenge is that even if people are free to participate (in a democratic society) they are not entirely free in their thinking since they are bound to an assessment of the costs and benefits of their actions-people make these kinds of calculations on a daily basis such as in the purchasing of goods or spending leisure time with their family.

Chapter 6 political forms of authority: State -describes that aspect of the political system through which power is exercised over a given territory. State and government are not the same thing

• A government is the specific regime in power at any one moment-the governing coalition of political leaders. o In other words just the political party in power. • The state is a permanent political institution that transcends any political party, officials or civil servants. Most important symbol of political authority. • In most European countries, the president is the head of the state and the Prime Minister is the head of the government • In the United States, the president is the leader of the political party in power as well as the chief officer who represents the US to other countries.

What is the best form of government? Aristotle- good governments pursue the common good while bad governments pursue the private good. According to Aristotle there are three systems that can achieve the common good

1. Kingship-the rule of one a. Counter part rule becomes tyranny 2. Aristocracy-the rule of the few best a. counter part rule becomes oligarchy 3. Polity-the rule of the many a. counter part rule becomes democracy-large majority of the people have become sovereign but violate the rights of the minority of property holders (opposite of oligarchy where the minority of property holders violate the rights of the majority)

CHapter 8: POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE METROPOLIS: The American city The rise and decline of the industrial metropolis • 18th century mercantilist city- commerce and business plays a prominent role o Economic philosophy was mercantilism-emphasized the limited role of the government and central role of commerce to the fortunes of the city. o City of limited size and growth o Local government mattered o Residents could walk anywhere within the city o Residents knew each other well o Sense of community "Gemeinschaft"- Ferdinand Toennies o Early Boston and Philadelphia • Mid 19th century-nature of cities began to change o Industrial revolution changed the American city in 4 stages

1. Preindustrial stage-early origins of many cities a. Fairly small groups of men dominated the life of the city-those who specialized in the sale and purchase of land for the city exercise power over business and political life. b. These were the founders of the city, earliest business men and often selected to be political officials c. Since local government was underdeveloped, many citizens became involved with a genuine sense of commitment (1830's and 1840's when de Tocqueville visited America) 2. a. Early industrial stage-city is radically transformed, starting around 1860's-1870's there was a great industrial boom brought about by the steam engine and other machines that made work more efficient. b. New industry meant new jobs c. Many immigrant came to America during this time partially because of new opportunities d. Early land entrepreneurs were taken over by new businessmen e. Industry drove the expansion of the city replacing earlier forms of commerce f. Rise of new capitalist class and labor class which formed organizations such as unions, often with radical politics forming a division between labor and the capitalists, government remained small.

THE AMERICAN STATE AS A WELFARE STATE Generally the welfare state developed in the twentieth century • Western Europe o General healthcare o Pensions for the elderly o Aid to orphans and widows o Other benefits o Scandinavian countries such as Sweden and Norway provide highest level of benefits • US o Safety nets that are less comprehensive Three different kinds of welfare systems (Gosta Esping-Andersen-economist) 1. Social democratic welfare systems a. Furnish the most comprehensive benefits to the largest number of citizens b. Scandinavian countries

2. Corporativist welfare systems a. Provide benefits for workers' compensation and unemployment but the provisions are tied to a worker's previous earnings and are not as generous as those in social democratic welfare systems b. Germany 3. Residualist welfare states a. Benefits are limited and cover only specific areas of welfare b. U.S. c. The state is classically relegated to the role of safeguarding the conditions of free exchange and fair competition and correcting market failures. d. Poor relief is a matter of charity, initially a religious duty that has now been assumed by the state. e. Welfare benefits, sometimes of a moderately generous sort, go to the 'deserving poor' (such as the old, the young, and the disabled) who are excused from paid labor as a matter of public policy. a. Welfare benefits are paid at a rate only barely adequate to alleviate the worst of distress, for fear of creating disincentives against participation in paid labor.

Three types of democracy: 1. Representative- citizens vote for politicians to represent them in a congress or parliament -most common form of democracy a. Ideally representative promote policies that benefit the public interest b. Not always achieved in reality-sometimes policies promote the interests of certain groups at the expense of broader public or social interests.

2. Direct or participatory- allows all citizens to participate in making policies that affect their lives a. Practiced in early New England town meetings and ancient Greek city states b. No democracy has ever been universal - Greek democracy excluded women slaves and foreigners. Lower classes were not included-mechanics and artisans) 3. Liberal capitalist democracy -western societies and the US- defends the right of private property, freedom of expression, assembly, political participation, equality under the law. a. Most liberal democracies are representative democracies as well. b. Although it encourages participation by all, in reality only a few take an interest- c. Many argue therefore, that democracy (in US) serves interests of the privileged few. d. Alan Wolfe-modern America democracy is linked with the utilitarian philosophy of i. Rationalism-avoids sentiments and emotions as in business which thrives on calculation and profit ii. Hedonism-promotes a consumerist way of life stressing instant gratification and pleasure iii. Individualism-holds individual to be more important than the community, state, society or the nation.

DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ON THE CITY 1. Pluralist view- One view emphasizes the consensual nature of American Democracy in the sense that even though groups engage in conflict, they remain bound by the same democratic rules and values (draws from de Tocqueville)- a. Robert Dahl-New Haven Connecticut 1960's study i. Dominant institutional sectors-economic, political, arts, religious- ii. Each of the organizations within these sectors operate through the accumulation and investment of resources. iii. Although most people don't care about politics, the world still operates because the leaders seek to anticipate the wishes of citizens. iv. Leaders and citizens share common values and goals. v. Policies and groups are equal in the urban polity-everyone could exercise power, only political officials seemed to exercise more of it.

2. Views city as a growth machine-some groups (leading officials, real estate investors, local media) are able to manipulate the local political agenda to their advantage-promote the growth of the city. Stems from the ideas of Marx. a. Harvey Molotch-not all issues count the same, not all voices are equal. (focus on exchange value and use value-from Marx) b. Main issue for cities is promoting growth. i. Real estate brokers and entrepreneurs are growths main proponents-increase profits. ii. Political officials also benefit from the greater number of residents-increase their power. iii. Alliance between entrepreneurs, bankers, officials and the media forms. iv. Political struggle over how land and space become commodities 1. When purposes of real estate brokers and entrepreneurs com in conflict with those of local residents, major political battles break out. 2. Can be wide cultural difference in how land is perceived-as a commodity or an emphasis on the value land has for them (broader environmental meaning). 3. Cities as sources of creative capital a. Richard Florida (regional economist) b. Most pressing problem for cities is how to revitalize their former vitality. c. It is not social capital as Putnam suggested but creative capital which will lure residents d. Creative people like to be with other creative people e. Cities that are able to attract musicians and artists will also attract economic entrepreneurs who will start new business ventures. f. Cities like San Francisco, Austin, and Seattle have high concentrations of creative people and considerable economic expansion and innovation over the past three decades. GLOBAL CITIES Saskia Sassen • Tokyo, New York and London, have become global cities o Economy has moved beyond the dominance of industry to the dominance of new sectors: finance, real estate and information technology. o Increase in employment and generation of great wealth • Post industrial phase of world economy • Increasing inequality of wealth-increasing sectors of very rich (professional and managerial positions) and very poor (lowest positions in the service industry) • New immigrants often take the service positions-employment but at a low wage. • Global cities have become a world onto themselves- concerned with actions of one another more so than actions within their own countries. • Empires that transcend national boundaries. • Hierarchy of dominance of cities with global cities at the top • At this time, argument is only speculative, empirical data is necessary.

Predominant Varieties of government in History: 1. Authoritarian- ultimate authority is vested in a single individual or a few individuals a. Ideology and political parties do not play a major role. b. Politics is the expression of devotion of the people to the dominant authority figure c. Dictator rules by decree and by cultivating a cult of personality based on charismatic leadership, Saddam Hussein, Khadaffi.

3. Democratic-includes three major dimensions a. Universal suffrage- grants citizens the right to participate in a free and regular way irrespective of race, gender, religion, class, national origins or other social or cultural characteristics to elect their representatives, Recent phenomenon b. State apparatus must be accountable to the elected parliament or congress, thereby to the people as well. c. Civil rights-all citizens are granted the same constitutional and political rights regardless of race, gender, religion or national origins. i. Non citizens must also be treated fairly and equally before the law. 2. Totalitarian-form of government run by a single party that controls all aspects of society a. Traced back to Roman imperial times b. Modern totalitarian state was/is possible because of mass communication technologies-propaganda and ideology c. Individual and people are subordinate to the state d. No distinction between the state and society e. Individual and human rights have little value f. Strong military presence g. Active surveillance of citizens h. Widespread censorship i. Lack of freedom of speech and assembly j. No criticism of government is allowed k. Dissidents are imprisoned exiled or executed. l. Bureaucratized or centralized control of the economy m. Highly specific ideology n. Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Communist Party in USSR

Guillermo O'Donnell Bureaucratic authoritarian regime: 1. The exercise of political rule by a small group if leaders often backed by the military 2. The reliance of political rulers on a large group of technical personnel who exercise much of the day-to-day control over the operations of society 3. Effort to promote the economic growth of society, partially as a response to a period of economic stagnation

4. Extensive repression of the various classes in society especially the expanding middle class. (represses civil society in face of rapid economic growth) • Leaders seek to exercise very tight control of government policy as well as the expression of citizens. o In Latin America and four little dragons-Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong- experienced considerable economic success but did so at the expense of civil liberties and freedom. o Considerable inequality with wealthy accumulating gain while lower classes suffering immense hardship. Transitional forms • Success of authoritarian regimes lies with the charisma of leaders. Once they are gone, regimes can fall. Spain and South Korea became more democratic. • Can also swing in opposite direction-totalitarian

COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR vs. COLLECTIVE ACTION • Before the 1960s, most people including scholars feared social movements • Had been thought of as irrational crowds or dangerous mobs spontaneously aroused by charismatic agitators or extremists. (Known as the collective behavior approach-Chicago school ) o Structural-functionalist model of collective model was popular in '60s and '70s..

Assumed that social movements are operating within a political system in which there are free and fair elections Also assumes that the political system includes freely competing interest groups and parties that include minorities. So, any extra-institutional collective action acts as a threat to the democratic consensus- collective action is viewed as inherently undemocratic • In late 1960s and early 1970s large scale movements emerged in the US and Europe. o For the first time, members of the elite-college students allied with less privileged people to demand what had been demanded in other forms of protest during the previous century.- better working conditions and the right to meaningfully participate in electoral politics o Although they were demanding a stake in the political process, they were acting outside of it. o Scholars had to reevaluate. Became harder to dismiss civil rights activists, the feminist movement or the "New Left' as misguided, immature or irrational. Their actions did not lack a moral dimension Instead actions represented clearly articulated alternative norms, specific goals and rational strategies for pursuing them.

Democratic elitism • The idea that only the elites of political society can promote changes to democratic norms, values and relations and institutions. • Political process theory and resource mobilization theory foster this idea since they argue that social movements can affect significant change when political or socioeconomic elites provide them with an opportunity. • Also assumes that social movements must be more hierarchical (not democratic) to gain acknowledgement form political society. • Do not see social movements as creating opportunities, only taking advantage of them • Focusing on civil society and politics of identity avoids this belief.

Democratic fundamentalism (myopic focus on civil society) • The idea that the only way to build a democratic society is through democratic means, norms values, institutions and forms of self-organization. • View sees bureaucratization as a compromise to democracy-reinforcement of anti-democratic values • Promotes a retreat from engaging with the state • All efforts at change are aimed at civil society POLITICS OF INFLUENCE • Maintains link between political society and civil society • Focuses on the relationship between collective actors in civil society and those in political society o Political society-part of the political system which deals with how ideas and interests are transformed into specific policy proposals. - how the administrative, legislative or judicial attempt to manage public demands • Actors from both of these cultures may try to influence the culture of the other • Civil and political society coexist in a shifting set of relationships • Members of civil society can attempt to influence member of political society-can alter existing boundaries of political discourse by affecting the opinions of those in political society (key feature of contemporary social movements). • The actions of the state are always embedded in culture (culture and political structures are not dichotomized like in political process theory) • Political actors do not lack culture or morality • To the extent that cultural structures become institutionalized in the state, they can offer potential opportunities for social movements. • Competing structures are often available; goal of movements is to get their preferred structures in the mix.

SUNBELT CITIES AND METROPOLITAN FRAGMENTATION • There was a tremendous urban boom in the Sunbelt starting in the `1960's when many industries relocated to places like Atlanta, Dallas and phoenix where they would not have to pay taxes. • Have very different form of politics in post industrial cities than older industrial cities. o Most have avoided the deep division between city center and suburbs.

Have grown massive in terms of residents and special dimensions. • Has led to a political shift in weight from the North to the South. • Main source of conflict in these cities is not so much republican and democrat but it is between pro-growth and anti-growth forces. (Florida and Georgia) • Some sunbelt cities have no governmental controls over urban expansion, Houston has massive sprawl, almost no zoning controls over its growth, real estate developers can exercise dominance over Houston o 'free enterprise city'- a place where the business community exercises it power almost at will' Sociologist Joe Feagin, resulted in greater pollution and uneven growth

Details of modern democracies Constitutional and procedural Foundations of democracy in US • Tradition of law • Three branches of government-executive, legislative and judicial • Suffrage is widespread and elections occur frequently • Constitutional and procedural Foundations of democracy in US have been supplemented through the new or continued growth of a large bureaucratic apparatus. Scope and size of this bureaucratic apparatus have begun to threaten democracy in US in twentieth century.

Ideological foundations • Democracies are founded on the belief in the equality of individual citizens, widespread liberties and desire of citizen involvement in politics Social foundations • Plurality of groups and diversity of interests • Voluntary organizations with citizen involvement act as an infrastructure and buffer zone between the lives of citizens and rulers. (chief among these groups are political parties) Economic Foundations • Modern democratic societies such as US and GB developed alongside the growth of capitalist institutions. • Conditions of affluence seem to be the most favorable to the growth of democratic governments-governments themselves have acted to further affluence • Nevertheless, in settings of pervasive poverty such as India, modified forms of democracy exist. • Welfare policies, in varying degrees across countries spread in twentieth century.

Three specific views on power in America dominate: Dominant or ruling class: Variant of Karl Marx, claims that the critical decisions in America are more or less made and dominated by an upper class of people who serve on the boards of major corporations, intermarry with one another.

Institutional elite model: coined by sociologist G. William Domhoff, argues that it is the people who occupy the positions of great authority in major institutions in America that control the dominant decisions of the society, and that such institutions include both those in the federal government and in major corporations. State centered view: Originated from Theda Skocpol, argues that the state is actually the main locus of power and that the individuals who occupy the major positions in the state, such as the president and his advisors, act in decisive and deliberate fashion to further the interests of the state, not those of capitalists per se.

Chapter 13 Political Participation in Voting: Classic view of democracy and its critics Jean Jacques Rousseau A true democracy is one in which the will of the people is represented in the workings of government • Will of the people-collective judgment of the public taken in an open and visible manner • A government is democratic only if people are allowed to exercise their will and those actions are aggregated and recorded

John Stuart Mill • Public demonstration of the will are impossible and dangerous • If everyone is allowed to freely exercise their own judgments and everyone does so, the result is chaos. • Mass participation in public projects is dangerous: turn into rallies led by demagogues • Demagogue-one who will preach doctrines he knows to be untrue to men he knows to be idiots Demagogy-a strategy for gaining political power by appealing to the prejudices, emotions, fears and expectations of the public—typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalist, populist or religious themes

Role expansion and functions of the state: Role of the state in the west has increased Now includes, health care, social security, workers compensation, welfare benefits

Michael Mann lists four major state functions 1. Maintenance of internal order- responsible for internal peace and protecting the state from individuals/groups which want to overthrow the government a. Includes intelligent gathering and military materials and activities 2. Military defense and aggression against foreign foes a. Must defend its territory 3. Maintenance of communications infrastructure a. Roads, bridges, highways, communications, transportation networks 4. Economic redistribution of societal resources a. State levies taxes to pay for its welfare role.

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL CLEAVAGES: Who actually participates and why? Rates and types of political participation • In US. about 50% of registered voters vote in the presidential elections • About 30-40% vote in local government elections. • In Europe, rates are higher partly because voter registration and renewal is automatic. • In US, the wealthier and better educated register in much higher numbers. Sidney Verba and Norman Nie Patterns of participation (public in general) 1. Not at all active in politics (22%) 2. Those who only vote (21%) 3. Those who only make specialized political contacts (4%) 4. Those who are active in community affairs but low in campaign activities (20%) 5. Those who are active in campaign activities but low in community affairs (15%) 6. Complete activists (11%)

Social class and participation • Verba and Nie- the higher the social class background the more likely that they will vote in presidential elections. • The higher the annual income of a person, the more likely he/she is to vote. • The higher the education, the more likely to vote (most important factor). o Education enhances cognitive abilities-can better understand politics. o Improves sense of citizen duty and responsibility. o Helps them deal with procedure of voter registration and voting itself. • Three central factors that affect participation (civic voluntarism model): 1. Resources-time available to participate, energy, money. 2. Engagement- interest in politics. 3. Recruitment- contact by political parties or other organizations.

Chapter 12 Mass media: There is a concern that ownership of the media in only a few hands can undermine the nature of democracy in America (democratic institutions) • We no longer live in the world of de Tocqueville filled with the widespread availability of different and competing newspapers Marxists argue that control of the media in only a few hands illustrates two features of modern capitalism 1. The tendency of capital to become concentrated in fewer and fewer firms 2. The effort of capitalists to use their resources to create a symbolic world of ideology that will support their economic ambitions

THE INFLUENCE OF THE MASS MEDIA Agenda setting Process by which the media are able to shape the contents of what the public thinks about specific political figures and events as well as the importance they assign to specific types of policies and positions. Maxwell McCombs and Don Shaw "The media agenda sets the public agenda" • 1968 election- focused on men and women who were still undecided • Observed newspapers and television stations (2) • Discovered that the same five issues dominated the media and the public's view during the campaign: foreign policy, law and order, economics, public welfare and civil rights-the media and the public assigned the same importance to each of these issues. • Also argued that the president plays a large role in setting the media agenda. (Although there are limits to the president's ability to set the media's agenda) Much research has been done since which supports the argument that media portrayals are reflected in the views of the public.

Two sets of ideas about democracy: 1. Moral (substantive) view of democracy-how democracy is intended to work 2. Empirical (formal) view of democracy - how it actually works in the real world The moral vision: • Assumes that individuals are the best judges of their individual interests • Individuals can make sound judgments and have the wisdom to maintain the body politic • In addition, self governance, improves their understanding of politics as well as their skills • Even those without sound judgment benefit from participation in the institutions and processes of the political arena

The empirical view-inductive approach drawn from observation • Shifts emphasis away from individuals and their right to rule to the rulers and public competition that has brought them into office. • Modern democracy is centered on institutions that furnish contenders for public office-political parties • Rival candidates for public office exist, citizens have the right to choose between these rival sets of leaders who they believe represent their interests best. • Joseph Schumpeter's summary -democratic method is 'that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of competitive struggle for the people's vote." • This view reduces the necessary role of citizens in their own self-governance. o In contrast to the moral view, in this view, in order for a society to claim to be democratic, leaders just need to be responsive to the wishes of the majority of citizens. Must have elections Policy development that is supposed to anticipate the wishes of citizens If candidates fail to respond to such wishes, they won't be elected. o In fact, active participation by all citizens would pose a greater danger than benefit to democracy (de Toqueville's tyranny of the majority) low interest provides for political maneuverability.

The power of business and coporations: Alexis de tocqueville worried about the element of race, and the tyranny of the majority in the nature of equality in America; The major threat though was in the form of business. Business and great industry posed a potential threat to equality because, like social class in Europe, they held the potential to undermine democracy through the unequal distribution of material wealth.

Today, sociologists take for granted that the dominant players in the modern economy are not individuals but large corporations, and especially those corporations that control the greatest amount of assets.

The Liberal Constitutional state: Resembles the present capitalist democratic state 1. Has a centralized monopoly over its territory defended through the use of force 2. Legitimization of authority over that territory based on legal or bureaucratic authority which is a reflection of the relationship between rulers and ruled

a. Consent is central b. Has a written constitution which defines the roles of the rulers and ruled c. Single monetary currency d. Unified legal system e. Multiparty political system f. State educational system g. National language h. Military and police are subordinate to civil authority i. Pluralism-no single absolute authority-different offices and agencies j. No single party has a monopoly of power k. People may freely express their opinions and criticisms l. Presence of representative institutions such as parliamentary assemblies and congresses.

2. Political process theory i. Grew out of resources mobilization paradigm but seeks to pay more attention to history and politics. ii. Social movements emerge when people with shared grievances who are organized and believe they can successfully redress their concerns take advantage of "political opportunities" iii. Charles Tilly-social movements although they may act outside of institutionalized political channels are tied to the political process and political sphere. 1. Social movements not only target their grievances toward but also expect redress to come from the state. 2. Theory goes beyond the mobilization of economic resources to understand political opportunity structures. 3. Timing of a movement can be explained by identifying a structure of political opportunities that are opening or expanding for collective actors 4. Movements decline when political opportunities contract, mobilizing structures weaken or cultural frames (how social reality is perceived) discourage collective action. 5. Tilly used comparative historical analysis of violent collective action in western Europe

a. Social movements emerge and rise only in the 19th century b. There was a historical shift from local to national structures of power at this time in Western Europe i. Changed the means of action available to people c. States are the most powerful actors in modern industrial societies d. State elites who act on behalf of the state are able to selectively promote or repress social movements i. Revolutionary or terrorist movements that directly target its power or policies are repressed ii. Other types of social movements can be tolerated or even promoted -have routine government access e. Tilly argues that modernization affects collective action but disagrees with the idea that urbanization and industrialization directly lead to economic hardship or political conflict. f. Combinations of economic transformation, urbanization, state making and the mass media undermine some and facilitate the emergence of other forms of social movements g. The impact of structural change on political conflict is the long term reshaping of everyday forms of solidarity not the immediate production of stress or strain i. Voluntary association replace communal associations ii. More formal deliberately organized meetings of voluntary associations rather than the casual routine gatherings of communal associations, local markets, festivals... iii. Spontaneous food riots and tax rebellions were replaced by strikes and demonstrations. 1. Shift occurred because states and capitalists won control over resources before held by households and communities 2. Urbanization and the development of the mass media reduced the costs of large scale mobilization 3. National elections and popular participation promoted the development of demonstrations as a key form of collective action h. Civil society: such as rights to organize, recruit, assemble, solicit, publicize and demonstrate within nationally organized democracies provide the background for the emergence of national movements i. Modern collective action presupposes the development of separate social and political spaces that are guaranteed by rights and supported by democratic political culture 6. Criticisms The political process model asserts that social movements emerge when people with sharted grievances who are organized and perceive that they can successfully redress their concerns seize expanding "political opportunities". a. Cannot explain collective action that targets civil society itself (only action that targets states- only looks at groups competing for power) b. Criticism of political process models in general is that political opportunities cannot be easily defined i. Some consensus- these reduce risk 1. Have some access to authorities 2. Perceive a decline in repression 3. Elites outside the movement become divided 4. Secure support of elites or influential groups ii. Additional questions unanswered 1. How do actors know a political opportunity when they see it? 2. What if they never perceive it, is it possible to seize it anyway?

NEW PARADIGMS- both emphasize pre-existing social ties and organization and the rationality of collective action. 1. Resource mobilization paradigm (US)-movements form because of changes in resources, organization and opportunities for collective action. a. Sustaining a social movement requires more than an irrational mob i. Requires resources- money, personnel and space to work

b. Rational actors: Sophisticated organizing and communication among rational actors contribute to mobilization that leads to the large scale collective action from which social movements develop. i. While social strain/injustice is a necessary condition, it is not a sufficient condition for the emergence of social movements. ii. Mobilization involves large scale, specialized formal organizations. c. Criticisms i. Some charge that emphasizing rational economic action goes too far in removing the psychological dimensions of social movement actors (cognitive and emotional levels) ii. Emphasis on formal organizations depicts protestors as self-interested despite the cognitive and emotional processes that shape the movement's goals. iii. Does not explain how people come to view a lack of a specific right or resources as an injustice. iv. Does not explain how such rights are rooted in state authority. v. Focus on economic factors and political opportunities does not account for how those resources/opportunities arise in specific political or historical contexts.

PARTICIPATION IN EVERY DAY SOCIAL LIFE: There must be a way to justify participation outside the realm of cost and benefit. The argument must be a realistic one by invoking features of daily social life people find around them, much as rational choice theorists invoke features of economic life. The main solution (according to the authors Orum & Dale) is that participation must feel so natural to the lives of people, so much a part of their everyday circumstances, that it feels both important and necessary to the workings of their lives, something as simple as walking the dog but as imperative and essential to the way their lives work.

de Tocqueville described such features in early American history that promoted democratic society-civil society Such features included active involvement of people in associations and the public life, the elements of America that helped to create is as a working and effective democracy were the customs of Americans, the manners and, the nature of American culture. Orum & Dale are suggesting that the solution must arise naturally from the workings of society and the elements of culture.

3. New social movements paradigm (Europe) a. identity oriented paradigm b. borrows from the ideas of Marx-assumes that all societies have unequal relations of power driving social change c. Tends to view the modernization of society as a process leading to the state's gradual institutional colonization and domination of civil society, d. Shun politics of reform and stress revolution e. According to this perspective, the goal of social movements is to transcend the structural limits (and the political process) and transform it to be more democratic.

f. Organizational structure matters: undemocratically organized movements will not produce democratic change. g. 'New' social movements -identity politics i. Identity is important ii. Engage in a new form of politics-direct action tactics iii. Contribute to new forms of social relations examples, ethnic, ecological,gay, women's, and human rights movements. h. Politics of identity entails a war of interpretation and representation-cultural norms, appropriate social roles, transformation of discursive practices. i. Collective identity is necessary for mobilization but can also be a goal of activism itself j. Collective identity can also be used as a political strategy-contradictory identities can be strategically deployed depending on the target (ecofeminism: mother nature and biological difference vs. view of inequality as socially constructed-learned to get along in the movement and use different identities when most effective.) k. Argument goes beyond defending civil society against the state but also to defend civil society from domination and inequality within itself as well-be careful of socioeconomic domination over administrative domination

Industrial revolution cont. 3. Mature industrial stage-rapid growth declines and nature of the city changes a. By the turn of the century many new industrial cities were substantially larger (grown by hundreds of thousands) b. Overall structure of local government greatly increased greatly i. New departments such as police and fire departments came into being ii. Had professional, paid staffs and hired new employees-previously unpaid volunteers maintained such forces c. Government became a rival to business for power in the city-government demanded more resources for citizens and businessmen began to resist. d. Local government had grown so much in authority, some political figures were corrupted by the power-heyday of local government and local mayors 4. Stage of incipient decline-industry begins to leave the city looking for profits elsewhere and the city and local citizens begin to face crises. a. By the mid 1930's local government's reached the pinnacle of power. b. Great depression changed the fortunes of cities and local officials

i. Many cities could no longer meet the needs of citizens ii. As businesses failed more was asked of local government iii. Early welfare measure (clothing and food) were provided on local level iv. Main responsibility shifted to the federal level v. Most cities were virtually bankrupt vi. Decline of cities let up during WWII but accelerated again in 1960's and 70's 1. Many business began to leave the central city going to south, southwest or abroad 2. In south there were few or no taxes 3. Abroad wage labor was cheaper than in US vii. Lacking tax revenue from businesses local governments ran out of funds.-Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburg viii. Older citizens were especially hurt-those in their 50's and 60's were fired-left without a job or pension ix. African Americans and Latinos were particularly hard hit became an underclass in US city. x. Decline of the industrial city fueled ethnic conflict xi. Certain areas within cities where minorities lived were deprived of loans for homes from local banks. xii. Suburbs began to grow after WW II, many of which did not welcome minority residents. xiii. Stage during which local government has been very vulnerable to national as well as global events xiv. Stage during which federal government took over much of the responsibility of welfare. xv. In recent years responsibility has been shifted to state governments. Many cities are just now emerging from the last stage. Many contemporary efforts to revitalize cities through tourism and new housing.

Gender and Participation • Verba and Nie-women generally have lower rates of participation than men, although the gender gap seems to be decreasing. • Women have become more involved in running and winning political office. • Difficult to explain why women participate less:

o May be a network of men limiting the entry of women into various forms of political engagement o The responsibilities of women - career, family, household. o The gender gap has to do with the difference in socialization of men and women. Studies in 1960's showed that boys were socialized to be more interested and engaged in politics and war. Race, ethnicity and participation • African Americans tend to participate in lower rates than whites. • Latinos are the least politically active of the three groups. • With social class controlled, African Americans actually participate at higher rates than whites of the same social class.

The modern nation state: The origin of a specific nation state is defined with respect to territory and the people who occupy it. In most cases, state emerged after the nation. • Develops through a process of institutional differentiation-can be internally imposed or externally imposed o Stateless society becomes a state in process that begins in military conquest or external force o At first the conquerors define the emerging state as a territory

o The history of the new state begins and its territory is associated with its corresponding society. o The militarily and politically dominant group extends its control over people and resources using symbols such as myths, flags, anthems, ideologies to manipulate the populace. o Civil administration and military control the territory and the people o Process of democratization may or may not follow and involves three principles 1. Sovereignty-independent exercise of political or moral authority over its own territory and people ( by a people in democracy) 2. Bureaucratization - hierarchy of administration guided by rules, regulations and a system of rewards and punishment 3. Rationalization-greater standardization, consistency and coordination of means and ends

Authoritarianism: Edward Shils- in many parts of the developing world there was a tendency for the leadership to rule in an authoritarian fashion, partly because for such nations to advance economically required almost absolute political control by their leaders. • According to Shils, two special features of many of the regimes in the developing world

• 1. Tendency for leaders to govern in a dictatorial fashion • 2. Effort by these leaders to promote the economic development of their countries. Juan Linz invented the concept of authoritarianism Not democratic but also lacking the characteristics of totalitarianism such as a reign of terror and a single party. Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Stephens and John Stephens- those regimes that lack regular, free, and fair elections of representatives with universal and equal suffrage, and a state apparatus which is responsible to an elected parliament. Can be populist with mass popular support-Juan Peron in Argentina

Totalitarianism: • Domination of a nation and its people by a single political party as well as those who control that party. • Seeks to obliterate social ties such as the nuclear family • Party is supposed to be the individuals only loyalty and commitment o Stalinism and Nazi Germany (can also be argued to be very different from each other)

• Have six distinctive qualities 1. Elaborate ideology that covers every phase of an individual's life 2. A single political party that is led by one dictator 3. Widespread system of terror, channeled through state and party institutions, directed at internal and external enemies of the regime 4. Virtually complete control over the apparatus of mass communication 5. Monopoly of weaponry and the armed forces 6. Direction of the entire economy (or most important sectors) by the state bureaucracy

Constitutional foundations-Nazi Germany • Absence of constitutional and legal foundations • Outwardly, Nazi Germany seemed to be an extension of the government inaugurated by the Weimar Republic in 1918 • In reality, the National Socialist Party committed a legal revolution by overthrowing the Weimar constitution by employing the constitutions own provisions • Decrees in 1933 and 1934 declare Hitler as Chancellor and President of Germany • Initially a façade of democratic procedures consistent with the Weimar Republic • Elections were held resulting win widespread support for National Socialist Party but party manipulated media and mass rallies.

• Hitler fashioned a system where the national socialist Party and the state bureaucracy had parallel offices (looked like equal power but party and Hitler were actually dominant) o Competition among occupants of parallel offices served to strengthen his own leadership o Unquestioning obedience to the commands of Hitler o Gestapo (secret police) and SS troops under the authority of Heinrich Himmler-in charge of eliminating the enemies of the state. Ideological foundations • Ideology based on myths that Hitler set out in his autobiography (Mein Kampf) • Aryan race as saviors of the world • Jews as scum of the earth • Gained widespread acceptance of this doctrine • After 1938 these principles were transformed into actual practices, first as random terror against Jews in Germany then as organized concentration camps and wartime hostility against other nations. Social foundations • Through practices of terror, sought to eliminate the many diverse social groups that existed during the Weimar Republic o Trade unions were eliminated and replaced by the Labor Front-just a tool of the National Socialist Party o Independent news media were destroyed or taken over o Nazi youth groups socialized young Germans into the new official system of thought o Mass rallied of people mesmerized by Hitler. Economic Foundations • In totalitarian economies-command economy. • In Nazi Germany, two different sectors: the command sector controlled by national Socialist party and state administrators and a large private sector involved in manufacturing and other forms of industry • All conventional features of a capitalist economy were supplanted by an administration driven by national and racial dogma

POLITICS OF THE CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN CITY American Suburb • Historian Kenneth Jackson -many suburbs began in the nineteenth century by Americans who wanted to recapture the feeling of living in the country. • Many wealthy residents moved to the cities outer fringes especially as transportation improved • Resulted in the poorest residents living in city centers and wealthier residents living at the outer fringes. • By the 20th century many suburbs were incorporating themselves separately from the cities

• Legal decisions emphasized the split-case of St. Louis 1875, said that localities were creatures of the state and that the state had jurisdiction over such localities and gave permission for small local areas to split off from the central city. • Also local industrial suburbs fought to remain autonomous of the city in order to control their own resources. -often successful since state legislature was dominated by rural legislators. • Highways built after WWI accelerated the flight out of the city • Tax revenue is based on residence and the gap in financial resources between the cities and suburbs widened more • David Rusk (former mayor of Albuquerque) shows that cities that have been able to incorporate their suburban regions have fared better • Myron Orfiield (Minnesota state legislator) has shown that urban blight has begun to move into the first tier of suburban areas outside of Minneapolis and is a proponent of 'regionalism'-advocates more cooperative programs between cities and suburbs. • Historically suburbs have been the heart of republican voice of the inner city. That can no longer be taken for granted.

Chapter 7: Power and Authority in America The American State is defined as a weak system • Lower degree of centralization of authority and decision making than European democracies. In England (national government in Westminster) and France (national government), for example, local governments have limited authority to spend and disburse funds. • In US. Authority is dispersed among different agencies and branches-checks and balances by three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. • In addition, power is also dispersed among different levels of government: federal state and municipal

• Limits of federal government are written into the constitution • Nevertheless, there has been a growth over time of authority in the hands of the federal government o Local governments were the centers of authority at the founding. In the 19th century, accomplishments made by government were at the state and local levels-decisions about schools, and transportation for example were made at the state and local levels. o Later power began to shift to state and then federal levels o Roosevelt administration (1933-1945) most dramatic period of centralization in the hands of the federal government As a result of the economic devastation of the great depression, and entrance into WWII

THE CORPORATE COMMUNITY (G. WILLIAM DOMHOFF) • There are social networks that bind large corporations to one another o Decided by the board of directors-interlocking directorates • Domhoff discovered a surprising number of overlapping memberships on such boards among individuals in wealthy corporations such as GM, Coca-Cola...

• Michael Schwartz and Beth Mintz found that banks and savings and loan associations appear to stand at the center of corporate interlocks among corporations. The corporate inner circle. • Michael Useem discovered an inner circle among the members of the board of directors- a central elite o They possessed a different view of the business and political world than their contemporaries. They looked beyond their own corporate or business interest and took a 'classwide scan' viewed a 'bigger picture' Thought in broader terms about politics o New phase in capitalism

Nations, nationality and Nationalism: When speaking of the state today, most sociologists refer to the nation-state • Nation can be defined as a group of people who share a common identity, traditions, history, aspirations, interests, language, religion and culture. • According to Eric Hobsbawm, in most instances a nation or people are linked to the territory because the structure and definition of a stat is essentially territorial, nation can also be linked to ethnicity. • Nationalism-according to Hobsbawm- refers to the belief that the political and national unit should be congruent.

• Nationalism is a form of consciousness-an awareness of a particular national history and culture. The term includes four shades of meaning 1. Nationalism as sentiment a. Fed by romanticism argues that each nation has a unique place in history 2. As an historical process a. Promoted the liberation movements that sparked the creation of independent nation-states (ex. Greece from the Ottoman empire-1830), also Germany, Italy, Serbia, Poland) 3. As a theory a. Attempts to explain why some people and nations develop a high sense of national identity , sometimes ethnic identity, while others do not 4. As an ideology of political activities a. Employs myths, ideas propaganda, and courses of action that promote the creation of a nation-state (Israel)

THE PUBLIC AND ITS VIEW AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE MEDIA Early studies of elections in the 1940's suggested that friends and family were the most powerful influences in how people decide to vote, the media only has a minimal influence. Karl Mannheim showed that what we learn early about politics and the world tends to shape our basic views of politics, especially family background

• People grow up in cohorts that are influenced by defining events-leave lasting marks on party choices and general attitudes about the political world. Nevertheless, political parties are less powerful now, more people consider themselves independents and independents tend to be more likely to be influenced by the mass media. FUTURE OF THE NEWS • Print media is in decline • More reporters are worried about the quality and objectivity of the news is suffering at the hands of the bottom line • Younger generations are turning to the internet • Blogs may produce dramatic changes (maybe, maybe not) • Internet may be used to promote democracy • Internet may be used as a way to vote in the future

ARGUMENT FOR WHY PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IS ESSENTIAL TO DEMOCRACY • Participation creates citizens out of otherwise passive subjects. • Provides a way for people to develop and articulate their own vision of what the nature of government should be. • Provides an opportunity for them to develop skills and a sense of effectiveness • It is a public and visible event which allows people to act together, in concert.

• Provides the opportunity to share and test ideas. • Provides a sense of the common will of the people (Rousseau). • Participation of the public is essential for the operation of democratic governments and for the lives of citizens o For Governments- it allows political officials to learn of the needs of citizens. o For citizens- participation is transformative-takes their ideas and transforms them into activities done in common with real consequences for the polity. Nevertheless participation can be abused by public officials if central institutions of democratic government are not in place. Need: • Representative institutions • Legal institutions built on constitutional foundations-have procedures and guidelines. • Opportunity for participation AND action taken by the public to act upon their beliefs, and interests.

DOES AMERICA POSSESS A RULING CLASS OR A DOMINANT CLASS? • More research and evidence is needed.

• There is some evidence of an indirect and circumstantial nature that suggests that the corporate community can exercise great power over the state o Political action committees-careful about the funds they distribute to candidates and that these funds can make a big impact on a campaign o Who runs and who wins and this influence is increasing Whether the corporate community acts cohesively is not clear. • According to Useem, although corporate political activity was not decisive in the 1980's it led to the rise of more conservative political climates in the US and overseas (UK) • Authors of text have a position: corporations can affect politics but they are not the deciding factor (sailing ship (state-has final decision) and wind (corporations) analogy)

RATIONAL CHOICE AND COLLECTIVE ACTION: Mancur Olson-theory explains the nature of collective action in pursuit of public goods. • Public goods: parks, arenas, highways, and other public goods which are shared and indivisible. • Argued that individuals will participate in collective actions to the extent that they believe their actions will advance the acquisition of public goods. • So, people are likely to participate in groups that are fairly small-since their action in such groups can influence the outcome. • Most collective action, however, does not involve small groups.

• Wide variety of people benefit from public goods. • So, any single individual will recognize that no matter how much he/she participates, as the number of people benefitting expands, the payoff will diminish. • If everyone benefits regardless of participation, than most are unlikely to participate in the collective effort. The Problem of the Free Rider • Members of the public can still benefit from a public good without putting in any time or money of their own. • Olson's question: Why should any single individual participate in any collective action aimed to obtain a specific public good? • Thinking in terms of costs and benefits, individuals find no rational grounds to pursue collective action for public goods • This shifts the theoretic burden from explaining the grounds for individual action on the basis of free choice to explaining how organizations, governments, social movements and other groups get people to act on behalf of public projects.